Psychology

Based on what you have learned in chapter three on attributions complete the following attribution scale and answer the question bellow it in no less than half-page double-spaced. Print out the completed attribution scale and submit it with your homework. For each of the following 20 pairs of traits, circle the one trait in each pair that is mostly a characteristic of you. If neither of the traits in a trait pair is the most characteristic, then indicate that by circling depends on the situation.

Serious Gay Depends on situation
Subjective Analytic Depends on situation
Future-oriented Present oriented Depends on situation
Energetic Relaxed Depends on situation
Unassuming Self-asserting Depends on situation
Lenient Firm Depends on situation
Reserved Emotionally expressive Depends on situation
Dignified Casual Depends on situation
Realistic Idealistic Depends on situation
Intense Calm Depends on situation
Skeptical Trusting Depends on situation
Quiet Talkative Depends on situation
Cultivated Natural Depends on situation
Sensitive Tough-minded Depends on situation
Self sufficient Sociable Depends on situation
Steady Flexible Depends on situation
Dominant Deferential Depends on situation
Cautious Bold Depends on situation
Uninhibited Self-controlled Depends on situation
Conscientious Happy-go-lucky Depends on situation

The results of the above exercise suggest that I am the type of person who attributes actions and behaviors to the situation at hand. It also implies that my personal disposition is greatly accounted to the circumstances that come my way. Personally, I think that I have a flexible personality, one that easily adapts to almost anything that may arise.  I can be quiet and reserved if the situation calls for it and can also be lively and interacting if it demands such. I guess I just have the tendency to be very observant that my actions are based on my understanding of the situation. I react as to how I perceive a given scenario to the best of my interpretation as to what it calls out for. Maybe this can also be attributed to the fact that I have the tendency to please other people and I seek for social approval. I believe that there are so many things to consider in making decisions other than yourself and in order to be at peace with myself and others, I just have to be sensitive with other peoples feelings, be open to other viewpoints, and be adaptable to whatever changes that may come.

Foot in the Door Phenomenon
The foot in the door phenomenon implies that a person is most likely to agree to bigger requests or tasks if he will agree on smaller tasks or requests at first. It explains that having a person agree to somebody elses terms is easier if that person willingly accepts smaller requests or favors the first time. For example, if you want your friend to carry out favor such as helping you out for setting up a party, you need to ask him or her to help you with the groceries first. If he or she agrees, then he or she is most likely to agree in helping you out in the entire preparation for the party. Basically, the foot in the door phenomenon describes the tendency of a person to step a bit closer to what the goals are without making intimidations to the other person. And if that particular person allows such move, then he is most likely to entertain other suggestions since he will be more drawn to the situation or the conversation.

Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance pertains to the overall feeling of discomfort that is brought about by a number of factors including frustration, guilt, anger, or embarrassment. The theory on cognitive dissonance suggests that when people were not able to meet their motivational drives as being brought about by inconsistencies in their actions, beliefs, and attitudes, they begin to justify and make rationalizations in an attempt to explain their behavior. For example, if a certain person says he a supporter human rights but pushes on death penalty because the victim happens to be somebody close to him, then, there is inconsistency in his beliefs. In this situation, this particular individual does not easily give up his beliefs but acts the opposite way. Another example would be those people who are believer of animal rights but eats animal meat. There is inconsistency in their beliefs and actions and in turn, they end up justifying their actions and their beliefs in order to alleviate their feeling of guilt and embarrassment. The most common example perhaps of cognitive dissonance is cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking. Almost everyone agree that smoking and drinking are both detrimental to ones health but a lot of those who believe also smokes and drinks. These are a clear example of inconsistency in belief and actions. In conclusion, dissonance is an induced compliance of a certain belief, action, idea, or attitude but with sufficient justification of the response when the actions itself are being inconsistent.

The emergence of counseling therapy as a recognized and recommended practice for helping victims of depressive illnesses and other psychological and social disorders has made it necessary to raise and implement standards while offering education to would-be therapists. Some educators have placed much emphasis on practical training while paying lesser attention to counseling theories (What Works in Therapy). However, for the practice of holistic therapy, a professional needs to have sufficient theoretical background and insight on counseling (Harold, 1992).

