Psychology

A research is conducted to learn about the behaviors and attitudes related to body piercing and tattoo. The study is performed to analyze the correlation between tattoos and personality. The research is done to understand whether tattoos and body piercing indicate defective personality. A survey is conducted and a questionnaire is supplied among students to learn the correlation between tattoos and personality.

Questionnaire
Do you have tattoos or piercings in your body
If yes, what was the motivation behind your decision to make tattoos and piercings in your body
Do you participate in risk-taking activities
Is your attitude to people who use alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana and other addictives positive or negative
Have you ever noticed aggressive behavior in you
Do you feel like taking risks sometimes
Do you have any desire to become a model or an image (of being a trendsetter)
Which preferences for music do you have (Goth, Punk, Metal, and Electronica)
Do you have a high tendency to hang out with friends
Do you seek parental guidance in your matters
Are you aware of the potential health risks associated with piercingtattooing
Are you a style-lover
How good are you at academics
What are the extra-curricular activities that you are interested in
Do you want to lessen your attachment with your parents and live independently
Do you adhere to the advice and admonishments of parents and other elders
Have you ever been diagnosed antisocial personality disorder
Do you lead a happy and satisfied life
Do you feel often anxiety or depression
Do you support legalization of marijuana
Do you like entertainment with elements of violence
Do you smoke or use alcohol often
Are you interested in doing activities that are dangerous or forbidden
How confident you are about your future
 Do you have a history of substance abuse, sexual abuse or suicide attempts

Literature review
Body piercing and tattooing show that the teens want to be associated with the experimental and risk-taking community (Papameletiou et al, 2003)
Youngsters desire to piercingtattoo is related to
use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana and other addictives (Papameletiou et al, 2003)
desire to take risks sometimes
desire to become a model or an image of being a trendsetter
a preference for particular music genres (Goth, Punk, Metal, and Electronica) (Papameletiou et al, 2003)
a higher tendency to hang out with friends (Papameletiou et al, 2003)

Tattooed youngsters are found to be more extreme in these categories than pierced youngsters (Papameletiou et al, 2003). Piercing is far more common (23 are pierced and further 20 want to be) which starts at age thirteen (Papameletiou et al, 2003). There does not appear to be as much of a barrier to get a piercing as there is with a tattoo (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

Numerous indicate they want a tattoo (21) while currently have 8 have one (Papameletiou et al, 2003).
In the recent years there is a big increase in the number of youngsters with tattoos (who are less than 18 years of age). This is a period in life when parental control is loosened (Papameletiou et al, 2003). Studies show that there is awareness of the potential health risks associated with piercingtattooing, e.g. regular infection, HIVAIDS and hepatitis C are all noted far more frequently by the group either having or wanting these than by those with no plans for getting one (Papameletiou et al, 2003). Majority of the youngsters are unaware of this infection and other health problems. These health matters do not seem to play a role of any significance in the decision to act one way or the other (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

In both cases, there is a strong skew towards females - further confirmation that these are fashion statements - not the Macho symbol that they were in previous generations (Papameletiou et al, 2003).
Youngsters with tattoos and piercing are quite different from other youngsters. The tattooed and pierced adolescents (and even youths) are style-lovers who bother about nothing but appearance. They generally do not perform well in other areas of life. They are highly likely to use drugs and alcohol as well as prefer to lessen their attachment with their parents and desire to live in their own world. What is more, they are less likely to listen to the parents and other elders. Tattoos and piercing are the most popular trends among modern day youngsters. There is a greater number of youngsters who want to have tattoos on their bodies and there is a wide-spread tendency of tattoos within 18-19 age group (Papameletiou et al, 2003). This combination suggests that tattooing is a trend that is still growing (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

Piercing and tattoos can never be appreciated, especially with females who are more likely to suffer from health problems which are directly interrelated with body piercing. Furthermore, many of them are not aware of the health risks they might face in the future. The proportion of youngsters that identify hepatitis C as a potential health danger is low (Papameletiou et al, 2003). Piercings are more popular among youths of 18-19 years old. Even the youngsters of 12-13 years old use piercings and tattoos. 18-19 year olds are more likely (7) to be aware of hepatitis C as a health risk associated with piercing or tattoos than 12-13 year olds (2) (Papameletiou et al, 2003). This awareness is not found to be discouraging to make tattoos. Tattoo users are found to be less happy and satisfied with their lives (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

