Psychology

A British drug chief, Professor David Nutt called for drug classification legislation to have a bearing on the real health risks. According to the Daily Mail, the government advisor held that taking ecstasy exposed individuals to similar risks as horse-riding. He wrote in a medical journal proclaiming that taking the drug has no difference with those individuals addicted to horse-riding (Nutt, 2008). These statements have drawn mixed reactions across the world with many people keen to see any sense in what the Professor meant. This paper will explore the positive and negative impacts of both ecstasy and horse-riding before making a conclusive position on the issue.

In his article that was entitled Equasy an overlooked addiction with implications for the current debate on drug harm that was published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology Nutt establishes that the difference between ecstasy and equasy is insignificant. Equasy is a terminology that is used to describe Equine Addiction Syndrome (Charlie, 2009). To him, both addictions lead to individuals being exposed to unnecessary risks hence putting their lives in danger (Valdez, 2008). He goes on to elaborate that horse-riding causes up to 100 deaths annually whereas ecstasy use may cause about 30 deaths in the same period (Daily Mail Reporter, 2009).

Effects of Ecstasy
The impacts of ecstasy are paradoxical in the sense that they can be painful and pleasurable to the very user. The gratifying impacts of ecstasy use includes a relaxed upbeat mood and feelings, reduction in anxiety, high sympathy for others, and an increased level of energy which is sustainable for much longer hours (Parvaz, 1999). On the negative side, ecstasy can cause numerous problematic impacts that by far outweigh the few pleasurable impacts. Ecstasy is known for causing confusion, sleeping problems, anxiety, paranoia, nausea, brain damage, depression, blurred vision, among other detrimental impacts to the health of the victims. In addition to the above, impaired memory and lessening in serotonin and dopamine may lead to disruption in the normal brain functioning (Omnibuspress.com, 2000). There is also a general decrease in performance of the addict accompanied by general financial problems. Depression and other emotional problems may lead to isolation from friends and family members who are not using the drug (Elk, 2009).

Effects of Horse-riding
Apart from the general pleasure gained in horse-riding, there are other more important but hidden positive effects that horse-riding has to the riders. Horse-riding can be therapeutic in some instances as shall be seen in the subsequent arguments. It has been found that horse-riding stimulates righting and equilibrium reactions and normal adjustments in posture. It also inhibits tonic neck together with tonic labyrinthine reflexes. It has also been found to prevent or cause reduction in contractures and tightness, physical and mental complications secondary to inactivity feelings of inferiority and helplessness, (Anfenson, 2010 Para 1). These are just but a few positive impacts of horse-riding.

Nevertheless, this should not be interpreted to mean that horse-riding does not have the negative aspect. The most pronounced negative impact of horse-riding is the injuries sustained during horse-riding expedition. Most injuries result from falling off the horse that is known to lead to severe and fatal incidences. According to Hughston Health Alert, horseback riding has a higher injury rate when compared to motorcycle riding. Averagely, motorcyclists reports an injury after every 7000 hours whereas horseback rides better known as equestrians records a serious accident in every 350 hours (Beim,  Butte, 2009). Horse riding injuries may range from bruises, strains, and sprains affecting soft tissues. Other form of injuries may include fissures, dislodgments, and concussions. Of more concern are the injuries on the spinal cord and the head which may result to permanent damages including paralysis and seizures resulting from head injuries (Socallocal, 2009). To the extreme, these injuries may result to the death of the horse rider. Apart from falling off the horse, these accidents can occur in the stable during handling, grooming or feeding of the horse.

Conclusion
The drug issue has continued to draw negative perception in our society giving drugs a different and a more nerve-racking status according to Professor Nutt. The society in doing this has failed to look at consequences of equally dangerous activities which seem to enjoy sanctioning from the society. Equasy as described by Nutt has been well elaborated as a dangerous activity that may be more fatal than some d rugs. Apart from the fatalities of horse-riding, this leisurely activity may involve the use of other sanctioned drugs like cigarettes which have been known to be harmful to human health. The issue is some drugs like ecstasy have been overrated regarding their detrimental impacts to the health status of the individuals. Professor Nutt, who was the chairman of the Home Offices Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD), was agitating for the downgrading of ecstasy from being a class A-drug to class B. He likened the ecstasy drug to horse riding basing on the overall negative consequences of both issues. I support the professors argument that some activities sanctioned by the society are even more dangerous than some of the drugs we know of.

The ability of a society to effectively identify, prevent and address issues related to substance abuse forms one of the most critical outlines towards maintaining a highly productive economy.  Substance abuse in the society remains a highly destructive societal aspect in that it affects the peoples personalities and ultimately reduces their ability to fit within the wider societal reams.  Modern substance abuse specialists argue that the current problem of substance abuse requires a new approach that is more holistic by incorporating all the stakeholders.  Cocaine, one of the hard drugs in the society as Robert et al 92007) and Moore (2008) explain, has some of the most negative implications to its abusers that require further understanding and new approach in addressing it.  It is from its high level use and related implications that this paper intrinsically evaluates its history, prevalence, diagnosis of the addicts, related treatment and treatment theories.

History of Cocaine abuse
Though recent scholars are increasingly viewing cocaine and its associated problems to be a problem of the 19th century, its history could be traced back to the 15th century.  Chermack and Blow (2002) record that most South American indigenous people chewed the cocoa leafs which was believed to give them additional energy.  By late 18th century, the cocaine alkaloids were successfully separated and its medical application intensified and highly popularized during the last decades of the 18th century.  Apart from its use in anesthetics, it was largely incorporated in most beverages such as wine (Goldberg, 2009).  Notably, its use by the onset of the 20th century further developed and it could be smoked, injected directly into the body or taken with beverages and food.