First and foremost, counseling theories give a therapist the foundation for recognizing a patients needs and thus aid him or her in developing personal theories and systematic approaches while dealing with him or her (Harold, 1992). It does not mean that a therapy practitioner will have to stick by a counseling theory, but the knowledge of such will enable him to pick case-specific elements from the various theories to build a base from which progress can be attained.

Secondly, a therapist with adequate theoretical background is able to develop factors that are significant for the success of his or her practice (What works in Therapy). Such background knowledge is essential in obtaining feedback from a client his or her experience and evaluation concerning the therapy and its progressive impact on him or her. Theoretical information also enables the therapist to know the importance and method of tapping into a clients world outside therapy (Andrews, 2007). Depressive illness and mental health patients who seek help do so from many sources beside therapy. A therapist with a good understanding of counseling theories will know how to determine what ways a client is seeking extra help and therefore be able to encourage him or her to utilize additional resources in his or her environment thus contributing towards increasing the success of therapy.

Psychotherapy is also referred to as personal counseling with a psychotherapist. It is a planned interpersonal relationship applied by a professional psychotherapist to help a client or a patient in problems related to life. The objective of this therapy is to improve the clients sense of their own happiness. Psychotherapist use various techniques which are dependent on experimental relationship building, conversation, communication and behavior change that are intended to improve the mental health of the client or to improve group associations.

There are various theories which have been put forward by various psychologists to improve the quality of psychotherapy services. They include psychoanalytic, Jungian and individual psychotherapy theories. This paper is going to compare and contrast these theories and discuss the concepts taught in each one of the theories.

Jungian theory
Jungs theory of neurosis is founded on the principle of a self regulating psyche composed of tensions between contrasting attitudes of the ego and the unconscious. A neurosis is a significant tension between the two attitudes at conflict. Each a neurosis is different from the other and therefore different things work in different cases and no universal therapeutic method can applied. However, Jung managed to handle some cases. In a situation where an individual is adjusted adequately to everyday life, but has lost sense in life, and lack religious believe to turn to. In such a case there appears to be no obvious method to solve the situation. In these cases Jung applied ongoing figurative communication from the insensible in the form of dreams and visions (Papadopoulos, 2006).

To provide a solution to the tension causing this type of neurosis, there is need to involve careful constructive study of the desires. The importance with which the individual can give to mythological aspects of desires can be compared to that importance believers give to their religion. It is not just an intellectual exercise, but needs the dedication of the person wholly and recognition that that the insensible is linked to life giving spiritual forces. Just a belief based on direct experience with this process is enough to oppose, balance, and adjust the mind-set of the ego (Murdock, 2009).

Psychoanalytic theory
This theory was developed by Sigmund Freud and others. It is involves study of human psychological functioning and behavior, but can also be applied to societies. In this kind of therapy, the patient verbalizes thoughts, including free relations, desires, and thoughts which enable the analyst to formulate the unconscious conflicts which are causing the signs seen in the patient and character observed. The analyst then interprets them for the patient to develop a strategy for solving the problems. Analyst intervenes by confronting and clarifying the clients problematic excuses, desires, and blame.  Through the analysis of conflicts, psychotherapy can explain that patients unconsciously are their own enemies, and how they cause the signs seen (Slavik,  Carlson, 2006).

Individual psychology theory
It can also mean differential psychology or psychology of individual differences. It focuses mainly on individual and environmental factors. According to this theory, a person has to fight three forms of forces which are societal, love related, and vocational forces. The ability to fight these forces determines the personality of the individual. Alder theory was founded on childhood development of a person. He emphasized on hated children, physical deformities at birth, birth order, and others (Cherry, 2010).

There seems to be no clear similarities between the above theories of psychotherapy. In psychoanalytic theory, the analyst is just involved in interpretation of unconscious conflicts for the patient to see the solution to his problems. In individual psychology, much emphasis is put on pre adulthood development and situations which can causes mental illness like birth deformities and others. Jung applied ongoing figurative communication from the unconscious in the form of dreams and visions since these are the causes of tension (Murdock, 2009).