Other crucial facts related to youngsters who use tattoos and piercings are the following
Youngsters who have or want tattoos and piercings are more likely to feel stressed out (54-57) than average youngsters (46) (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

Youngsters who listen to Punk, Rhythm and Blues and Alternative music are more likely to have or want tattoos (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

Tattoo owners are less oriented towards mainstream style brands (Papameletiou et al, 2003).
Tattoo owners are found to be crying for the legalization of marijuana.
Tattoo owners are more likely to be keen on entertainment with elements of violence (Papameletiou et al, 2003).
Tattoo owners are almost four times as likely to be daily smokers as youngsters in general, and twice as likely to be weekly drinkers of alcohol (Papameletiou et al, 2003).
Tattoo owners are more likely to agree with From time to time I like to do things that are dangerous or forbidden (Papameletiou et al, 2003).
Tattoo owners are less confident about their future ten years from now (Papameletiou et al, 2003).

A student who uses tattoos and piercings has fewer chances to be successful. They would often fall into stress and other psychological problems. An individual with piercings and tattoos on hisher body would not be respected by other individuals. Tattoos and piercings are used by people who are style conscious. They are least interested in other crucial aspects of society. Numerous are the negative effects of using tattoos and piercings. Adolescents who use tattoos and piercings try to get involved in parties and fashion clubs that further take them to deterioration. They do try to alienate themselves from parents and elders which would make them deprived of parents guidance and care. Tattoos and piercing have undoubtedly numerous adverse effects on the lives of youngsters.

1. Using information from the Brock and Lovett articles, as well as the information in Leahey on Old History and New History, explain the change from the old to the new way of regarding the history of psychology. What are the changes involved and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach

It was recorded that psychology was once vividly understood as the practical application of a philosophy. This distinct kind of philosophy was deeply rooted from moralism and religious principles, stressing mans need to be attuned  to his spiritual nature (Leahey 2003). By the end of the 19th century, the newer scientific, rationalistic approach to the subject of psychology emerges in opposition. The emergence of the modern rationalistic approach prompted the study of psychology to break all connections with its philosophical roots and enter a different mileage of definition. As it tries to liberate itself from the traditional philosophical musing and concepts, the history of psychology is being transformed to be the objective, empirical and value-free science of human nature. This shift from the traditional adage is said to be the substitution of the values of scientism (Leahey 2003).

Approaches used in examining the evolvement of the history of psychology include emphasizing the influence of non-psychological factors the utilization of great-person approach which takes into consideration works of individuals such as Plato and Freud and the historical development approach which demonstrates how various individuals or events have influenced the changes in an idea or concepts through the years (Hergenhahn 2008). It has been noted that psychology should not be judged because some its aspects rae deemed to be not scientific or even anti-scientific. The advantage of the given approaches is that it opens up avenues for unlimited inquiry to human nature while their main disadvantage is that they can cement psychology into a certain belief or basis.

2. Discuss why psychology can be described both as a science and as a non-science. Include in your discussion the characteristics of science that both Robinson and Leahey examine.

According to Leahey (2003), the parting of psychology from its philosophical roots does not express the notion that the field of study has become purely rational and objective. The term scientism when applied to the concept of psychology relays the idea that the boundaries of psychology are beyond the scope of scientific inquiry.

Given the tenacity of the concept of neutrality, psychology is subjected to the fundamental issue on how objectivity claimed by science is possible. Psychology as both science and non-science posits the query regarding the reliability of psychological performance such as perception and knowledge and the possibility for validating rational data concerning human nature.

3. In early Greek thought, the debate begins concerning whether knowledge comes solely through the physical world, via the senses, or whether knowledge demands something in addition to sense experience---reason and logic. Using the material from Leahey, chapter two, choose several Greek philosophers who think knowledge comes from sense experience, and choose several who think that sense experience alone is not sufficient. Briefly describe the ideas of each philosopher that you choose, explaining why you think they take one position or the other.

Greek philosophy centered on the role of reason and inquiry. Socrates gave to the world Plato and his theories that focused on the relevance of method of inquiry. Plato can be considered as the philosophers who had examined that knowledge acquired through the sense remains confused and impure and that the contemplatative soul that parts away from the world can obtain the true knowledge. On the other hand, Aristotle, being one of Platos students can be considered as modern empiricist as he placed more value on knowledge gained through senses.

