Psychology

QUANTITATIVE (Statistical) Studies Only
This Methodology Review Form, version 3.0, must be completed and reviewed before writing the dissertation proposal. In the Harold Abel School of Psychology (HASOP), its satisfactory completion satisfies dissertation milestone 5, indicating that the proposal has passed scientific merit review, part of the IRB process.

Before going any further, review carefully the Methodology Form Instructions, v3.0, available on iGuide. (Academics  Program Resources  Dissertation  New Dissertation Process  Milestone Resources and Forms) It will be difficult to complete the MRF without using the Instructions.

Specialization Chairs Approval after Section 1
When you have completed Section 1, send the MRF to your mentor for review. When your mentor feels it is ready, he or she sends it to your specialization Chair. The Chair approves the topic as appropriate within your specialization. You then go on to the remaining sections.

Do not keep working on later sections until you receive your mentors and specialization Chairs approvals of Section 1. If the topic is disapproved, all your work on later sections will be for naught. Instead, work on the proposals Chapter Two, which describes the dissertation literature reviews.

Ratings
No grades are attached to this MRF. The ratings are designed to help the MRF reviewers show how your designs compare with research design standards in HASOP. An overall rating of 7 (on a 10-scale) suggests the study meets basic design standards in psychology and in HASOP. MRFs not reaching that level will usually be revised for a second review.

Dos and Donts
Do use the correct form This MRF is for QUANTITATIVE designs (statistical analysis). For a qualitative-only or a mixed methods study, use that form.
Do prepare your answers in a separate Word document. Editing and revising will be easier.
Set font formatting to Times New Roman, 11 point, regular style font or Arial, 10 point, regular style font. Use the Format menu.
Do set paragraph indentation (Format menu) for no indentation, no spacing.
Do copypaste items into the right-hand fields when they are ready.
Dont delete the descriptions in the left column
Dont lock the form. That will stop you from editing and revising within the form.
Do complete the Learner Information (A.) of the first table, and Section 1 first. Write the title (Item 4) last in Section 1. (It may need revision later when you name variables.).
Dont work beyond Section 1 until your Specialization Chair approves the topic.
Dont skip items or sections. If an item does not apply to your study, type NA in its field.
Do read the item descriptions and their respective Instructions carefully. Items request very specific information. Be sure you understand what is asked. (Good practice for IRB)
Do use primary sources to the greatest extent possible as references. Textbooks (Patton, Leedy and Ormrod, etc.) are not acceptable as the only references supporting methodological and design choices. Use them to track down the primary sources.
Do submit a revised MRF if, after approval, you change your design elements. It may not need a second review, but should be on file before your IRB is submitted.

A.  Learner and Program Information
(to be completed by Researcher)Researcher NameResearcher EmailMentor NameMentor EmailSpecializationSpec Chair Email

B.  Mentor and Specialization Chair Approval Title  Topic Approval
(To be completed by Mentor and Specialization Chair when Items 1-4 are complete)Mentors
Insert your electronic signature here to certify approval of topic (Items 1-4 only), and forward to Chair.
Signature
DateChairs
Please insert your electronic signature to certify that topic and title are appropriate to your specialization and return to Mentor.
Signature

DateMRF Reviewer
Insert electronic signature here when approving scientific merit (per IRB).
Signature

C. Methodology Review Information (Reviewer use only)Reviewer Name DateDecision
7.00 or higher  Approved
6.00-6.99  Provisional ApprovalMinor Revisions
5.99 or lower  Deferred for major revisionsDate of First ReviewDate of Second ReviewDate of Third ReviewFINAL SUMMATIVE RATING                                          
________FINAL SCIENTIFIC MERIT STATUS
(Psychology Research Support to Complete this section) Approved (7.00 or higher)Provisional Approval (work with committee) (6.00-6.99)Deferred for revisions (below 6.00)
RESEARCHERS Review carefully the Methodology Review Form Instructions, v. 3.0, before you complete this form. The Instructions are available on iGuide for your use, and will save you much heartache

Section 1.  Research Problem, Significance, Question(s), Title Quantitative
(Chapter 1, Sections A, B, C, D, F  of Proposal)1.1 Research Problem (Chapter 1, Sec. A and B)
State the research problem your study will investigate, including its background . See Instructions.This study is based on research and findings presented by Buunk, Park, and Dubbs (2008) in their paper titled Parent-Offspring Conflict in Mate Preferences. Interviews conducted invited inquiry into love-based v. arranged marriage, long and short term relationships between men and women, anthropological and sociological considerations, reproductive interests, culture, religion, socio-economic status, educational background, physical attractiveness, athleticism, parental control, and more. The research approach for this paper will be quantitative.  The breadth and depth of this research has spanned across many cultures, languages, and decades of history. The research question follows.

1.2 Purpose of the Research (Chapter 1, Sec. C)
State the purpose of the study. Typically, the purpose is to contribute to knowledge and solve the research problem. See Instructions.The purpose of the research is to have homo sapiens attempted to influence the mating results of their children or offspring

1.3 Significance of the Problem.
(Chapter 1  Section D)
Describe the significance of your studys investigation of the research problem.  Include a statement of the studys particular significance to the field of psychology. See Instructions.This study and its findings are relevant in the discussion of, and formulation of further questions, regarding the selection of mating partners, especially the differing criteria used for such between parents and their offspring. The intended audience is clinical professional psychology personnel and students of clinical psychology. The findings from this extensive body of research across a variety of cultures and continents will contribute to the understanding of how those mating decisions are made.