As Galanter and Kleber (2008) record, the turn of the 20th century revealed the cocaine addictive properties.  Particularly, it was associated with majority of the criminals, prostitutes, burglars and bell boys in the community.  Following Dr. Christopher Koch from Pennsylvania confession that cocaine was the major threat to the peoples personalities, the government passed the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act in 1914 that prohibited distribution and sale of cocaine in the United States (Richard et al, 2009). It is worth noting that this acts wrong reference to cocaine as a narcotic and not a stimulant led to its continued sale by the legalized companies in the nation.  Though cocaine use has been strongly prohibited by the government and medical experts, its use around the world is still very high a consideration that makes the employed techniques to address it becomes questionable Cohen, L. (20009It is from the above historical orientation that the following key questions have remained unanswered over the years. Is it possible to fully stamp out cocaine production and use Are the treatment mechanisms effective in addressing emergent problems for the addicts

Prevalence and statistics of Cocaine
As indicated earlier, Galanter and Kleber (2008) and Lowinson (2005) argue that the current cocaine related statistics are worrying especially with reflection of the extended benefits.  In the year 2006, ten percent of total public substance abuse centers admissions were from cocaine crackdown.  Besides, it is estimated that about 33.7 million people in the United States of the ages beyond twelve years have tried to use cocaine in their lifetime at least once (Goldberg, 2009).  For those between the ages of 24 and 34 years, most of them as Goldberg (2009) continue to say, have used cocaine in their lifetime.  This high percent puts the existing social institutions and their contribution towards a healthy and morally upright society questionable.  By the year 2005, Richard (2009) reports that over 34milion people of the total population by then had used cocaine making it the second mostly used illicit drug in the nation.

Comparing its use between men and women in the nation, Galanter and Kleber (2008) record that the former are more likely to use the drug compared to the latter.  Between the years 2003 and 2007, the percentage of young adults who were reported using cocaine increased from 5 to 8 respectively.   Further from their study, Goldberg (2009) concurs with the findings of Moore et al (2008) that over 80 of the cocaine users understood the possibility of getting addicted and other related problems.  Over 52.2 of the cocaine abusers in the United States often access enough updates about cocaine and its associated problems though the press.

Diagnosis and related issues
Notably, the effects resulting from cocaine use are largely correlated to the level of addiction that an individual is suffering from.  Therefore, people with low addiction become hard to diagnose of cocaine use as its symptoms are not distinct.  In his view, acute cocaine users often experience hallucinations, tachycardia and paranoid delusions (Cohen, 2009).  However, it is very hard to effectively differentiate its impacts from those of other drugs such as tobacco, alcohol and marijuana.   Indeed, this makes it very hard for psychologists to identify and may result to addressing the wrong drug especially where the user is not cooperative.    

However, chronic intake leads to the brain cells adapting to functionally stronger imbalances especially towards key body extreme demands. The changes recorded in the monoamine transmitters and the brain protein neurofilaments culminate to long term damaging of dopamine neurons.  As a result, the diagnostic criterion for withdrawal is characterized with strong dysphoric mood, hypersomnia, anxiety, erectile dysfunctional, psychomotor retardation and unpleasant dreams (Lowinson, 2005).  It is worth noting that even at chronic levels, the depicted characteristics still resemble with those from other drugs such as marijuana and further testing may still be required.

To address the above uncertainties in diagnosing cocaine, clinicians and psychologists have resulted to testing its presence in the urine.  According to Conner, Pinquart and Amanda (2008), cocaine is metabolized extensively by the liver and only about 1 remains unchanged and released to the urine.  Depending with the efficacy of the liver and kidneys of the user, it is possible to detect its metabolites in the urine as early as four hours after its consumption.  

Theories related to its addiction and impacts
The theoretical explanations of the high addiction levels of cocaine as Cohen (2009) explains are related to the effects reported in monoamine transmitters and the brain protein neurofilaments reduction.  As indicated earlier, chronic use of cocaine creates a highly insatiable demand that can make the addicted person go any length in acquiring large amounts of the drug.   Once cocaine reaches high levels in the blood, Moore et al (2008) explain that the users heart rate and blood vessels often constrict leading to users high feeling being intensified.  At this instance, the addict could also experience aggression and restlessness.

The rising high use of cocaine in the society as Galanter and Kleber (2008) argue is also largely linked to negative peer influence among the people in the society. As statistics indicate, most people in the United States will have tried cocaine at least once in their lifetime.  In his theory of social comparison, Festinger Leon indicated that most people in the society will always seek to compare their views and equate them with their role models or key personalities (Richard et al, 2009).  As a result, with the largest cohort of cocaine users being in the teen and early adulthood, the strong desire is derived from influence by key role models using the same drug to achieve specified status especially in the media.   Though the drug may not be directly advertised in the media due to its illegality, Conner et al (2008) indicate that most of the users are viewed to possess extra powers.  The desire to get similar status therefore pushes majority of the people to use the same drugs despite clear understanding of the related body and legal repercussions.

In his view, Galanter and Kleber (2008) argue that the social theory underscores the special pressure that people undergo through makes them adhere to the group norms without resistance.  Notably, groups especially in the teen and early adult ages specifically develop their own cultures that members often conform or drop from the group.   With cocaine as indicated earlier being considered to make one more powerful, the group norms easily assimilate it to create the superiority notion among other peers (Chermack and Blow, 2002).