Before the popularity of Socrates came Parmenides, a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who proposed that there is an eternal pure being beyond the presence of nature. According to Parmenides, there are two opposing sides of the world. There is the appearance of the world which expresses how things seem to be or how an individual intends to perceive things. But Parmenides emphasized that senses are not to be trusted since they are fallible in nature. Ergo, he extremely favored the rationalism.

4. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Greek philosophy was continued but transformed. Choose three thinkers from the Middle Ages or the Renaissance and explain how they used the ideas of specific Greek philosophers in their own work. Be sure to explain how particular Greek thinkers influenced their ideas.

The term Renaissance is a French word which means new birth (Symonds 2008). It is a period in which great scholars or thinkers who had became humanists, implying a strong admiration for the achievements of the human race. Among the greatest thinkers of the Renaissance period are  Martin Luther, Marsilio Ficino, and Niccolo Macchiavelli.

Luther instigated the establishment of the Protestant Reformation and expressed interest for Aristotle due to his concept of reason and later on realized reason along could not lead men to God so he expressed negation of Aristotles emphasis on reason. Ficino is known as the reviver of Neoplatonism as he was the one how espoused the worlds ensoulment and its integration with the human soul. Macchiavelli adheres to Aristotles virtue ethics in which humans are obliged to live virtuously but admits that living as such does not necessarily lead to happiness.

The study of aggression in psychology is important in the sense that the study of aggression and understanding why people become aggressive help counseling psychologists to develop new treatment methods for people suffering from aggressive behavior disorders, or anger management issues.

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961, 1963) have studied imitative aggressive behavior in children. They hypothesized that children who witnessed models receiving a positive response to aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviors if they were (a) male, and (b) witnessed the model receiving some type of positive reinforcement for the aggressive behavior. They studied 72 preschool children in the first study and 80 preschool children in the second study.

The results of these two studies indicate that children who observe aggressive behavior being modeled are more likely to imitate these behaviors. The chances of imitating aggressive behavior increases if students observe the model being aggressive and being rewarded for their aggressive behavior Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961, 1963) also found that these behaviors changed depending on the reinforcement of the behavior. Finally, the researchers found that male children were more likely to demonstrate imitative aggressive behaviors than female children.

Introduction
Aggression is a serious problem for several reasons. First, aggression can lead to violence and criminal behavior. Second, aggression is an unacceptable method for dealing with and confronting problems. Children who respond with aggression may develop social and emotional problems that may affect their lives in variety of ways. Finally, studying aggression is important in that it demonstrates how behavior can be both modeled and imitated by others.

Imitative Aggression
According to Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961, 1963), imitative aggression occurs when a child sees someone model an aggressive behavior such as pushing, or yelling, and then the child proceeds to imitate that behavior. In a study of 72 preschool students (n36 males, 36 females) Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) hypothesized that, male students that were exposed to aggressive behaviors demonstrated by adult models would be more likely to imitate the modeled aggressive behaviors than students that had viewed a non-aggressive model, or students that had no exposure to either model specifically, if they witnessed the model receiving a positive response for the behavior.. According to Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961), the results of the study indicated that students that were exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors. The researchers also found that boys were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors than girls. This clearly indicated that

In a second study Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963) studied how vicarious reinforcement affects imitative learning. Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963) hypothesized that male children who observed a model that demonstrated aggressive behavior, being rewarded for aggressive behaviors would be more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior than students who witnessed the model demonstrating aggressive behavior without being rewarded. In a study of 80 preschool students (n40 males, 40 females), Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) found that students who saw aggressive models receive rewards for aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate the behavior in hopes of receiving a reward themselves. Bandura Ross and Ross (1963) also found that this behavior was more likely to occur in male participants than in female participants.

Discussion
Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961, 1963) hypothesized that children were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors in which the model received a positive response from researchers either by the model being praised, or receiving some other type of reward. Students were also more likely to imitate aggressive behavior if they were male than they were if they were female. The dependent variable in these studies was imitative aggression. The independent variable for both studies was how the researchers responded to the models behavior.

 The main confounding variable in both studies was that real life aggressive behavior could not be predicted in a laboratory setting.  There were several reasons why this was the confounding variable. First, the setting was a strictly controlled laboratory environment. This meant that there were no parents or teachers to interfere by punishing children for imitating aggressive behavior that they saw on television.

Second, aggressive behavior that is viewed on television is rarely imitated because in most television shows the bad guys get punished by the end of the episode. According to Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961, 1963) children are not as likely to imitate behaviors that they see being punished therefore this type of imitative aggression is not likely to occur.