1.4 Research Question
(Chapter 1  Section F)
Write out your research question. If there are sub-questions or more than one, number them accordingly. See Instructions.Do parental opinions or values play a role in their childrens mating habits

1.5 Dissertation Title
Do not write the title until Items 1.1-1.4 are complete. See Instructions.
ParentOffspring Conflict in Mate PreferencesRATINGS for Section 1.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your comments.Reviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments.
DISSERTATION RESEARCHERS  STOP

If this MRF is for your real dissertation (after comps), forward Section 1 to your Mentor for review and for Specialization Chairs Approval.
DO NOT COMPLETE ANY MORE SECTIONS UNTIL YOUR SPECIALIZATION CHAIR HAS APPROVED YOUR TOPIC

Section 2.     Overall Methodology and Approach Quantitative
(Chapter 1, Section E of Prospectus)DISSERTATION RESEARCHERS Do not complete remaining sections until the mentor and the Specialization chair have approved the first four items by inserting their signatures. See Instructions.2.1 Research Design
(Chapter 1, Section E)

Describe your research design in words. See Instructions.The research employed a quasi experimental mechanism involving of randomly selected participants put in to five groups based on cultural considerations. The analysis was done by use of means and t-tests for testing consistency. Data collection was done using questionnaires.2.2  Approach
(Chapter 1, Section E)  Quantitative approaches include experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimentaldescriptive. Please state the approach, then how it is consistent with your research problemquestion. See Instructions for details.Quasi experimental approach was employed because the grouping of participants was not done randomly they were grouped to take in to account their cultural affiliations.2.3  Methodological Model (Chapter 1, Sec. E)

If using a particular quantitative model (e.g., structural equation modeling or a specific kind of regression analysis), describe it here. If not, type NA. See Instructions for details.NA2.4  Rationale
(Chapter 1, Sec. E).

Discuss how your design is suited to answering your research question. See Instructions for details.Temporal sequencing for the research question is qualitative then quantitative. The qualitative characteristics represent the preferences of the participants quantifying the preferences provides measurable way of evaluation.

RATINGS for Section 2.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your comments.Reviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments

Section 3.  Framework, Constructs, Variables, Operational Definitions Quantitative
(Chapters One and Three of  Prospectus)3.1 Theoretical Framework
(Chap. 1, Sec. G Chap. 2, Sec. B)

Describe the psychological theory base that guides or focuses this study or defines the constructs it will investigate. See Instructions.The research is guided by sexual selection theory.  The research seeks to establish preference the extent of preference conflicts between parents and children on mate selection.3.2 Unit(s) of Analysis
(Chapter 1, Section E)

Describe the unit(s) of analysis for this study. Typically, the unit of analysis will be individual or group. Multiple research questions may require different units of analysis.  See Instructions.The preferred characteristics for the potential mate will form the analysis unit. The research analyzed between 22 and 28 research units to determine  3.3  Constructs
(Chapter One, Sections F and H)

Define each construct required by the research question and title. Provide citations showing your theoretical framework. Number each construct. See Instructions.The researchs aim was to establish parental-offspring conflict in sexual selection. For this purpose the research classified the characteristics in to three broad categories so that the research questions established the role played by characteristics related to
Heritable fitness.
Parental investment and cooperation
Additional characteristics3.4 Variables (Definitions of Constructs as variables)
(Chapter 1, Sec. F and H)

Define each construct (in Item 3.3) as a variable. Provide citations to theoretical framework or previous research supporting the selection of variable type. See Instructions.Heritable fitness This was broken down to characteristics that define heritable fitness. These include body size, creativity, physical fitness etc. Each of these attributes was assigned a value between 1 and 7, 1 representing the highest level of unacceptability to the offspring and 7 being the highest unacceptability for the parent. The participants would then fill in the questionnaire using the assigned values to reflect their perception regarding the parameters.

Parental investment and cooperation also used the same scale of 1 to 7 but with different units of analysis. The units used for this included family background, religious beliefs, social class education and so on.

Additional qualities are those qualities outside the constructs but which the researchers felt played a crucial role in the selection process. Examples include attitude, illness (mental or physical), virginity and temperament. 3.5  Operational Definitions
(Chapter 1, Sec. F and H)

Present an operational definition for each construct you will measure (with citations for published measures). See Instructions.Heritable fitness The analyses were done based on the samples 1-5. Each of the 5 samples was analyzed by finding a mean value for all the 22 units of analysis. The mean then acted as the measure with those units having a mean less than the overall mean denoting traits unacceptable to offspring while those with means above the overall mean being most unacceptable to parents.

Parental investment and cooperation The process was similar only that the items under consideration were those units that connoted this characteristic.

Additional characteristics They were also analyzed using the same criteria only that they had unit means that show unacceptability to both parent and offspring.3.6 Relationships among Variables
(Chapter 1, Sec. F and H)

State the relationships between or among variables. Ensure consistency with research question and title. See Instructions.

The variables are independent of each other.

RATINGS for Section 3.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your comments.Reviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments.

Section 4.  Population and Sampling Quantitative
(Chapter One, Section E and Chapter Three, Section C)4.1  The Population
(Chapter 3, Section C)

Describe the larger group (population) of people, animals, or data in which your study is interested. Do NOT describe the actual sample here. See Instructions.College-age youths from culturally diverse backgrounds4.2 The Sample
(Chap. 1, Sec. E Chap. 3, Sec. C)

Describe the characteristics of your sample, including (A) demographics, (B) inclusion criteria if any (C) exclusion criteria if any. See Instructions. Ethnically and culturally diverse
Aged between 18 and 25

4.3 Sampling Procedures
(Chapter 3, Section C)

Describe in detail the (A) recruiting, (B) selecting, and (C) assigning-to-groups procedures you will follow for obtaining participants (your sample). Include citation(s) supporting the sampling methods. See Instructions. Each of the samples was recruited differently
Sample 1 was recruited using the internet. The questionnaires were sent to them via mail and their responses tied to their course requirements. The questionnaire was administered in Dutch.
Sample 2 was approached by exchange student and given questionnaires to fill. The questionnaire was administered in English.

Sample 3 was approached via youth organizations by research assistants, who then delivered and collected questionnaires for them to fill. The research assistants did the translations for this group, their questionnaires were translated to Dutch.

Sample 4 participated in a lab study that had the questionnaire relating to the research as one of the tasks. The questionnaire was administered in Dutch.

Sample 5 were approached by the third author at the Arizona College and requested to fill the questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered in English.4.4 Sample Size
(Chapter 3, Section C)

Provide anticipated sample size, how it was calculated, and why it is appropriate for your research question. See Instructions.The research sample size was 768 and was so because the issues being investigated are subjective thus needing a large sample size.