Robert et al (2007) on the other hand explain the ever rising levels of cocaine abuse by indicating that most people lack the necessary understanding of the drug and its repercussions though the society inoculation theory. The theory postulates that people develop key beliefs and values in their lives which they internalize to seek specified achievements (Richard et al, 2009).  Under this consideration therefore, the strongly publicized negative impacts resulting from cocaine use become a major factor to consider and perhaps explore the facts.  It is indeed considered tricky for cocaine in that mild consumption have minimal effects.  However, continued use results to chronic effects.  It is critical that the problem is brought out more openly and all concerns constantly addressed to remove possible causes of doubt and the need for experimentation.  

Treatment for the drug addicts
Use of motivational therapy
While agreeing with prior substance abuse therapists, Galanter and Kleber (2008) explain that it is not easy to address at the advanced stages of the addiction.  Motivational therapy therefore forms one of the most effective methods in that the therapist and the cocaine addict are both involved in addressing the problem.  Though scholars indicate that the efficacy of this method is dependent on the therapist, Goldberg (2009) argues that the addicts decision to reduce drug consumption is the key facet towards assimilation of a new positive perspective in their lives.  Notably, specialists employing motivational therapy are considered to be more effective in that they operate in a reverse mode whereby the addict takes the sense of empathy and encouragement from the therapist towards achieving the targeted change.  As opposed to condemning the addict, the therapist takes a lot of time in fitting within their situation and therefore appearing to develop towards the expected goal together (Moore et al, 2008).  Notably, most of the addicts are usually segregated by others and therefore views the therapists to fill the left gap which is very critical for their recovery.

Use of cognitive behavioral therapy
Application of the cognitive behavioral therapy as Lowinson (2005) explains, involves a combination of different methods towards creating a differentiated thoughtful approach in their consideration of cocaine usage. Though its application is mostly short term, the cognitive therapists employs two key mechanisms to address the problem.  First, the therapist uses functional analysis where all the information on the cocaine user before and during the consumption time is gathered (Richard, 2009). At this point, the therapist is able to know why the cocaine user is indeed using the drug and therefore use the same consideration in creating a platform for positive reinforcements.

Secondly, therapists engage the addicts in major training of clear coping skills that facilitate them to establish the need for change.  Most cocaine users operate in groups and therefore fail to consider the personal orientation and focus when consuming it.  As a result the training focus on interpersonal skills such as refusing drug offers, coping with craving and analyzing the expected results (Robert et al, 2007). Therefore, CBT for cocaine users focuses on motivation towards abstinence, the need to cope, reinforcing the change orientation and finally managing the possible painful effects. Of critical importance as Robert et al (2007) continue to say, is enhancement of social support by the community to foster acceptance in the community.

Conclusion and recommendations
It is from the above discussion that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement, the ability of a society to effectively identify, prevent and address issues related to substance abuse forms one of the most critical outlines towards maintaining a highly productive economy.  The problem of cocaine abuse came out to be historical when it was naturally used by the indigenous American population. However, with its negative effects establishment and its illegalization, its use has remained highly secretive.  It addiction was further brought out to have key negative implications to the users and the whole society in general.  Though its treatment appears to have a string effect in addressing the problem, there is need to intensify it and therefore reduce the current high level prevalence in the nation.    

There are four major factors that researchers have associated with risky sexual behavior among young people increase in sexual activity, success of anti HIVAIDS drugs, lack of education and unsafe sexual practices, and sharing of drugs through syringes.

Young people are more sexually active than ever before, engaging in sexual activities at a very young age, and having several different partners over short spans of time. More often than not, those who are sexually active do not use latex condoms consistently, if at all (Rathus et al). Some choose not to use condoms because they believe that it will still be safe since the female partner is on birth-control pills. However, birth-control pills prevent pregnancies not STIs. Furthermore, increasing oral and anal sexual tendencies have increased the number of cases of STIs each year The fact that drug use is also increasing at an alarming pace contributes to the spread of STIs  it does not take sexual activity alone to transmit STIs since a person may pass it on through blood transfusion or the sharing of instruments such as syringes. Riskier, however, is the fact that the appearance on the market of HIVAIDS treating drugs which has made todays sexually active and adventurous youth to throw whatever caution they were turning to, to the wind (Owens et al, 2009).

As a counselor in a clinical situation, working with adolescents, I, understanding the nature of adolescents who tend to deny advice regarding safer and healthier lifestyles, (especially related to sex, drugs and alcohol related), would share my concerns with this person diplomatically. I would quote statistics, and will try to illustrate what is risky as compared to what this person previously considered perfectly safe, such as oral sex (given misconceptions among young individuals surrounding safe and unsafe sexual practices  lack of such education is in itself is a risky start to sexual activity).

Education and coaching will help me immensely in changing the sexual lifestyle of this person toward a healthier, more positive sexually active life (Owens et al, 2009).

Many theories and perspective exist in the field of psychology.  Mood disorders and personality indifferences are just a few of the oddities within the chosen field.  Behaviors often procreate in patterns, but some behaviors are learned by example.  The American Psychological Association (AMA) has given great insight and clinical advice for addressing these issues.  Abnormal psychology is credited with theories and perspectives characteristic of specific behaviors patterns and abnormal behaviors.

Background
Amanda is a vibrant young, nineteen year old, single mother living in a suburban community.  She is unemployed and receiving state issued public assistance.  She does not attend school and reported having dropped out in the tenth grade due to her learning disability in comprehension.  She presents with severe symptoms of depression and several obsessive compulsive symptoms as well.  She is accompanied by her biological mother.
   