There are several concepts that can be derived from the above theories. They include individual solutions to the problems by identification of the unconscious self enemy as is explained in psychoanalytic theory focus on childhood problems which can culminate in mental problems and application of symbolic communication from the unconscious in form of dreams and visions.

Over the past few decades, there has been a growing trend toward offering self assessment for psychological problems. Self-assessment tools can be found in many places, ranging from self-help books, magazine articles, to a growing number of websites. These sources at times contain helpful information and at times they contain exaggerated information from those who created tools aimed at telling people who they are deep inside and how they can get a perfect mate. These sources also contain information that people can use to evaluate their psychological wellbeing. On the other hand, some offer up a few questions to point you to further information if you might need it. As these types of self assessment opportunities grow, we have to start asking ourselves whether elf assessment is well supported by evidence, how it compares with assessment done by professionals, appropriateness of self assessment as well as who should carry out self assessment.  

Introduction
The process through which people learn more about their bodies is referred to as self psychological assessment. Through self assessment people get to learn what they like, what they do not like, and how they react to certain situations. People also get to know how a person who is not suffering from any psychological disorder behaves and how people suffering from psychological problems behave in the society. Knowing these things helps a person determine the type of job heshe can hold and also determine whether heshe is suffering from or is at risk of developing a psychological disorder. There exist various assessment tools that help individuals to easily measure a particular aspect of them. These tools are used for measuring personal interests, skills, personality and values. Tools for self assessment may be easily administered by an individual or require interpretive support. Self directed tools are designed in such a way that a person can use it and review hisher results without the help of a trained or licensed person to interpret the data. Tools requiring interpretive assistance mean that results obtained from assessment need to be talked about with a person who is trained for that purpose in order to make them understandable. Self assessment is an ongoing process. People asses how they manage various tasks in their life, people also evaluate whether they are doing what they are supposed to, saying and doing what they should and also acting the way they are supposed to. In particular psychological problems for example depression self assessment is generally critical and negative. When a mistake occurs in the life of a person heshe is most likely to think they have messed up and they are of no benefit. People start blaming themselves as the cause of all problems. During depression phase people tend to take responsibility for all that goes wrong. They also tend to give credit to other people for things that turn out the way they are intended. Psychologists believe that self assessment in depressed persons is too critical and only lowers their self esteem in addition to aggravating their sense of failure. People often experience problems in finding the right tool to help them in a particular situation. As a result people turn to books, magazines, journals and the internet in search of the right assessment tool. Psychological assessment tools are developed in many varying ways. There are those which are better than others.

Although assessments can be helpful tools if used properly and considerately, people are advised not to rely on the results of an assessment without taking critical consideration of the source of these assessments and the limits of their explanation. The explanation of certain results of particular assessments should be critically evaluated because some of them may not exactly apply to an individual. These explanations may also fail to provide specific answers to certain queries. If explanations of certain test raise doubts they should be used with the assistance of trained psychological health personnel.

Self assessment
Self assessment is the process through which people look at their self so as to measure up features that a person may find beneficial to hisher identity or determine the presence of a particular psychological disorder. People often use self assessment to their uncertain self-features instead of using it to verify their certain self-aspects. People may also use self assessment to improve the confidence of their own self understanding. People who use self assessment are interested in the appropriateness of their present self view. Many people do not use self assessment in order to improve their current self concept. Over reliance on self assessment may lead to destruction of self esteem. There are numerous psychological tests designed to evaluate various features of a persons mental capability, personality, and psychological wellbeing among other things. It is very important that a person be able to identify the most effective test among many that exist. Self assessment, feedback of peers, as well as interpretation of outcomes by a qualified person are important components that increase the level of self awareness leading to personal development and growth inclined toward certain behaviors. Beneficial self assessment instruments are contain well validated as well as researched personality styles.