4.5  Rationale
(Chap 3, Section CD)
Describe how selection procedures and sample size are consistent with research question. Indicate resources consulted to make these decisions. See Instructions The rationale was to have as many cultures as possible represented. For that reason, the learning institutions provided the best opportunity for achieving the diversity.4.6 Ethical Considerations
(45 CFR 46 APA Ethical Principles)

Identify ethical issues involved in sampling procedures. (Key Belmont principle equity) (IRB Application will describe how they are dealt with.) See Instructions) Consent was sought from all participants as a first step.  There were no cash or material incentives for the participants and thus the question of equity based on that does not arise. All participants were subjected to the same process of sampling and analysis.RATINGS for Section 4.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your commentsReviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments
Section 5.    Hypotheses and Data Types Quantitative
(Chapter 1, Section F  Chapter 3, Sections E, F, )5.1 Restate research question(s).
Copy and paste Item 1.3. Include each sub-question, numbered sequentially.Do parental opinions or values play a role in their childrens mating habits5.2 Quantitative Hypotheses
(Chap. 1, Sec. F Chap. 3, Sec. E, F)

For each quantitative sub-question (sub-Q), list hypotheses for their investigation. Give nulls and alternates for each sub-Q. For descriptive studies using no null, state the research hypothes(es) and complete Item 5.2a, below. Number hypotheses to match their sub-questions. See Instructions.Hypothesis

Children may have relative preference for mates with traits indicative of heritable fitness, whereas parents have preference for mated with traits indicative of parental investment and cooperation with the ingroup.5.2a Rationale No Null

If no null hypothesis is proposed, provide a rationale here. If not applicable, type NA.The research design is two tailed since failure of the hypothesis results in a new hypothesis. 5.3  Type(s) of Data
Complete the table rows for each hypotheses-set numbered in Item 5.2. Insert cursor in first cell, type , then simply Tab from cell to cell. If more rows are needed, use enter key to add rows within the last row.

Hypothesis Variable NameData type (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio)Variable NameData type (categorical, ordinal, interval, or ratio)1Heritable qualitiesOrdinal Parental investment and cooperation ordinal RATINGS for Section 5.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your commentsReviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments
Section 6. Measures, Field Tests, Data Collection, and Analysis Quantitative
(Chapters One, Section F  Chapter Three, Sections E, F, )6.1 Measures
(Chap. 1, Sec. F Chap. 3, Sec. D, E, F)

List (by sub-question number) and describe each data collection instrument or measurement tool you will use. Include (A) citations for published measures, (B) data type(s) generated by each measure, and (C) available psychometric information (including validity  reliability coefficients). See Instructions.Field testing was used6.2  Field Testing
(Chap 3, Sec. D, E)

Describe any field test of any instruments. Field tests must be done (A) for new instruments, and (B) with expert panelists. Field tests require no IRB review required. (Pilot studies with participants do.) See InstructionsA scale was set up ranging from 1-7 for each of the units under analysis.6.3 Data Collection Procedures
(Chap. 1, Sec. F Chap. 3, Sec. D)
List and describe the procedures you will use to collect your data.  See Instructions.Questionnaires were handed to the participants.
They were informed of the confidentiality with which the results would be treated.
They were given a choice of filling them on the spot or filling them away at a place and time of their choice, provided they stayed within a certain time limit.6.4 Ethical Considerations
(45 CFR 46 APA Ethical Principles)
Describe any ethical issues about data collection procedures. (How they will be managed will be discussed in IRB Application.) (Key Belmont principle beneficence,  i.e., riskbenefit analysis). See Instructions. The participants were asked not indicate their names on the questionnaires, instead, they were asked to indicate ethnic origin and age.
There was not cash inducement.
Those who felt uncomfortable filling the questionnaires in the room were given the option of filling them elsewhere.
The questionnaires were structured in an easy to understand format.6.5 Statistical Analysis
(Chap. Three, Sec. G)

Describe the statistics to be used for each hypothesis or research sub-question. Number each according to the hypothesis numbers in Item 5.2. See Instructions.The hypothesis was analyzed using the arithmetic mean. The variables to be analyzed are few and given that they are both independent of each other, an arithmetic mean would suffice. A t-test was however necessary to test the consistency of the data.RATINGS for Section 6.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your commentsReviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments

Section 7. Researchers Critical Analysis of Design Quantitative
(Chapter 1, Section G)7.1 Procedures Diagram
(Chap. 1, Sec. E Chap. Three, Sec. D)
Diagram the step by step procedures from sample recruitment through data analysis. Ensure that there are no procedural confusions. (A standard design diagram is allowed as an alternative to procedures diagram) See Instructions.Procedures

Identify potential participants

Inform participants of their potential role and seek their consent

Distribute questionnaires

Receive questionnaires

Initiate data analysis

Prepare report

Get a peer review of the report

Publish the report
7.2 Risk Level Estimate
(45 CFR 46)

Estimate, for each of the following, whether the risk of participant discomfort or harm is minimal or more-than-minimal. Use definition in 45 CFR 46.102(i). When there is more than one procedure, estimate the highest level.  (Type Minimal or More than Minimal after each item.) Present safety plan for more than minimal in IRB Application, not here.)
See Instructions.A) Initial contact(s)  minimal
B) Sample recruitment  consenting procedure(s)  minimal
C) Preliminary meetings (e.g., training) (if applicable) minimal
D) Data collection procedure(s) (including member checking, etc.) more than minimal
E) Data management procedure(s) (confidentiality breach) minimal
F) Data analysis procedure(s) (confidentiality breach) minimal
G) Write-uppresentation (confidentiality breach) minimal7.3  Assumptions
(Chapter 1, Section G)

Identify the key (A) theoretical, (B) topical, and (C) methodological assumptions of the study provide citations to support their adoption. See Instructions.Theoretical assumption-The study is based on the assumption within the sexual theory implying that women chose their husbands.

Topical assumption The research treats all the traits with equal importance. Some traits may be less important to both parents and children.

Methodological assumptions
The research question did not present a clear scenario to the participants in terms of short or long term relationship.
The research assumed that both sexes had the same preferences.