Amanda was raised by her father following a long divorce from her mother.  Her father is an alcoholic not in recovery.  Amandas mother suffers from panic disorder and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).  When Amanda was thirteen, she went to live with her mother due to her father overdosing on crack cocaine.  Amanda found her father passed out and barely breathing and was reported to have been doing CPR on him when the ambulance arrived.  Amandas mother initiated contact with a local mental health organization in order for Amanda to have an outlet for any residual psychological dysfunction due to the traumatic events that she had endured.  During her outpatient treatment, Amanda was hospitalized for suicidal ideologies.  She spent ten days in the adolescent psychiatric unit.  Upon her release, she continued with outpatient therapy, but did not seem to be improving.  Her grades suffered immensely, and she became more withdrawn.  Her daily activities consisted of sleep.  One evening, Amanda woke from a nightmare and ran to her mother sobbing and hyperventilating.  Amanda indicated to her mother that she had a dream that her father had died.  She continued sobbing and stated emphatically that she wanted to die, over and over.  Amandas mother contacted the crisis worker on call, and Amanda was admitted again to the adolescent psychiatric unit.
   
During her second inpatient stay, the treating psychiatrist performed several pathological tests as well as a psychiatric assessment.  It was determined that Amanda had Bipolar Disorder I.  She was stabilized with Depekote and Zoloft.  Fourteen days later, Amanda was discharged.  She continued with outpatient cognitive behavior therapy and prescription regimen for the next year until she chose to move back in with her father.
   
Amanda reports loss of memory from the time she returned home to her father to the present.  She stated that she quit taking her medications within days of moving into her dads house because they were not doing anything.  Amanda reports becoming pregnant as a result of a one night encounter.  Amanda states that she was drunk and does not have any recollection of the evening.  She also states that she drinks frequently because it helps her to relax and think better.  Shortly after becoming pregnant, she found out that she had contracted Genital Herpes.  Amanda gave birth to a healthy daughter eight months later.  She moved back in with her mother within a month of giving birth.
   
Amandas mother initiated contact with the local mental health agency due to the symptoms that Amanda is presenting.  She constantly sleeps, screams at her newborn for wanting a bottle, and refuses to participate in any activity other than sleeping.  The newest and most concerning symptom, according to her mother, is of an obsessive compulsive nature.  Amanda became angry and verbally outraged at her mother for feeding the baby a bottle with a yellow nipple ring.  Amanda stated that it was Tuesday and only the blue nipple rings were to be used.  During the
last month of Amanda cohabitating at her mothers home, her mother reports one incident of Amanda getting up and cleaning the entire house and doing a load of laundry.  Just as quickly as Amandas energy came, it left and Amanda fell right back into the sleeping all day pattern.  The treating psychiatrist reassessed Amanda via tests, both biological and psychological.  It was again determined that Amanda had Bipolar Disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder as a secondary condition.

Methodology
Abnormal psychology contains five major theories and perspectives within the discipline.  The first theory is the Medical Perspective, also known as the biological or physiological aspect.  The second theory is the Psychodynamic Perspective.  The next theory is the Behavioral Perspective.  The Cognitive Perspective is the next theory to be examined.  Finally, the last theory is the Social and Cultural Perspective.  Each of these perspectives holds reasoning behind the psychological reasoning of ones behavior.  The behaviors and behavior patterns are definitive within each respect as is the treatment and prognosis of each individual being addressed under a specific theory (Corner, 2010).      
   
The Medical, or biological, Perspective focuses on the biological and physiological factors as a course of origin for abnormal behaviors.  Genetics has been accredited to some conditions such as Schizophrenia and some mood disorders.  Family history of a pre-existing condition is said to pre-dispose an individual and make one vulnerable to the consequences of the same mental disorder.  In Amandas case, it can be asserted that her mothers history of panic disorder and PTSD could have had a genetic effect on Amanda developing Bipolar Disorder.  It can equally
be asserted that her fathers history of substance abuse could be a form of self-medicating due to an undiagnosed mental illness.  Medical testing has proven that some medical conditions can give the impression of an existing mental disorder when in actuality the condition was solely medical in nature (Ware  Johnson, 2000).  Amanda did present with a determined medical condition, and it should be noted that her medical diagnosis of Genital Herpes could be a contributing factor.  Amanda stated that she is being treated for Genital Herpes with the medication Valtrex.  Treatments used with regard to the Medical Perspective typically involve temporary hospitalization, medications to enable stability of any condition, and outpatient therapy.
   
The Psychodynamic Perspective believes that behaviors produce anxiety and discord in ones life due to repressed memories, most likely stemming from a past childhood experience.  These sometimes unconscious memories could only be resolved through speaking candidly with a well trained therapist (Corner, 2010).  Amandas repressed memories of child abuse, neglect, feeling abandoned by her mother, and her fathers overdose is suggested to have attributed to her developing Bipolar Disorder.
   
The Behavioral Perspective suggests that ineffective learning and conditioning play a major role in the abnormalities of ones behavior and inability to make rational decisions.  Phobias and compulsive disorders are distinguished within this perspective.  Amanda taking issue over the color of the nipple rings is indicative of this perspective.  The main focus of treatment associated with this perspective is identifying and changing the way in which one behaves (Ware  Johnson, 2000).  This can be accomplished through the use of desensitization strategies.  
     
The Cognitive Perspective teaches a patient to think differently.  Abnormal behavior is centered on false reasoning and thought based on ill teaching.  These teachings may have come from parents, teachers, and other role models in ones life.  Amanda for the greater part of her life has been taught to deal with stress via alcohol or illegal drugs.  This erroneous thought process contributed to her engaging in unprotected sexual behavior resulting in an unplanned pregnancy and contracting Genital Herpes.   Her compulsive behavior is associated with this perspective as well (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).  The use of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy could benefit Amanda in the form of modeling by using a mentor.
   