There is research evidence to support the effectiveness of self assessment.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders developed by the American Psychological Association is one of the most researched criteria that is utilized in development of self assessment tools. This manual is a tool that psychologists cannot do without. The efficiency of psychological assessments contained in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders relies on the know-how of the psychologist administering thee tests. However, these assessments are exceedingly dependable, and have been set up so as to offer very precise results. IQ test is one of the most commonly used psychological tests. Aptitude tests have been in existence for over a century. Psychological batteries are the other forms of psychological tests utilized in identifying personality traits that are common. These tests appear everywhere from magazines to the DSM IV. These tests function by classifying people into various groups. True character type assessment can be very beneficial in shedding light concerning a persons beliefs and habits. One of the studies in the area of self assessment was conducted by Constantine Sedikides in 1993. He conducted a research aimed at revealing the functions of various self assessment motives. Sedikides conducted successive studies on the subject of self assessment.

Psychological health professionals conduct psychological assessments in order to determine the outcome of behavioral health treatment. Their interest and focus on result of assessment can be traced to the unending quality improvement movement. In health circles results of psychological assessment have multiple purposes. Health care providers looking for contracts from third party players must present outcome data often showing the efficiency of their services. They are also required to provide data illustrating satisfaction of their patients with the services they have been offered. Knowledge obtained from these results can be used as a base for improvement of services offered by psychologists. As an advantage to the patient psychological assessment conducted by a professional offers a means of determining how much improvement heshe has made from the time treatment was initiated up to the time treatment was stopped. Psychological assessment by a professional allows feedback of information an aspect that greatly improves a patients self-esteem as well as self confidence. These feedbacks also serve as indicators to the patient of the need to go on with treatment. During assessment doctors use various methods in the process of assessment for psychological problems. Professionals usually ask several questions regarding the condition of the patient. Psychological professionals are better than self assessment techniques because they provide a two way process through which additional information can be shared concerning the patients problem and ways for proper diagnosis devised. Professionals ask a patient how long heshe have been living with a particular psychological problem. This plays a major role of determining whether a problem is chronic or acute. Professionals also ask a patient what kind of psychological symptoms heshe may be experiencing. They also enquire of the time certain symptoms become severe. They also ask patients whether they experience suicidal thoughts. This helps greatly in determining the suicidal risk of a person. People have a chance to talk psychologists in case they experience various symptoms of a particular psychological disorder. Self assessment on the other hand rely on a set of formulated conditions that a patients counter measures hisher psychological symptoms with. A patient is not given a chance to say how heshe is feeling. Self assessments many be overly critical as compared to assessment by a psychologists thereby leading to development of depression by a person and sustaining it. Cognitive therapy can be used to assist a depressed person recognize serious and minor life problems. It can also be used to assist in establishing positive life goals as well as a more positive self psychological assessment.

Self assessment is a very important way of helping people determine whether they are suffering from or are at risk of developing depression. Women are particularly prone to depression than men. This is as a result of biological, cultural, as well as psychosocial factors.  It is therefore very important that women keep an eye on their moods, take regular self assessments and identify factors that could increase their risk of developing depression. Self assessment instruments related to depression include stress, depression, and anxiety among others. Depression has got numerous causes and influences people in varying ways. There are those who undergo sleepless nights, feel sad, become aggressive and there are those who become socially withdrawn. Although these symptoms do not last for long there are times when they last for a very long period of time. Self assessment tests are very important in cases where there are no possible blood tests. Depression is one of these cases. Blood test or X-rays cannot be conducted to verify presence of depression. The most effective way of making a diagnosis of major depression is through careful evaluation of how a person is feeling. These feelings are then discussed with a psychologist who determines whether a person is suffering from depression or not. There are various facts about depression that self assessment is based on. One of them is that depression is a physical disorder which is more common in women as compared to men. Some people develop depression as a result of genetic predisposition. Depression is usually triggered by traumatic factors as well as stress. Depression people have a high tendency of committing suicide.  Self assessment tools are taken as medical exams which are only allowed in some circumstances.