7.4   Strengths
Evaluate the strengths of your study. See Instructions.The strength of the study lies in the diversity of the participants. The large sample size has enable the testing of each of the constructs within a wide range of cultures, thereby giving a result that cuts through several cultures.

7.5  Limitations
(Chapter 1, Section G)
Evaluate the weaknesses of your study at this time.  Indicate areas to be improved before start of study and areas that cannot be improved. Give reasons for not redesigning any limitations, if any. See Instructions.The issues covered in the research were quite wide leading to many assumptions, especially methodological ones. Additionally, the research failed to get an input from parents, meaning that it relied on their childrens interpretations, which may be inaccurate. Notwithstanding that however, the research still fulfilled its primary purpose of establishing the relationship between parents and children on issues related to mate selection. There was therefore no need for redesign because there is room for future improvements.

RATINGS for Section 7.
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  OutstandingMentors Comments
Please date your commentsReviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments
Section 8. References In the field below, insert the reference list for all sources used (cited) in this Methodology Review Form. The cell will expand to accommodate your Reference list. Use APA 5th Edition formatting.
RATINGS for Section 8. References
1-2  Unready    3-4  Marginal   5-6  Adequate    7-8  Satisfactory    9-10  Outstanding
Fractional Ratings (e.g., 6.75) are AcceptableMentors Comments
Please date your commentsReviewers RatingReviewers Comments
Please date your comments

Learner  Stop here and submit to your Mentor for his or her final approval.

Mentor Please complete Section 5, below. When Satisfactory or better, please submit Form to  HYPERLINK mailtoPsyResearchSupportCapella.edu PsyResearchSupportCapella.edu.

Faculty Summative Evaluation
To be completed by both the Mentor and the Methodology Committee Reviewer.

Mentors Overall ReviewMentors Comments
Please insert comments on strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations, or refer to similar comments in earlier sections.

Methodology Reviewers Summative Review Reviewers Summative Rating
Average your earlier ratings (n  8), to two decimal places.Reviewers Comments
Please insert comments on strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations, or refer to similar comments in earlier sections.FINAL SUMMATIVE RATING by REVIEWERStep 1 Insert it here _____
Step 2 Insert it on page 1, TABLE C FINAL SUMMATIVE RATING.

Appendix A  Definitions of Rating Items
1-2Unready       Fails to answer any of the elements or all the main items in a section, or inaccurately conceptualizes the issue(s) addressed. Demonstrates insufficient understanding of basic methodology and design principles. Lacks sufficient references of any kind, or in-text citations are to texts or other tertiary sources or are improperly formatted on a recurring basis (APA, 2001). Writing is below standard for basic scholarship and APA style is not followed consistently.

3-4Marginal Partially answers the questions, addresses only some of the main items, or conceptualizes the issues partly inaccurately. Demonstrates some understanding of methodology and design principles, but at a low level and without clarity, focus, or integration. Lacks references to primary research or theory, or consistently relies on only a couple of basic and general methodology textbooks rather than sources specific to the approach, design, procedures, and types of analysis being proposed. (For methods itemsas opposed to research problem, significance, research question, population and sample itemsmethodology texts are satisfactory, although specialized procedures should be supported by appropriate primary sources, not general textbooks.) References or in-text citations are often improperly formatted. Writing or formatting errors are five or more per page.

5-6Adequate The response to the item generally answers the question adequately (covers the main issues), demonstrating a basic, if not well-integrated, knowledge of methodology and design principles. There are no clearly incorrect or inaccurate conceptualizations, but the response seems uncoordinated with other items and design elements. References and in-text citations are appropriate (primary sources regarding content or specialized items, methodology texts regarding purely methods and procedures items), although there may be occasional writing or formatting errors (2-4 per page).

7-8Satisfactory The responses answer the items fully, demonstrate a well-integrated knowledge of methodology and design, and are both clear and well presented. References and in-text citations are appropriate and properly formatted. Writing is correct in usage and presentation, although there may be occasional errors (fewer than two per page).

9-10Outstanding     The response is satisfactory (see 4Satisfactory), and there is a clear and consistent integration of all design elements. The writing is clear, well organized, and vigorous. There is less than one error per page. All references and citations are formatted properly and demonstrate scholarly investigation of a high order. Examples of scholarly investigation of a high order would include (but not be limited to) using appropriate citations from a related field that bear on the research problem using appropriate specialized or unusual methods and procedures justified by references to other studies applying complex or sophisticated theoretical frameworks and concepts to the research or unusual elegance in the design itself.

Integration  means that the elements of the design clearly work together and support one another. Understands methodology without integration, then, means the items are properly understood individually, but in a rote, unconnected, or unsystematic fashion. The Form has a fill-in-the-blanks quality.

Summary
The article being criticized for this paper is about social attention impairment in children with autism and how this can create a negative cycle of poor social and cognitive skills development that can reinforce autism. Social attention impairment refers to the inability of young children with autism to identify and respond to social stimuli. Because of this impairment, a vicious cycle can occur, wherein the lack of social input can impair social and brain development in young children, which are also signs of autism. Dawson et al. (2004) examined the social attention impairments in children with autism. They noted studies that indicate how social attention impairments, especially joint attention, contribute to the development of communication skills. They examined and compared social attention skills, specifically social orienting, joint attention, and attention to the distress of others, among three groups young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), mental-age-matched children with developmental delay (DD) and children experiencing typical development. The research goals are 1) to replicate the same study with younger children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which has been previously done for older children with the same disorder, 2) to determine which of these impairments can differentiate children with autism from children with DD and typical development, and 3) to study which and how these impairments affect concurrent verbal language ability.

This study is an experimental research design. Participants were recruited from local advocacy groups, and they consist of (a) 72 children with ASD that are made of 50 children with autistic disorder and 22 children with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) (b) 34 children with DD without autism and (c) 39 children with typical development. Parents are in the room during the sessions and children were rewarded with snacks and praise for good behavior and as needed. Social orienting is examined through four social (i.e. humming a tone) and four non-social sounds (i.e. whistle blowing). If children responds through turning their heads or eyes to the stimulus, that is considered as a response. Joint attention ability is defined as triadic, wherein children, object, and adults interact. At this point, several tasks were conducted, such as taking turns in playing. There were also second measures to assess joint attention ability and social orienting ability through relevant test measures. Attention to distress was measured through several actions and childrens responses to distressful situations (i.e. the moderator appearing to be hurt).