The Social and Cultural Perspective or Humanistic approach focuses on the environment and social influences as it relates to abnormal behavior.  Mentally ill individuals, including Amanda, have suggested that low self-esteem, anger issues, and every day stressors are contributing factors to her behavior dysfunctions (Ware  Johnson, 2000).  Amandas abnormal behaviors are associated with her financial burdens, unemployment, poor education, and low standards of living.  Cognitive modeling therapy, individualized therapy, group therapy, and medications in some cases have proven to be effective measures to be used when dealing with this perspective of abnormal psychology.

Analysis
In order to make operational determinations in abnormal psychology, the psychological community refers to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).  This resource manual offers information on diagnostic classifications, criteria required, and descriptions (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).  A patient generally is not diagnosed for just one abnormality, but several other contributing factors are taken into account and utilized for a more formative diagnosis.  The V Axes are used to diagram and represent the full diagnosis of a patient.  There are five levels of diagnosis on the Axis, and each one represents a different perspective.  Axis I pertains to Clinical Disorders. Axis II focuses on Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation.  Axis III is dedicated to General medical conditions.    Axis IV includes the Psychosocial and Environmental factor.

Medications can be attributed to this axis as some medications produce an unwanted behavioral effect on the patient.  Lastly, Axis V is dedicated to the Global Assessment and Functioning Scale.  This scale is used to determine the level of risk proposed by each patient individually.   Amandas V Axes would be defined as follows  Axis I- Bipolar Disorder II Axis II- Learning Disabilities, comprehension related Axis III- Genital Herpes Axis IV- Valtrex Axis V- Score of 20 at present.  

Conclusion
Abnormal psychology is full of many theories and perspectives based on human behavior and functioning.  Psychologists have worked to develop theories over the years and have made great contributions to a better understanding of human patterned behaviors.  Biological factors, learned behaviors, environmental changes, thoughts, and memory can have a loitering effect on the way one process thought and behaves.  Each individual case involves many different factors that may have had a direct affect on the formulation of a mental illness.  Psychologists are especially trained to uncover other behaviors that may suggest another condition that would be treated differently.  Patients put much faith into how their psychiatrist diagnoses and treats their emotional issues.  Unfortunately, some patients are in denial and believe that they are not ill.

These patients sometimes require hospitalizations in order to stabilize their mental illness and protect the patient from their own destructive behaviors.  Abnormal psychology contains patterns of behavior which have been theorized upon and abnormal behaviors which are definitive of many perspectives.

Pini, Queiroz, DellOsso, et al., (2004), states that, there are three types of psychological disorders that are commonly confused by people. These include the most common one the bipolar disorder, also referred to as manic depression, schizophrenia and multiple personality disorder. The general use of these terms, by media as well as by people referring to anyone who have a mental problem, has resulted to the confusion revolving around them.  These disorders however, do not have much in common except for the fact that those who have them are severely stigmatized by the society.

Similarities and differences between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia to determine a correct diagnosis
Bipolar disorder and schizophrenia are both over-diagnosed and misdiagnosed. Both are disorders affecting the thought process of an individual. These disorders have characteristics that are so similar that non-medical personnel cannot differentiate. In comparison to schizophrenia, bipolar is a very common disorder. It is well comprehended and treated through a combination of various drugs as well as psychotherapy. The major characteristic signs and symptoms of bipolar are, changing moods of mania and depression which can last for weeks or even months. Bipolar though treatable can pose a very great challenge in the course of treatment, because those who are on antidepressants during depression phase are more likely to abandon them during a manic episode. Very few people maintain treatment during the manic phase of the disorder. A number of people however manage to cope with their mood alteration and live a normal live in the society without using medications
Schizophrenia on the other hand is less common. It is usually detected during late teenage. Men are the ones who are mostly affected by this disease as compared to women. The major characteristic signs and symptoms of the disease are delusions and hallucinations. People with delusions normally perceive things that are false in normal live as true and real. They usually hold on to their beliefs even after being shown evidence that contradicts their beliefs. Just like bipolar, as noted by Pini, Queiroz, DellOsso, et al., (2004), schizophrenia is also not easy to treat. People with schizophrenia do not function normally in societal functions and have problems in following their prescriptions. Treatment for people with this disorder usually involves drugs as well as psychotherapy.  Day programs can also be included in the treatment for people who have severe cases of this disease and those who are resistant to medication. The social life of those who have this disorder is severely affected. These people also cannot conduct normal lives such as holding a job.

There are various types of schizophrenia which cannot be mistaken for bipolar because the patient is more withdrawn, but still someone could have bipolar with psychosis thereby looking as if it is undifferentiated schizophrenia or have bipolar that does not display psychosis. The major cause of misdiagnosis is the hasty behavior of psychiatrists, who do not inquire extensively concerning the precipitating factors or may be too impatient to make any sort of diagnosis. The other thing that may lead to misdiagnosis is that, there are people who live with suppressing feelings for a very long time or have feelings that go unrecognized that finally result to manic behavior or a behavior that is just unusual that can be diagnosed as psychosis easily.  If mood disorders are allowed to go for a long time without consulting a therapist they may appear as psychosis (Torrey, Bowler, Taylor, et al., 1995).