Psychologists are the most qualified people to develop self assessment tools. These are people who are qualified in the area psychological disorders that affect people. These people have carried out numerous psychological assessments and are therefore competent in that area. Psychologists usually administer and interpret information obtained from various psychological tests. Authorized authors, publishers, and professionals are the ones who should come up with self assessment tools. Professionals are supposed to provide proof of their qualifications before they release certain tests.  Regarding use of psychological tests, professionals should provide proof that they have undergone some form of specialized training and have been certified by authorized psychologists. People are advised to make sure they do not rely on assessment tests provided by unauthorized sources. There are those people as well as organizations that will spread information regarding personal assessment tests with intent of making money rather than helping people identify particular psychological problems. Based on the shift from a mental health line of work to that of a health profession, authors advocate self assessment technique for individual psychologists to measure their readiness to offer professional services in their area of practice.

There are various factors that people ought to look at before engaging in a self assessment program. One of them is legitimacy of the source of information. People should critically evaluate the authenticity of the author of self assessment tests before undertaking them. The other thing that people should consider before taking on a self assessment program is the seriousness of the psychological condition. Some mental conditions are so severe that real benefits can only be obtained through professionals. Psychological disorders such as major depression and bipolar disorder require the intervention of a professional.

Although self assessment can be used to determine whether a person is showing symptoms of a particular psychological disorder such as depression, it can not be used to diagnose a psychological disorder. Psychologists and doctors are the only ones who can diagnose a person with psychological disorders. Self assessment tools are taken as medical exams which are only allowed in some circumstances. These tools are not heavily relied upon by psychologists in their process of diagnosis. It requires knowledge to properly interpret information and results of a particular self assessment tool. Some of these tools require specialized training as well as experience to administer and interpret accurately. Requirements of self assessment tools vary broadly depending on the specific tools being used.  Self assessment however, provides information that aid in identifying a psychological impairment or disorder. They are useful to some extent, because they assist in eliminating adverse mental cases. Self assessments offer an inexpensive way of determining whether a person is suffering from a mental disorder. Professional helpers are at times very expensive and rarely available. Professionals also have a limit in terms of what they can provide. Self assessments come in hardy and offer a wide range of information that is readily available. Self assessments also help people deal with various psychological conditions without having to visit a professional.

Conclusion
There has been a growing trend toward offering self assessment for psychological problems over the last few years. Magazines, websites, and self help books are some of the sources of self assessment tools for psychological problems. Self assessment of psychological problems is the process through which people learn more about various psychological abnormalities that may affect them.  There exists various personal assessment tools that help determine whether a person is having or is at risk of developing a psychological disorder. Tools for self assessment are either administered by an individual or by a professional. People often experience problems in finding the right tool to help them in a particular situation. As a result people turn to books, magazines, journals and the internet in search of the right assessment tool. These tools provide information and explanation concerning a particular psychological disorder. The explanation of results certain assessments however, should be critically evaluated because some of them may not exactly apply to an individual. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders developed by the American Psychological Association is one of the most researched criteria that is utilized in development of self assessment tools. In self assessments patients are not given a chance to say how there are feeling. Self assessments many be overly critical as compared to assessment by a psychologists thereby leading to development of depression by a person and sustaining it. Psychologists are the most qualified people to develop self assessment tools. They have a wide range of knowledge concerning various psychological disorders. Before people undertake various self assessments they should critically evaluate the authenticity of the source of information as well as its writer.   Even though self assessment may be useful in determining whether a person is suffering from a certain mental disorder they cannot be over relied upon during diagnosis.  Self assessment however, provides information that aid in identifying a psychological impairment or disorder. They are useful to some extent, because they assist in eliminating adverse mental cases.

The science of psychology, which deals with the study of behavior and mental processes and their application to the lives of an individual and the society at large, takes its roots in the beginning of human history (Benjamin pg. 1). During this point in time, psychology was merely an observation of the things that occurred in the environment, and it was not until Wilhelm Wundt s establishment of the first experimental psychology laboratory in 1879 that the perspectives of the new or modern psychology were developed (Benjamin pg.1). Such kind of psychological perspectives are different from the traditional beliefs because they are not only based on the philosophical nature of psychology, concepts which try to explain the nature of the soul and free will, but are more concerned on the scientific basis of various psychological concepts (Benjamin pg. 1).