Finally, much of the aggression on television involves highly technical weaponry, gun fights, and special effects, it can be predicted from Bandura, Ross, and Rosss (1961,1963) studies  that children are more likely to try and imitate realistic aggressive behaviors and they simply do not see this type of aggression on television very frequently.

In some cases it was demonstrated that imitative aggression did not respond as predicted when one factored in the influence of gender. The influence of gender not only had a powerful influence on how the children responded to the aggression themselves, but on the likelihood that they would imitate aggressive behaviors.

The results of these two studies indicate that children imitate the behavior that they see modeled. This can occur under different reinforcement conditions such as conditions of reward, versus conditions of non-reward. The results of these studies also indicate that students may take what they see demonstrated in an aggressive model and expand on the repertory of behaviors that they have observed in a more controlled fashion (e.g. creative aggression) which is learning how to deal with conflict or negative behaviors by utilizing non aggressive strategies to gain what they want.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the studies conducted by Bandura, Ross, and Ross indicate that imitative aggressive behavior is common amongst male children. This behavior is more likely to occur when a child views another person modeling aggressive behavior or modeling aggressive behavior and being rewarded for it. This indicates that children imitate the modeled behavior that they observe. Children may also use imitative aggression in a creative manner and expand their repertoire of aggressive behavior to include behaviors that they did not observe.

FISP  Family Intervention Suicide Prevention (2nd Generation)
Reframe the suicidal episode as maladaptive copingproblem solving

Promote the development and use of more adaptive coping strategies
Reinforce the belief that follow-up treatment is critical for promoting healthier coping and reducing the risk of future suicidality

Develop protective communication and supportive interactions between family members.

Focus on intervention components delivered at the level of the youth and family
Integrations of video and information regarding the seriousness of the suicidal tendencies and the need to adhere to recommendations for follow up treatment plans

Original approach to the crisis therapy session was maintained but additional strategies were incorporated.

Independent Variables
Site A  Level 1 trauma care and pediatric care associated with a psychiatric hospital  race included Caucasian, African American and Hispanic and higher socioeconomic levels

Site B  County General Hospital  race was primarily African American and Hispanic and was of the lower socioeconomic echelons.

Thesis  still in the gathering stage, but believe that the 2nd generation FISP will be able to be used in many different circumstances as well as in the Emergency Room at hospitals around the country.  The study is hoping to show the effectiveness of the FISP in a controlled randomized study.

Psychology has an important role in the life of the person. This is an important component that contributed to the individual being able to redefine his or her life because of psychology and the intervention of the psychologists. Part of the understanding in the field of psychology is the understanding that each and every human being naturally pursues. It can contribute to the health and holistic development of the body. There are faculties found embedded deep in ones personality or characteristic that can help the persona achieve his or her optimum potential. Because of this, people who come for treatment with a psychologist is often encouraged to participate. The individual is assisted in the process of defining life in general, and the meaning of it. In counseling, every unique beliefs, every unique value, cultural characteristics, as well as emotions, thought patterns and behaviors are all put into strong consideration to help the person develop and move on, and this is a strong part of my philosophy in counseling. Counseling and psychology help identify goals and help in achieving them. It is important in building strengths, as well as in assisting in the process of development of different skills important in life and in well being in the long term. All of these things reflect the inclination towards person-centered counseling, a humanistic framework. The whole person is considered alongside its cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and spiritual faculties.

Discussion
Rogers person- centered theory the theory from which counseling is provided, the base of conceptualization of cases

The backbone of my philosophy of counseling for this paper is Rogers person-centered theory. This means that the approach to counseling as utilized in this approach is reflective of the tenets, beliefs and courses of actions in counseling as prescribed by the theory on approaching counseling in a person-centered manner as espoused by Carl Roger. In this theory, the patient is allowed to speak out his or her mind. The patient is made to believe that the individual is inside an environment that only has positive regard towards the patients condition, the positive reinforcement - towards the path to being enlightened and not the continued pursuit of the wrong course of action. This is believed to be the important factor as to why in the end of the session the patients feel that the solutions to their problem are clear. More importantly, they are an active and integral part of the effort to find the solution to the problem. Carl Rogers believe that it is important for the individual to be allowed to speak his or her mind regarding the details of the patients life and problems. It makes the individual feel that the process of voicing out is done inside an environment that is not judging the person, but is an environment wherein the individual can turn to for assistance and help.