People with schizophrenia do not lead a normal life in the society.  They often experience difficulties in sticking to a particular medication.  The social life of people with schizophrenia is adversely affected and they face the worst form of stigmatization in the society. They are totally withdrawn and do not participate at all in social functions. Schizophrenia mostly affects all people at any age. Sufferers of schizophrenia usually experience hallucinations, delusions and thought disorders. The behavior of sufferers of schizophrenia changes from normal to abnormal during the course of the disease.

According to Bhosale (2004) these people experience things that are not real, and which they cannot explain with normal words. They tend to believe that strange things are happening around them. The person may experience happy moments that are not in line with the normal surroundings. People who suffer from schizophrenia experience intense hallucinations. They hear strange voices of people calling out their names and see visions of things happening in front of them and in a fraction of a second these things are gone and the patient acts as if nothing was happening. People who suffer form schizophrenia have a totally different perception of reality as seen by normal people. They act as if they are in a world of their own. Their life is totally distorted by delusions and hallucinations making them live in fear and confusion. They have no emotions and tend to lose hope in life.

These people experience compulsion from an external force. They display no behavioral pattern they may be laughing and instantly they start crying. They laugh and cry for no obvious reasons. Their emotions rise and fall suddenly. These people also show no response to specific emotional situations. The cognitive capability of a person suffering from schizophrenia is highly affected. The normal pattern of life for a person with schizophrenia is totally distracted. They do not participate actively in social matters. They also loose motivation and do not have a sense of belief. They experience difficulties in locating a coherent sense of self. They cannot integrate personality in a usual manner (Grohol, 2010).

Schizophrenia may be caused by heredity. Children, whose one or both parents have the disease, are more likely to have it. Viral infections during early stages of pregnancy and complications during birth are risk factors to development of schizophrenia. Brain abnormalities are also other factors that may lead to development of the disease. Sufferers of schizophrenia have a specific family history of the disease. Genes are particularly associated with the cause of the disease.

As indicated by Chandler (2005), there are various types of schizophrenias each with its characteristic symptoms. Catatonic schizophrenia is one of them. In catatonic schizophrenia patients may either experience extensive loss of motor skills or elevated motor activity. These patients also tend to repeat phrases that do not make sense and imitate sounds made by other people or objects. These people are also socially isolated and perform poorly in normal life activities. They have no emotions and are easily angered. The other type of schizophrenia is the disorganized schizophrenia. Disorganized schizophrenia is highly delusional. Patients suffering from it have no emotional feelings and are very suicidal. They tend to walk in an aimless manner and do not respond appropriately to emotional situations. These people also display unmotivated behavior. The other type of schizophrenia is paranoid schizophrenia. This type of schizophrenia is dominated by delusions and auditory hallucinations. Residual schizophrenia is another type of schizophrenia. This type of schizophrenia is displayed by those who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia in the past but do not experience psychotic problems, only that there are some remaining symptoms of the disease such as irrational thoughts, emotional blunting, social withdrawal and unusual behavior. The last type of schizophrenia is the undifferentiated type. This is the type in which patients who fails to display the symptoms of all other subtypes but have mental disorders are classified.

Bipolar disorder is the other psychological disorder. The major symptoms of bipolar disorder are the extreme shifts in an individuals mood as well as temperament. An individual experiences episodes of intense mania followed by spells of severe depression often with phases of normalcy in between. This disease is characterized by alternation of mood between two different extremities. A person may experience extreme sadness for a moment and immediately shift to euphoric happiness. Bipolar spectrum disorder or the entire range of disorder levels can be defined as a single, mild, or multiple adverse clinical mood swings (Grohol, 2010). Depression and manic, though are often separated by periods of normalcy may at times alternate rapidly, a phenomenon referred to as rapid cycling.

There are two different types of bipolar bipolar I and bipolar II. Bipolar I involve spells of severe mood swings. Women are the ones who are mostly diagnosed with bipolar I. sufferers of bipolar I experience adverse spells of depression as well as hypomania. Bipolar disorder type II is a more mild type of disorder as compared to type I. As stated by Jirage (2008), the exact causes of bipolar disorder are not known. However, genetic, biochemical and environmental factors are attributed to the cause of bipolar. Patients suffering from bipolar, display physical as well as chemical changes in their brain. Neurotransmitter imbalance is a biochemical factor that contributes to the development of bipolar. Hormonal imbalance may also be a factor leading to the development of this disease. Bipolar disorders do not have a specific time when they develop, but usually occur in the late teenage.
Manic episodes of bipolar disorder are marked by an increase in energy, aggressiveness, irritability, euphoria, sleeplessness, illogical thoughts, and lack of concentration. Other symptoms of manic phase of bipolar disorder are high self esteem, risky behavior, increased physical activity, loss of concentration, increased sexual desire, rapid speech, drug abuse, easy distraction, euphoria, agitation and extreme optimism (Amadan, 2006).

The depression phase of bipolar disorder on the other hand is marked by increased feeling of sadness, guilt, helplessness, agitation, distrust, loss of weight, irregular sleep patterns, and loss of interest in life as well as hope.  A depressed person may also have suicidal thoughts. Other symptoms of depressive phase of bipolar disorder include increased anxiety, aggressiveness, loss of appetite, fatigue, loss of concentration, and persistent pain due to unknown reasons. People with bipolar often lead a normal life. These people are very social especially when depressed.  They do not experience delusions like those with schizophrenia. However, episodes of depression and mania occur throughout the life of a patient. At certain times patients of bipolar may feel that, they are not worth being alive, helpless, very sad, and hopeless and at other time they may feel very excited thinking they are at the peak of the world (Maier, Zobel, and Wagner 2006).