The new psychology of today is actually grounded on the experimental nature of explaining daily phenomena and the recognition of the societal role of modern psychologists (Benjamin pg. 1) as individuals who delve into the various fields such as cognitive psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, developmental and educational psychology, forensic psychology, health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, neuropsychology, and social psychology ( Modern Psychology ). In this manner, it can be inferred that followers of the new psychology make use of both study and practice to further enrich and improve psychological concepts and to apply their knowledge on practical aspects of living like the legal issues, health and wellness, interpersonal relationships, and neurological disorders ( Modern Psychology ).

Hence, modern psychology has branched out from its traditional objective of the pursuit of pure psychological knowledge to the application of these gathered information for immediate and practical benefit. It also introduces the idea that psychology is a dynamic field which can be applied to everyday living in order to elevate the quality of life with respect to the understanding of self perception and environmental interrelationships.

Effective parenting leading to the upbringing of disciplined and virtuous children begins with being able to communicate with them in a manner that instills the values the parent would wish (Kaine, 2010). In fact, communication is the most essential component of relationships. Effective parents talk to their children effectively so that they understand them better, establishing a conducive environment in which both parties understand each other. Any conversation is conducted in an ideal environment where there is no disturbance or interference so that it engages the full attention of both parent and child (Kendall  DeGangi, 2008). It is necessary first to hear what a child or a teenager has to say talking too much without hearing them is counterproductive and only leads to them feeling misunderstood, undermined and underappreciated (Kaine, 2010).

Another component in effective communication is concentrating on approaches that help build the self esteem of a child without putting him or her down (Kaine, 2010). This can be accomplished by referring to the positive things the child has done or accomplished in the past so that a tone is set to base further discussion on. Dwelling on the positives first makes a child feel appreciated and lets it engage the inner conscience, naturally experiencing the undesirable consequences of its unbecoming actions (Kaine, 2010). It is only through such reflections that meaningful change of behavior and attitude can be achieved and maintained.

Besides effective communication, parents need to effectively discipline their children, to put in place a set of rules and guidelines backed up with reasons of reinforcing them. Children are adventurous and disobedient by nature and they need to be told and taught why they should do one thing and not do another. The reason or motivation should not be presented as an avenue of exerting parental authority (Raspberry, 1998). For example if a child wants to hit another and the parent tells him or her to stop, the reason should not be because I said stop On the contrary, if the child is told to stop the aggression because he or she would not like to be hit, there is likely to be more positive results.

Effective parents should avoid making rules on the spot if they are not to become a joke to their children (Raspberry, 1998). Children need to be involved in the rule-making process so that they can understand the reason behind them and know the positive and negative reasons both for abiding by them and going against them. The rewards for exemplary behavior could be presents or gifts, while the negative consequences of breaking any element of the set rules could be time-outs  whereby a child is isolated from its natural and preferred setting and informed that that is the consequence of misdemeanor (Kendall,  DeGangi, 2008).

There has been a lot of debate and controversy surrounding the use of spanking as a means of instilling discipline. The fact remains that spanking done while enraged produces an angry reaction from the child, making it more defiant and resistant to the diplomatic approaches to discipline instillation (Kendall  DeGangi, 2008). Furthermore, continuous corporal punishment makes a child immune to physical pain (Kendall  DeGangi, 2008). In most cases, a child frequently punished by spanking ends up developing low self esteem and a negative attitude towards the parents and the society in general. The most effective parent disciplinarians use the democratic approach (Kaine, 2010). A child is taught from an early age the expectations his or her parents have, meting of appropriate punishments and rewards for commendable behavior and acts. From such an approach, children learn how to have and exercise self control, make informed choices and decisions, and become outgoing and independent.

My nephew, now 7 years-old, is handsome. In fact, if I were to be asked, I would say that he stands out as the most handsome toddler from among his male-siblings and cousins. Perhaps, because he is handsome, his childhood was peppered with attention and favors from his family. But when he turned 4, and the time for him to attend primary schooling started, things turned out quite differently. It would be learned that he had strains of mental retardation. He was not really within the borders of what we may call mentally retarded or autistic. But his evident difficulty in grasping even the most basic of skills and reasoning proved to be sure catalyst for stigma, both for him and his mother, who by the way became a widow before she turned 28.