The assumptions associated with this particular theory
The person-centered theory, also known sometimes as the Rogerian theory, possesses several assumptions regarding the patient and the patients condition. I believe that it assumes that by letting the patient talk is helpful in the recovery or in the solution-finding process. It assumes that what the patient needs is an environment that is not restrictive and without the concept of control and direction from another source besides the individual. Lastly, this theory assumes that the individual can be assisted to find the solution, even the right and suitable solution in a process. The counselor acts as facilitator who, at the end of the session, merely repeats to the patients some key ideas and thoughts like significant and related experiences that will be helpful in addressing the problem and finding a solution.

The limitations of the theory
Despite the efficacy of the person-centered theory, I believe that it also has its own set of limitations and is not the perfect theory to use to approach counseling. Some of its limitations include the dependence on the participation and self examination of the patient (which can be useless if the patient is not the type who talks too much or if the patient does not have the tendency or ability for self examination and realization) and the lack of strong structure since this is a practice that flows loosely and is dependent on the participation of the patient.

Target population
The aspect of the target population is about describing and detailing the particular population to whom the services will be offered to. This paper, discussing the philosophy of counseling, identifies the target population as the community and the people in the community level who are in need of counseling from psychologists but are incapable of finding one or inaccessible to one because of restrictions as well as financial limitations, which is the target I am set at making contact with during practice. The community has many different individuals who have problems that need psychological help and counseling. These dilemmas and conditions can be assisted towards improvement through the use of the person-centered theory and through the effort of psychologists and counselors to pursue civic action. This can be done by practicing not just in private institutions but also in public institutions to assist a significant part of the demographic that are also in need of psychological help and counseling. However, these, often, are not reached by such assistance and the availability of this particular resource.

Ethical controversies associated with treatment using the theory
The psychologists and counselors however should be very careful in the use of the Rogerian person-centered theory to avoid succumbing to or be vulnerable to ethical issues, and this is something that I keep reminding myself. One of the ethical issues is the promise of cure and recovery. Counselors using this approach should be very careful on how they explain to the patient this particular approach or how they create expectations, some of which may not be realized and cause the individual more confusion. In other cases, counselors need to be very attentive to what the individual is saying and make competitive break down and analysis of the situation. The counselor knows the important points to raise, which in turn, can help the individual.

The Rogers person-centered theory why it is appealing to practitioners and psychologist
Opting for the Rogers person-centered theory is not surprising. Around the world, many psychologists are using this particular theory, and like me, they see appealing reasons which I also see and appreciate. There are reasons why many psychologists and counselors find this appealing. One of the reasons for its appeal is that it is not an approach that is very medical. Medical terms, approaches and medical terminologies, in some cases, scare patients away. These make them more confused or intimidate them. This is simply about two individuals talking about the problem. It is effective and yet simple. It allows room for self expression among patients. Many people simply need to ventilate their emotions so that they can see straight again.

The theory and its relevance in the future room for improvement
Rogers person-centered theory and how it is being used in practice today is a scenario that I can describe as sufficient and functional. However, there is also the belief that there are still some improvements that can be incorporated in the theory and in the practice of using the theory to help people in the treatment process during counseling. In the future, practitioners using this theory can develop the theory to provide it with more structure. New discussion and conversation styles and approaches can be discovered especially as a result of studies undertaken regarding the Rogerian approach. Professionals can see the weakness and have it improved, but this shouldnt be a problem since many professionals believe that this theory and approach is ever evolving (Sowers, Thyer, Dulmus, 2008, p. 279).

Conclusion
Carl Rogers created an excellent approach to counseling that many professionals use today, something that I am intent on following as well. The person-centered theory is an ideal philosophy to use in counseling. The theory provides a framework wherein the work of counseling can be rendered at its most efficient. While the theory is, without doubt still imperfect. This theory can be used in the counseling approach to help people. Over time, it has proven that it is nonetheless effective in helping people. Because of that, many counselors and psychologists all around the world resort to this particular approach in treating and curing their patients.

The paper provides the detailed analysis of a peer-reviewed research article. The summary of the article is provided. The list of independent and dependent variables is discussed. The paper evaluates and discusses the statistical research results.

Moberg, C.A.  Curtin, J.J. (2009). Alcohol selectively reduces anxiety but not fear Startle response during unpredictable versus predictable threat. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118 (2), 335-347.