Results were analyzed through analysis of variance (ANOVA) and they are also interpreted through comparisons among the three groups of children. Findings showed that children with ASD fared worse than children with DD and typical development in all social attention tasks. In terms of social orienting, children with autism were less likely to respond to social and non-social stimuli, but more so for social stimuli. Joint attention also proved to be the most sensitive differentiator of autism from DD or typical development. Using joint alone only, it is possible to differentiate 83 of children with ASD and 63 of children without ASD (280). When joint attention and social orienting abilities are considered, differentiating children with ASD and those without generated more significant results- 75.5 of the children with ASD and 81.5 of children without ASD were properly classified (280). Knowing childrens attention to distress did not develop classification in terms of either sensitivity or specificity. Social orienting can, thus, be more useful in identifying autism in infants and toddlers. Joint attention also proved to be the most effective predictor of concurrent verbal language ability.

The theoretical implications are that social problems during infancy and early childhood can lead to lower communication competence, which can make autism even worse. However, Dawson et al. (2004) suggested that it is possible to provide interventions, such as through introducing social stimulus more proactively and guiding children to these stimuli, so that they can improve attention and social skills. In addition, Dawson et al. (2004) recommended that since joint attention is the best predictor of simultaneous language ability, increasing childrens motivation to respond to social stimuli and triadic communicative exchanges can improve later development of communicative skills to more typical development patterns.

Critique
This article has sound methodology because it used already tested and validated measures, which are combined with valid experimental measures for social skills problems. Furthermore, the authors are able to explain the answers to their research questions. On the other hand, it will also be helpful to focus on one unanswered question that this article no longer covered What are the social orientation and joint attention measures that can greatly improve language and social abilities for children with autism and those who have no autism, but have DD Would these measures differ among children with autism and those who have no autism, but have DD

I chose this issue because I wanted to extend research on young children with autism and DD, so that it is possible to understand their development more and how this knowledge can improve social interventions and their effectiveness in enhancing social and language skills among children with these disabilities. It will be interesting to postulate possible measures and test their effectiveness in improving target competences among children with autism and those who have no autism, but have DD.

I suggest an experimental research design based on the results of this article. For instance, in order to improve social orientation, I will use different social and non-social stimuli and even combinations, so that I can determine which among them can be used and to how many frequencies, before improvements in social orientation can be evaluated. For joint attention, I will include measures of using different kinds of colors and patterns that can catch the attention of children with autism. I will identify which among these objects they can respond to the most and hypothesize why they respond to certain stimuli only, which can facilitate joint interaction. For attention to distress, I will use other materials that can show distress, such as animals or other things, so that it may be possible that distress can be formed first through these measures, before children with autism can identify with stress that people experience.

If this experiment does not work, I can work more on an observation style, wherein I will observe different environments for children with autism and those with DD only, so that I can look for signs of social and non-social interaction. The findings can be my material for future studies that will use the same observation-based materials, so that they can be tested for their impacts and generalizability for other children with these kinds of disabilities. My theory is that it is possible that the different cognitive and social skills of children with autism, or with DD only, will make them more sensitive to other social and non-social stimuli that are not typical with average children. These different stimuli, even the non-social ones, can be used to mediate reaction to more social conditions.

The implications of these issue are the continuous interplay between theories and practice, especially those practices that would provide parents and caregivers of infants with disabilities more chances of helping their children develop certain skills they lack, and that this will also lead to constant participant-observation positions for parents and caregivers, so that they can also test the measures that can improve social skills of social orienting, joint attention, and attention to the distress of others. Another implication is more theoretical, wherein from this research it can be possible to define abstract concepts (i.e. interest, environmental conditions and mood combined for social stimulation to take place) that can stimulate social and cognitive skills among children with autism, which, in turn, can help practitioners create a better environment that can imbibe these concepts into practices.

This article was written by Frank Pajares, in The Journal of Education Research Vol. 95 No. 1, published September 2001. In this article, the author tries to explore the different theories in positive psychology which was deemed as valuable in better academic motivation for students and faculties alike. Specifically, this article tries to explore the possibility of combining theories from positive psychology into motivating theories, with the aim of having better academic motivation. In this study, the author actually argues that there are many positive psychological theories that may help in achieving goals, different expectancies, beliefs and values and that such positive psychological theories actually serve as predictive variables of such. There is a reaffirmation in the use of positive psychology and motivation theories in achieving higher academic performance. The author argues that to develop ones learning ability, it is also necessary to build ones self-efficacy and so that the motivation of the student will not only be motivated to learn based on grades and on a short term basis, but on internal motivation of learning for the longer term. The study also calls for the continuation of the awarding of medals and scholarships which can reinforce their abilities and can be motivated according to self worth and self esteem. For the purpose of this study, task goals where primarily associated positively with optimism, and where also positively correlated with invitations.

Meanwhile, optimism and perceived authenticity where correlated negatively with performance oriented goals. In addition, value constructs and expectancy where also positively associated with invitations, perceived authenticity and optimism. The study also found out that the different positive psychology variables where in fact stronger in high achieving students than in low achieving ones, and that boys have stronger perceived authenticity as compared to girls, and that in conclusion, the constructs that can be drawn from positive psychology can actually explain higher academic motivation and in that effect, higher academic achievement.

Positive psychology is all about the application of theories to the development of the self-worth and the self-efficacy of the individual. It focuses on the positive outlooks of an individual, in which motivation and encouragement serves as an essential component. According to positive psychology theories, having a high esteem of the self, as well as having encouragements and achievements that promote the development of a self efficacy is important, and can help persons achieve more their goals, and have more accomplishments.