The nature of the condition of bipolar disorder in many patients is the cause for misdiagnosis and therefore it is very important for the symptoms to be clearly understood. It is also very important to understand the symptoms of schizophrenia to minimize chances of over diagnosis.

Conclusions
Schizophrenia and bipolar disorders are psychological disorders that affect people of all age and gender. Though they have some differences, the symptoms of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia are very similar. In order to differentiate these symptoms, one has to critically analyze the psychotic and specific mood disorder symptoms. If the symptoms that are detected involve elevated mood, lack of sleep, loss of appetite, irritability, and then psychosis, they qualify as bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia on the other hand is characterized by development of paranoia, disorganized thinking, hearing voices and delusions followed by loss of appetite, lack of sleep, and grandiosity. Whereas schizophrenia occurs for a lifetime, episodes of mania and depression in bipolar disorder are separated by spells of normalcy.

 In schizophrenia, though a person may act as if normal during psychotic phases, there are some residual symptoms characterized by low energy, loss of motivation, and social withdrawal. That may not be a clear cut difference between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia because, a person may rapidly move from a manic to a depression phase displaying low energy, lack of motivation, and social withdrawal. Patents with bipolar disorder are usually social especially when depressed, than those suffering from schizophrenia that are socially withdrawn and have no reasonable behavior. To correctly diagnose schizophrenia and bipolar a physician should gather accurate information by extensively inquiring for the history of the patient form the family members as well as close friends.

Some movies and novels talk about socio-psychopaths who are out to murder their victims. In some cases, victims are linked with a common object that interests their killer and in some instances killings are a source of personal satisfaction for the killer. Silence of the lambs is a story that talks about two offenders who kill only for their personal satisfaction.

Introduction
Main plot of the story of Silence of the lambs is to psychoanalyze a serial killer by utilizing information provided by another cannibalistic psychopath serving in a mental asylum, Hannibal Lecter. Silence of the lambs written by Thomas Harris features Dr. Hannibal Lecter, a cannibalistic psychopath serving in a mental asylum who was reached by a young FBI trainee, Clarice Starling. Starling was investigating into the psychological background of a serial killer, Buffalo Bill who was a serial killer responsible for murdering many women in a ritual manner. The common method used by Bill on his female victims was removal of their skins after murder. The psychological analysis was carried out by Starling based on the findings on crime scene and information provided by Hannibal Lecter (Ebert 24).

Clarice Starling was a young FBI trainee in the department of Behavioral Profiling. With the help of local police officers, Clarice was required to carry out the behavioral profiling of Buffalo Bill. Using psychological profiling based on the crime scenes Buffalo Bill was to be apprehended by the police officers for murdering women. Clarice reached Hannibal Lecter in order to gain information about the psychology of this serial killer. Hannibal Lecter does not help Clarice without a price. He was guided by his curiosity into finding ways to manipulate Clarice to expose her confusing and complicated demonized past for him. Here develops a relationship that was twisted enough to let Clarice open up her complicated past life in front of Hannibal thus being weak enough to stop a heinous and a deadly killer.

The movie focuses on two offenders, Buffalo Bill and Hannibal Lecter. Bill has killed and de-skinned five women. Hannibal can sturdily manipulate his prey to get a desirable outcome. Two instances relate to his manipulative demeanor. During Carlings first visit to the asylum to meet Hannibal, a fellow prisoner misbehaved with Clarice horrifying Hannibal, and he candidly disliked such misconduct. On her next visit, Clarice learnt that the fellow prisoner was dead as Hannibal manipulated him into committing suicide. Second instant was when Hannibal manipulates Clarice to open up her past in return of information that Hannibal provided about Bill. A person can have more than one psychopathologies at same time and Hannibal had two he was antisocial as well as a narcissist (BFI modern classics 67).

Buffalo Bill and Hannibal Lecter had been acquaintances in the past and Lecter does not provide this information to Clarice easily. The acquaintance was before Hannibal was abducted in prison. A link noticed in the murdered victims of Buffalo Bill was the presence of a Deaths Head Moth in victims mouths. It has been observed that the offender followed a ritual in his killings and these ritual-like killings increased his hunger even more. During the investigation, Bill abducted his seventh victim, daughter of US senator, heightening FBIs fears of them taking more time in apprehending Buffalo Bill.
A white male in his 30s, Buffalo Bill is a character who was seeking a change. Buffalo was shown as a serial killer who thinks of himself as a transvestite. Bill had once tried to get gender reassignment surgery but he was refused because of his criminal record. Bill was keen on checking records of people who have been turned down for the gender reassignment surgery owing to any criminal convictions in the past.

Buffalo Bill was a serial killer who grew in the society without affection and love, especially his mother. Originally, Buffalo Bill was named as James Gumb. He was born in 1948 and his mother was a beauty contestant. Bill passed his childhood without the love of an affectionate mother as she abandoned Bill in his childhood. His grandparents took him under custody from the foster home, who were killed by Bill after a period of two years. He was imprisoned in a mental asylum where he learnt tailoring (Ebert 89). After his release from the mental asylum, he tailored for Mrs. Lippman. It was at this time that he met Hannibal Lecter and started abducting and murdering women whose bodies he stored in a cellar. During her investigation, Clarice learnt that skins removed from female victims bodies were being used by the killer to prepare a suit for women that would be made up of real skin, by using tailoring skills (BFI modern classics 90).

Killers like Hannibal Lecter and Buffalo Bill are shown to have the same psychological traits. Both of these offenders are antisocial and used charms, intimidation and manipulation to prey on their victims. Both lack conscience and cold bloodedly prey on their victims to satisfy their inner needs (Ebert 56).