Summary of the article
Moberg and Cutin (2009) seek to investigate the changes in stress-reducing behaviors in individuals under the impact of alcohol. That alcohol reduces stress in humans is a well-known fact, but those who choose alcohol as the primary element of stress reduction are at risk of developing alcohol use disorders (Moberg  Cutin, 2009). Stress exposure often becomes the major prerequisite of relapse in alcohol use in those, who are considered alcohol dependent (Moberg  Cutin, 2009). Thus, the role of stress in the patterns of alcohol use requires further analysis.

The authors provide the detailed discussion of how alcohol use and stress interact Moberg and Cutin (2009) report that coping with stress is one of the major reasons why individuals choose the use of alcohol. The higher the level of emotion-alcohol regulation in individuals, the more likely they are to subject themselves to increased alcohol use. However, there is a difference in how individuals react to fear and anxiety, and in their research, Moberg and Cutin (2009) hypothesize that a moderate dose of alcohol would reduce anxiety but not fear. For the purpose of the current study, the researchers used a variety of methods to manipulate anxiety and fear in research participants. Predictable and unpredictable shock were used to elicit a fear response to imminent threat. Moberg and Cutin (2009) recruited 32 female participants between 21 and 35 years old, who had recent experience with alcohol but were never diagnosed for alcohol-related problems and did not have a history of such problems. The participants were divided into a placebo and an alcohol group, with the latter receiving a fruit juice mixed with 100-proof vodka in a 31 juice-to-vodka ration (Moberg  Cutin, 2009). Those assigned to a placebo group received a volume-matched beverage consisting of fruit juice mixed with water poured from a vodka bottle in their presence (Moberg  Cutin, 2009). All participants were later exposed to a series of predictable unpredictable shock blocks to measure their shock sensitivity and the impact of alcohol consumption on their shock responses.

Independent and dependent variables
The list of independent variables for the current study includes the amount of alcohol administered among the members assigned to the alcohol group, while dependent variables comprise the level of alcoholic intoxication and the level of startle response in individuals from both groups. It would be fair to assume that the study also includes and is influenced by a set of the so-called extraneous variables these are not directly mentioned by the researchers but produce significant impacts on the quality of the research outcomes. Extraneous variables include the overall shock sensitivity, age, and medical condition of the research participants. As far as the study involved only female participants, it is difficult (although desirable) to estimate the impact of gender on the research results.

Research results
Participants from the placebo group reported the levels of alcohol in their beverages as much lower than those in the alcohol group, but the perceived alcohol content in both groups was far above zero (Moberg  Cutin, 2009). By measuring the startle response in both groups, the researchers concluded that alcohol is associated with a significant suppressive effect on auditory processing and reflexive responding (Moberg  Cutin, 2009). Statistical analysis has revealed no effect of alcohol on predictable shock reaction, whilst unpredictable shock sensitivity was significantly reduced by alcoholic beverages. Regression analysis was used to confirm attention as the element that may potentially mediate the impact of alcohol on startle responses and startle sensitivity attentional startle inhibition in response to unpredictable shock cues became the major source of mediating effects on the startle response in individuals from the alcohol group.

Studies reveal that civilization was witnessed as a result of psychopaths. Studies further points out that civilization occurred on the basis of warfare and slavery which is the cause of high cases of murder. Psychopaths civilization is said to occur in three stages which include using lies to form an army for mass killing, the use of army for enslaving people and controlling their labour force, and finally, using this labour force to enhance brainwashing process which is repetitive (Heath, 2008). Its also said that psychopath is the recent man who has been produced by pressures of evolution found in the current world. Some research also shows that psychopath are people just like any other, though they dont have a soul, which makes them very brilliant and copy emotional words. Unfortunately, their actions dont match their words (Cleckley, 1988).

Psychopathology is further categorized into primary sociopath, that is genetically influenced, and secondary sociopath, which results from environmental victimization (knight, 2003). Psychopaths have managed to build their ancient empires through murderous activities and warfare. Payment of taxes has been considered the worse form of slavery that has for long being used by psychopaths.

 The clear state of psychopathology can be witnessed in a case in military where studies show that out of the many military men, approximately fifteen percent can kill their fellow human beings when put on the front line, while 85 percent cannot kill because there concise has got a lot of regard for human life. A more clear understanding of psychopaths is that they can steal, cause huge harm, and above all kill without any remorse (Heath, 2008).