Also, motivation is important in achieving goals, for a person who does not have motivation will be more likely not to achieve their goals. In this case, it is also true that persons can have more motivation when they have a higher self worth of themselves, making them believe that they have the capability to achieve what they want. In this case, whenever accomplishments bring self worth, they will be motivated better, as the study points out. This is also true in the learning process. Learning is not all about necessity or survival, for when a person does not have the motivation to learn, and then heshe will not learn. However, whenever the learning process creates a situation wherein a person while have a higher self worth and a better self esteem, then they will be more motivated to learn. Having a higher self worth and self esteem makes a better motivating factor for any person. Optimism plays a key concept in positive psychology, for it summarizes a persons positive outlook in life, beneficial to persons having task-goal orientations.

In this case, I think that positive psychology and motivation is truly positively related. This is because of the fact that having optimism surely gives one person the best motivation to accomplish a goal, and is also important for a person to remain focused on accomplishing a goal to success despite challenges and failures. Necessity alone does not give enough motivation for people to be able to accomplish their goals and have a higher achievement, and this is proven in schools. Although it is generally known that education is actually essential for people to have success in life, there are still a significant proportion of students who are not motivated to finish their studies and even drop out of schools. In addition, take note of the fact that there are some people which are studying, but whose motivation is being athletes for the school, or for prestige, due to the fact that learning per se does not give a feeling of self efficacy and self worth, making them not motivated enough to succeed.

Section I
The data is obtained from 9th grade students performance and behavior data. The data consists of 216 observations that will be used for the analysis. The variables of interest for the analysis are the Social Adjustment Problems of 9th grade students and the 9th Grade students that dropped out of High School. Both variables are of nominal level of measurement.

Section II
Pearson chi-square test will be used to determine whether there is a relationship between social adjustment problems of 9th grade students and the number of 9th grade students who dropped out of high school. In order to use Chi-square test, certain assumptions should be verified first. The following are the assumptions of Chi-square test random sample data, sufficiently large sample size and adequate cell sizes (Howell, 2008). In order to verify the assumptions, crosstabulation of the data will be used. In addition, bar graph will also be used to verify the assumptions.

First assumption to be tested is the random sampling. Random samples obtained in the observation depend on how the data are obtained from the participants of the 9th grade students performance and behavior data. As far as the survey data is concerned, researchers always try to obtain the data as random as possible. In case, the data is not randomly sampled, the analysis is still conducted for the sake of discussion.

The second assumption to be tested is the sufficiency of the number of samples for Pearson Chi-square test. In using Pearson Chi-square test, there should be at least 20 samples for the test. The number of samples that will be used for the test is equal to 216 observations. Since the number of observations is greater than the minimum sample requirement, then the assumption is verified.

The last assumption to be tested is the adequate cell sizes. In Pearson Chi-square test, it is required that each cell must have a size of at least 5. In order to check whether the data satisfies the assumption, crosstabulation will be used.

Table 1
Crosstabulation of Social Adjustment Problems and Dropped out of High School
Social Adjustment Problems in 9th Grade  Dropped out of High School CrosstabulationDropped out of High SchoolTotalNoYesSocial Adjustment Problems in 9th GradeNoCount18110191Expected Count173.317.7191.0 within Social Adjustment Problems in 9th Grade94.85.2100.0 within Dropped out of High School92.350.088.4 of Total83.84.688.4YesCount151025Expected Count22.72.325.0 within Social Adjustment Problems in 9th Grade60.040.0100.0 within Dropped out of High School7.750.011.6 of Total6.94.611.6TotalCount19620216Expected Count196.020.0216.0 within Social Adjustment Problems in 9th Grade90.79.3100.0 within Dropped out of High School100.0100.0100.0 of Total90.79.3100.0 Table 1 shows the crosstabulation of the social adjustment problems and dropped out of high school in 9th grade students. From the table, one can see that the frequency of students who has no Social adjustment problem and does not dropped out of high school is larger than the other categories with a count of 181. The value accounts for 83.8 of the total observations. On the other hand,  students who have Social adjustment problem and does not dropped out of high school has an observed frequency of 15 which accounts for 6.9 of the total observation.  Students who have no Social adjustment problem and dropped out of high school has an observed frequency 10 which accounts for 4.6 of the total observation. While, students who have Social adjustment problem and does dropped out of high school has an observed frequency 10 which accounts for 4.6 of the total observation. One can see that all of the cell have a size of greater than 5 except for the cell of 9th grade students with Social Adjustment problems and have dropped out of high school with only 2.3 cell size on expected count. Thus, the assumption of adequate cell sizes is violated.

Figure 1. Bar Chart of Social Adjustment Problems in 9th Grade Students.
From the figure, one can see that the frequency of students who has no Social adjustment problem and does not dropped out of high school is larger than the other categories. It is followed by 9th grade students with social adjustment problems and does not dropped out of high school. Both students that dropped of high school even with or without social adjustment problems have the same level of count.

After verifying the assumptions of the test, it has been found out that the data violated one of the important assumptions, adequate cell sizes. In order to correct the assumption, Yates correction will be applied for the Pearson-Chi square test statistic. Otherwise, the Pearson Chi-Square test will still be conducted for the sake of discussion.

Section III
In order to use Pearson Chi-square test, the researcher must set the alpha level on which the test will be conducted. The alpha level to be used for the test is 0.05 significance level. The following are the research question and the hypotheses for the test.

Research Question
Is there a relationship between Social Adjustment Problem and dropping out of 9th grade students

Research Hypothesis
There is a relationship between social Adjustment Problem and dropping out of 9th grade students.

Null hypothesis
There is no relationship between social Adjustment Problem and dropping out of 9th grade students.

The decision is to reject the null hypothesis when the p-value of the chi-square statistic is less than 0.05. Otherwise, the researcher will fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Section IV
After conducting Pearson Chi-square test, the following results were obtained.
Table 2
Chi-Square Test
Chi-Square TestsValuedfAsymp. Sig. (2-sided)Exact Sig. (2-sided)Exact Sig. (1-sided)Pearson Chi-Square31.799a1.000Continuity Correctionb27.7961.000Likelihood Ratio21.1591.000Fishers Exact Test.000.000Linear-by-Linear Association31.6521.000N of Valid Cases216a. 1 cells (25.0) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.31.b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
From the table, one can see that the Pearson Chi-square statistic is equal to 31.799. The corresponding p-value of the test statistic is less than 0.001. Since the p-value of the Pearson Chi-square Statistic is less than 0.05 significance level, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis. In addition, the continuity correction statistic is equal to 27.796 with a corresponding p-value of less than 0.001. Since the p-value of the continuity correction (Yates Correction) is less than the significance level of 0.05, and then the researcher is still able to reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the researcher is 95 confident that there is a relationship between social Adjustment Problem and dropping out of 9th grade students.