Scope of the Paper
What I intend to do in this paper is to capitalize on my experiences to build up concise analysis of the impacts of stigma, specifically that which pertains to the sufferings which my nephew and his mother experienced on account of his mental retardation. As such, this paper is not a full-dress thesis on the impact of stigma to little children and parents. Instead, what I intend to do is to explicate and  most importantly  validate the key concepts which I shall be gathering from research and personal understanding of stigma and prejudice.

Stigma and the Suffering It Breeds
Stigma can be defined and described in many ways. But what is enduring in all its characterizations is that stigma has something to do with disgrace or reproach in ones reputation (The American Heritage, 2010). This stems from the fact that the prejudiced connotations rendered to persons with disabilities do engender the development of a whole range of prejudice, intolerance and preconception, which in turn merely contribute to the marginalization of those deemed fit or belonging to the said label (Mason, 2001, p. 18). As such therefore, stigma is essentially related with prejudice and discrimination. Hardcastle and Hardcastle (2003) moreover note that people with mental problems are more vulnerable to experiencing morbidity in the manner by which they are being treated (p.3).

My little nephews mental retardation did not fully manifest until he attended pre-K schooling. While there were already serious concerns raised in view of his delayed speech and his abnormally high level of preponderance to lonesomeness, the way by which he was treated as a little toddler was comparably the same as with his other siblings and cousins. However, as soon as my nephews pre-K teachers recommended formal tests to verify his gradually manifesting mental retardation, attitudes towards him began to slowly change. I have known of adults who have deliberately referred to him as that little retard, inasmuch I once saw many of his playmates calling him by derogatory labels. I was therefore a witness to the unfortunate radical change of treatment towards my nephew  i.e., from being the favored handsome little toddler to that little retard sitting quietly in one corner of the room.

It would be difficult to present the many factors which can help explain why people stigmatize differently-able people. But Heatherton, et. al., contend that, because group living is highly adaptive for human survival and gene transmission, people will stigmatize those individuals whose characteristics and actions are seen as threatening or hindering the effective functioning of groups (2000, p. 34.). And I find this observation very true in the case of my nephew. In many incidences, I have seen well-meaning people asking the mother about the future of the little boy. Many relatives have, in fact, pointed out the grim prospects of the boys future life i.e., questions like What kind of work would he have, or Can he handle serious relationships, or Would he make a good husband are commonly asked.

But the severe impact stigma is surely not limited to the outward ugly perception of the world against certain individuals manifesting strains of mental or physical challenges. According to the Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, the stigmatization of the patient with mental illness (can) extend to family members insofar as coping with stress, created by other peoples reaction, can become problematic at times (2010, n.p.). I can resonate with my experience to validate this observation pretty well. The stress which stigmas generate for the boys mother did prove to be a little too bearing at times. It is not uncommon for her to literally drag my nephew away from his playmates who have developed a habit of ridiculing him. As indeed, it would appear to me that she has developed an unconscious habit of defending her sons reputation, in manner being behaviorally rough, when she figures in a heated conversation about her son.

Conclusion and Realizations
I wish to end this paper with an affirmation that societal stigmas against mentally challenged individuals do present serious problems for them and their families. In my experience, I have seen the seeming systematic marginalization of my nephew and the equally burdensome stress which his condition impinges upon his mother. Herein, I realized that my experiences have validated the concepts and theories which I have gained from my short research. In other words, I do in fact agree for most part with the concepts that were quoted in the study, insofar as my experiences with my nephews mental retardation have validated them. Furthermore, I have come to realize the ugly ramifications of stigmas, both for those discriminated against, as well as for their immediate families and wish that, inasmuch as I am aware of the sufferings of my nephew and his mother, I may not add more insults to the already injurious wounds severely suffered by those who have been prejudiced by the society on account of the unfortunate conditions.