World health organization manual of mental disorders recommends various ways of diagnosing a psychopath in the following attributes
Lack of concern for other peoples feelings
Continuous telling lies for personal gains
Refusal to abide by society norms
Lack of regard for other peoples safety

In America for instance, psychopaths have been increased by their way of life because psychopathology has become adaptive thus penetrating very fast in the society. Research indicates that many people who were raised in America have been poisoned by the culture of psychopathy through media and education. This has made many people to turn away from reality a factor that can be attributed to ignorance brought a bout a very strong culture that was purposely designed to encourage ignorance (knight, 2003). It is important to note that psychopaths are both interesting and exciting as they always struggle to make their listeners to believe and remain under their control.  In many instances, they will evade the truth as they are known for not answering questions as directed to them and at times they may even phrase things in a way that will be very difficult to be understood (cleckley, 1988).

It is right to point out that psychopaths are born while others are made. For instance the current presidents state is believed to have originated from George Bush because he tried to develop many programs that aimed at changing the normal behavior of human being by installing psychopathic characters. People known of psychopathy have also raised children in a way that will make them become future champions of slavery and massive murder. Psychopathy demand has been promoted for various purposes such as trauma conditioning, cognitive interrupters, among others (Heath, 2008).

Psychopathy has many live examples that they have set in real world situations. For instance the nature and way of conduct of many presidents in most parts of the world is believed to be a by product o psychopathy. Many of them give false promises to their voters so as to lure them to their fold.  What results later is partial or total failure of the elected presidents to carry out duties in relation to the expectations of their people and this has been the trend in many parts of the world. Some eventually come up with quite destructive policies which have put other parts of the world at risk as it was indicated earlier that former U.S president George Bush was the champion of current presidents state of action where many of them have embarked on changing normal behaviors of human into psychopathy (Heath, 2008).

The sending of army into Iraq to maintain law and order after the removal of Dictator Saddam Hussein from power is yet another good example of psychopathy in the current world. Although some people may argue contrary to these observations, it is vital to correct them by noting that security officers are forced to go and maintain peace, some against their will. The worse part of it is that they are instructed to kill any person who violates the law and other rebel groups for the purpose of protecting themselves and as a result in Iraq, millions of Iraqs lost their lives compared to the era of Dictator Saddam Hussein. This has finally created enmity between Iraq and countries like America, Britain and other powers that fought along United States. All this occurs because of the effects of psychopathy which has penetrated into the entire world (Heath, 2008).

The current system of taxation where the poor have been the victims is considered another good example of psychopathy. It is on record that in many parts of the world, the poor have been overtaxed to finance heavy government expenditures which in turn end up being mismanaged due to high rates of corruption and desire to become rich very fast. The worst part of it is that some of these political leaders who rob the countries treasury do not pay taxes legally or as an act of impunity. It is on the basis of this point that it can be argued that there is no difference between slavery which dominates in psychopathy and the current taxation.  Therefore, over taxation is a continuation of psychopathy in modern world.

Similarly, psychopathy management has been made simple in modern world as the current governments come with so many projects that makes their citizens fail to exactly know how finances have been spent at the end of the day. For instance, the government may come up with projects like construction of roads, mosquito net programmes, free education programmes, free provision of health services, setting of commissions to investigate some scandals, allocate huge amount of money in research, among other programmes. All these projects are created with an aim of confusing citizens so that they may not be able to tell if the funds were either mismanaged or well managed hence promoting psychopathy (Heath, 2008).

Likewise, it can be indicated that in current world situation, there is increased rate of media propaganda which has promoted psychopathy. Psychopaths have always been at the forefront answering questions raised through the media to confuse the masses. Their motive is to continue fooling people, a culture that has greatly penetrated into our societies and governments. They give false information simply because they believe that most people are ignorant about what is happening. This is a very wrong conception which needs to be removed in our societies by all means because it does not matter at all giving information to citizens and striving very hard to make sure that citizens remain under the mercy of the leaders (Knight, 2003).

Conclusion
It can therefore be concluded that psychopaths have wrecked our societies and our governments. It has been promoted in different ways and forms like giving false information, slavery, massive killing by army officers, and efforts by people aimed at developing themselves very fast through misappropriation of resources. Psychopathy is said to be either promoted by environmental factors or genetic factors. Culture and competition enhances the use anti-social strategies thus promoting high levels of crimes. It can be learnt that the current corrupt systems of administration in many parts of the world, mass murder, lying, among others are symbols indicating that psychopathy is still penetrating deep into our societies.