However, Pearson Chi-square test only determines the relationship between the two variables. The Pearson Chi-square Statistic is not able to test for the strength of the association between the two variables. In order to determine the strength of relationship between the variables, the researcher will used Phi and Cramer V statistic (Garson, 2008). After conducting Phi and Cramer V test, the following results were obtained.

Table 3
Symmetric Measures
Symmetric MeasuresValueApprox. Sig.Nominal by NominalPhi.384.000Cramers V.384.000N of Valid Cases216

From the table, one can see that the value of Phi and Cramers V statistic are both equal to 0.384. Both have the same p-value which is less than 0.001. Phi and Cramers V are interpreted like correlation coefficient. Thus, the value denotes that there is an increasing relationship between social adjustment problem and dropping out of 9th grade students. In addition, the p-value of symmetric measures is less than 0.05 significance level.  Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between social adjustment problem and dropping out of 9th grade students is rejected. Therefore, the researcher is 95 confident that there is a significant relationship between social adjustment problem and dropping out of 9th grade students.

The current paper discusses the topic of sleep paralysis and its relation to human consciousness. A literature review is performed to evaluate the gaps in the current state of knowledge about sleep paralysis. Practical implications for studying this topic are discussed. The paper provides recommendations and proposes a future course of research with the topic of sleep paralysis.

Sleep Paralysis and Consciousness
Introduction and Literature Review

Recent developments in psychology and the study of human consciousness have been marked with the growing attention toward the topic of sleep paralysis. The current state of literature treats sleep paralysis as a product of multiple external and internal cognitive influences, but the specific nature of sleep paralysis is yet unknown. In its current state, professional literature on the topic links sleep paralysis to stress, sexual traumas, and cultural influences. These, actually, exemplify the three broad literature trends in the present state of knowledge about sleep paralysis.

Sleep paralysis is defined as a transient, conscious state of involuntary immobility occurring when falling asleep or upon wakening. It has been associated with sleep-onset rapid eye movement periods or mixed or incipient rapid eye moving and waking electroencephalogram in laboratory studies (Cheyne 2002, p. 169). Although definitions of sleep paralysis vary, it is usually referred to as the human inability to perform voluntary movements at sleep onset or during awakening (Sherwood, 2002). Sleep paralysis episodes are reported to last from a few seconds to a few minutes (Sherwood, 2002). The end of a sleep paralysis episode occurs either because of individual efforts to overcome it or under the influence of external disturbances (e.g., street noise) (Sherwood, 2002). The frequency of episodic sleep paralysis varies, but 40-50 of normal people are estimated to have experienced isolated sleep paralysis at least once in a lifetime (Sherwood, 2002). Very often, the incidence and prevalence of sleep paralysis in individuals are being linked to their cultural origin.

Several studies link sleep paralysis to ethnicity culture. According to Dahlitz and Parkes (1993), prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis varies among different ethnic groups, and can be as high as 62. Friedman and Paradis (2002) and Bell (2008) support these findings and confirm higher prevalence of sleep paralysis among blacks, compared with whites. These variations in prevalence among ethnic groups are not associated with the genetic predisposition of African-Americans to sleep disturbances rather, there is a whole set of reasons that may justify higher risks of sleep paralysis in African Americans. According to Friedman and Paradis (2008), these include higher levels of stress, disturbances in the sleep cycle, and even higher prevalence of hypertension in the African-American individuals. It should be noted, that stress is one of the definitive features of the current research about sleep paralysis, and researchers tend to believe that stress, panic disorders, and depression (even self-reported) can be the major sources of SP risks in different population groups.

Friedman and Paradis (2008) suggest that sleep paralysis is integrally linked to panic disorder and the feeling of distress in individuals. Solomonova et al (2006) add to this state of knowledge, by suggesting that sleep paralysis is associated with social anxiety and related psychiatric disorders, including bipolar disorder, depression, PTSD, anxiety disorder with agoraphobia, and generalized anxiety disorder. Sleep paralysis often goes in line with the sensed or felt presence experiences, which are closely associated with the distress-prone temperament in individuals (Nielsen, 2007). However, stress is not the only issue within the sleep paralysis paradigm sexual arousal, the feeling of sexual abuse, and the notion of sexual trauma represent another aspect of the sleep paralysis research.

Sexuality is a recurrent topic in the discussion of sleep paralysis. Reported sexual experiences during sleep paralysis range from sexual arousal to the fear of rape. Females report significantly more intense sexual experiences these are accompanied by higher levels of fear of rape, compared with men (Cheyne, 2002). Researchers explain these fears by cultural variations because traditional cultures often mention a form of demonic rape performed by supernatural creatures (Cheyne, 2002 Cheyne, Rueffer  Newby-Clark, 1999). Parker and Blackmore (2002) describe these experiences as false but sincere accusations of sexual abuse. McNally and Clancy (2005) go further, suggesting that sleep paralysis is the product of continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse, although in their analysis of Anna O.s black snake hallucination, Powell and Nielsen (1998) do not mention anything about sexual arousal or erotic experiences. The effects of these findings are two-fold on the one hand, they link sleep paralysis to erotic experiences and, on the other hand, imply that sleep paralysis can be the result of sexual trauma(s). These findings also link the topic of sleep paralysis to the study of psychology of consciousness.

The topic of sleep paralysis directly relates to the study of consciousness. Sleep paralysis is described as an altered state of consciousness (Friedman  Paradis, 2008). Researchers view sleep paralysis as less a disorder of REM than of transitions in states of consciousness (Cheyne, 2002). However, there is no certainty as for whether sleep paralysis is pathological abnormal, and this issue requires further detailed examination.