Conclusion
American pop culture will always be remembered for greatest horror classics ever produced.  The movie Silence of the lambs was released fifteen years ago and it has been loved since the time it was first seen. This flick has been known as a pioneer in many other psychological thrillers using ideas as psychological profiling as well as realistic looks.

Some American TV shows depict adolescents as violent, unruly, addicts, and simply out of control. They portray American adolescent as someone who hates school, loves sex, likes partying, and wants to experiment on everything and anything that is new. They are also viewed as mischievous people who cannot recognize the consequences of their actions and who are unwilling to think before they act (AD). In this paper, I have chosen to expound on a TV show that is very popular in America The Simpsons. This is a TV show created by Matt Groeing, a renowned cartoonist. According to Nielsen, The Simpsons is a show that is very popular among 12-17 year old boys. Hence it has a lot of impact and influences on young Americans. Though animated, this show contains heavy content that depicts adolescence in one way or another. It also depicts the characters, problems, and tribulations that the adolescents experience. I will base my arguments on Bart, the adolescent character of this show. The name Bart is an anagram from the word brat. He is the only son of Homer and Marge Simpson. He is the eldest and a brother to Maggie and Lisa Simpson. Bart is viewed as emotionally unsecured, disobedient, and rebellious person who will do anything to get recognition. He is also mischievous and disrespectful to the authority.

The influence of media on adolescents
Research findings carried out in America shows that the average time that young people spend watching television in America is 4 hours each day (Jamieson and Romer, 2008). With 109.6 million homes with TV and 54 of kids having a TV in their bedroom, it has been found out that kids spend more time watching television than in doing any other activity (Parentstv.org, 2009). On average, young people in America watches TV for around 25 hours per week.  Television shows and the media play a role in influencing the behaviors and characters of adolescents. This is mainly due to the fact that the media is full of sexual messages, violence, and drug abuse (Gaylan, 2009). The adolescents watching television shows or programs acted by adolescent actors are not as likely to be influenced by them compared to those shows acted by their favorite adult actors.

The Simpsons
Bart is a student at Springfield Elementary and he is constantly punished in class due to his disobedience. His hallmark characters include the prank calls he makes to Moe, the bartender, and the catchphrases he commonly uses like Eat my Shorts and Dont have a cow.  Within the first two seasons in 1989-1991, his characters were so popular, talked about, and even imitated. This captured the imagination of the audience such that Bartmania ensued. But his rebellious characters, attitude, and great pride towards his parents, who were underachievers, made many parents and educators view him as a bad role model to their children. A study titled Statistics on Children and Television (1995-1999) showed that 65 of the children who watched The Simpsons were encouraged to disrespect their parents. While this may be what some adolescents are, it does not necessarily represent an average American adolescent. It is out of this that a T-shirt reading Im Bart Simpson, who the hell are you was banned in schools. Bart was named one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century by Time Magazine. This in essence means that many adolescents were vulnerable to be influenced by his characters. His need to be in the limelight is portrayed by his jealous when his sister was born due to the attention that she received but he later warmed towards her when he discovered that the first word she said was Bart. This is a character portrayed by many adolescents who feel that their younger siblings are getting too much attention than them. His rudeness is seen even in school when he is confronted by the principal and he tells him, Eat my Shorts (Jean et al 1997). There is no documented evidence to show that adolescents used this catchphrase in school.

Just like many adolescents, his hobbies are watching TV, playing video games, skateboarding, and playing mischief. He also appears naked in the show though only his buttocks are visible and he likes skating while completely naked. No evidence to show that his adolescent fan did the same either at home or at school.

His rebellious attitude has made him a disruptive student. He is an under achiever but very proud of it. He is dumb and his sister proves that he is as dump as a hamster. He is in constant conflict with his teacher and the Principal. He gets into many troubles, he is sometimes sadistic, selfish, and shallow but on occasions he can show high integrity. He is smarter than his dad but he is always kept in check by his mum. It is because of his mischief and his dads uncaring and incompetent behavior that makes them have a turbulent relationship. Bart never calls Homer dad and in return Homer calls him the boy. His mother, Marge, calls him a handful, is caring, but she gets embarrassed by his antics (South Africa News 2, 2007). This is very common in many adolescent homes where the dad and the adolescent son have turbulent relationship. But the cause of this is usually not the children being influenced. If so, then we can say that even parents are prone to influence. His mother first felt she was over mothering him and hence began acting differently when Bart was caught shoplifting. He protested at her mothers over mothering but he later made it up to her when she changed her attitude. He is therefore ready to undergo humilitiation to please his mom. His mom understands him and is ready to defend her. This shows that the mothers are in constant defense of their children.

Bart as a role model
Bart is rebellious and often goes unpunished. This makes many parents view him as a bad role model for their children. He is the kind of child which the parents wish they had been but fear their children will become. He has outwitted his parents and outtalks his teachers (Bianco 1990). Educators say that he is a threat to learning because of being an under achiever and being proud of it and his attitude and negativity towards his education.

Conclusion
The main question we should ask ourselves is should everyone in television be a role model In real life, the adolescents come across many people that are not role models. So we should not expect TV to be full of them. Whatever behavior that the adolescents portray is a result of the environment, they grow in and the genes of their parents. So the lesson that we learn is that if the parents do not want their children to be like Bart, they should not act like Homer Simpson. We should all therefore understand that there are other forces that come into play to influence the behavior of the child and not only watching TV. Thus, adolescents do not necessarily ape the behaviors that they see on TV, but selectively incorporate just a few values that fit with their real life.