Discussion Summary Conclusion
The current state of knowledge about sleep paralysis is surrounded by controversy. Because sleep is fairly regarded as an important element of conscious activity in individuals and because sleep disorders impact the quality and effectiveness of conscious activity in people, sleep paralysis directly relates to the scientific study of psychology of consciousness. What professionals know about sleep paralysis is only the starting point in the subsequent analysis of factors and risks responsible for the development of SP experiences in different groups of individuals. The lack of standardized approaches to professional research, the lack of independent variables, the variability of cultural norms, and the difficulties with interpreting SP experiences by individuals are cited among the most serious research drawbacks. These issues and inconsistencies are, actually, responsible for the lack of a clear understanding of what sleep paralysis is, and what role human consciousness plays in the development of SP episodes.

The lack of independent measures is, probably, the primary factor responsible for the existing literature inconsistencies on the topic of sleep paralysis. Researchers intentionally or unintentionally limit the scope of their research to timing, frequency, and duration of SP experiences and seek to investigate the role of culture and stress. Sometimes, other factors like sleeping position become an object of peer analysis (Girard  Cheyne, 2006). However, factors other than timing and stress should be taken into account for example, Cheyne (2002) proposes that researchers evaluate the impact of atmospheric pressure on homeostatic mechanisms.

Researchers in the field of sleep paralysis rely on individual reports provided by research subjects. The contents of these reports can be doubtful or ambiguous. For example, Parker and Blackmore (2002) write that the exact physiological state of individuals, who experience SP, remains unknown. Thus, when individuals refer to their state as fully awake, there is still a possibility that they experience some form of false awakening, which they cannot describe in detail (Parker  Blackmore, 2002). Given the cultural variations in the discussion of sleep paralysis, there is a degree of ambiguity in how people describe their SP experiences. Different cultures may treat different experiences in completely different ways, and what is considered a negative product of sexual abuse in one culture can readily serve an acceptable element and a dream norm in another. There is some degree of uncertainty with regard to the availability and or lack of terminology necessary to describe SP experiences by people. Some of them may not have the level of education and language high enough to participate in such studies. As a result, the current state of knowledge about sleep paralysis is still far from being perfect, and there is still much room for research improvements.

In light of the recent research findings and the existing research controversies, future research should resolve the two essential issues. First, it is important that researchers finally define whether sleep paralysis represents a state of abnormalcy or whether it is a normal element of conscious activity in individuals. Objectively, the degree to which sleep paralysis is abnormal remains the topic of the hot professional debate. Sherwood (2002) associates sleep paralysis with anomalous experiences, including ESP, PK, NDES, and extraterrestrials, but whether sleep paralysis is anomalous by itself is yet unclear. In the same way, Parker and Blackmore (2002) suggest that SP experiences differ significantly from accepted dream norms, and SP sufferers display higher scores on various psychopathology tests. Simultaneously, psychopathology was not found to influence the frequency of SP occurrence (Parker  Blackmore, 2002). Because researchers view sleep paralysis as a form of the altered state of consciousness (Friedman  Paradis, 2008) and because sleep paralysis experiences are always associated with the sensed or felt presence attacks (Nielsen, 2007), SP is often believed to be a form of abnormalcy. However, according to Nielsen (2007), felt presence experiences can be present as a part of normal life experiences like bereavement, and can support individuals in the process of creating realistic social imagery. As a result, the abnormalcy status of sleep paralysis will predict and predetermine the quality and direction of future research in this field of psychology and consciousness.

The role, which sexual abuse and sexual experiences play in sleep paralysis, can serve another effective direction for future research. Recent research findings produce a controversial impression on the one hand, sleep paralysis experiences are often accompanied by sexual arousal and the fear of sexual abuse (Parker  Blackmore, 2002) on the other hand, sleep paralysis is sometimes described as a product of continuous sexual abuse experiences (McNally and Clancy, 2005). Taking into account the important role of sexual experiences in human consciousness, future research should concentrate on the study of the sexual element of SP. A good idea for the future study of sleep paralysis would be to investigate the risks of sleep paralysis in people with childhood sexual trauma experiences, and to identify how abnormal these SP paralysis experience can be, given the overall abnormalcy of sexual abuse during childhood.

All these directions and future findings will have practical implications for those, who seek to analyze sleep disorders in people and their relation to other psychopathologies and states of consciousness. It is important to understand, how abnormal sleep paralysis is and what changes it can produce in human consciousness. Future research will help professionals in psychology link human experiences (e.g., sexual trauma) to sleep paralysis and develop effective treatment methodology (if necessary). However, the need for such treatment remains obscure and confusing, until researchers are able to define the abnormalcy status of sleep paralysis. The findings that were discussed in this paper are too controversial to help professionals resolve the existing research and treatment controversies. However, the current state of literature can serve a good starting point in the subsequent analysis of the most controversial issues and findings on the topic of sleep paralysis.

Although references to social justice are too frequently politicized, and thereby too often transformed into larger and unwieldy debates involving macro-type policies and programs, the most immediate results can be achieved at the grassroots level.  This is because social justice is essentially a human problem and grassroots efforts and human interactions can produce fundamental shifts in thinking about social justice and these shifts in thinking can in turn affect behavioral patterns and expectations in a social context.  The average person, who might feel powerless at times with respect to a variety of social issues, can improve social justice one person or one group at a time in very tangible and very intimate ways.  This paper will discuss how the authors experiences working at a shelter for the homeless provided such an opportunity and how this type of hands-on approach to social justice created the context for pursuing and reinforcing the ideals associated with social justice.

Social justice, as a theoretical paradigm, is complicated by the fact that there are different features of social justice and different factors contributing to the achievement of some degree or social justice or the stubborn persistence of social injustice.  Serving dinner at the homeless shelter, for a fairly lengthy and regular period of three months, highlighted the distributive features of social justice.  The most striking observation was the simple fact of pervasive and wholesale deprivation among many different people.   This deprivation did not relate to luxury goods, but instead to the most fundamental types of needs.

There are seemingly good people, from diverse backgrounds, who lack such basic goods as housing and food.  In a society which professes to be extraordinarily wealthy and extraordinarily dedicated to principles of equality, the reality in the homeless shelter proves quite clearly that this abundant wealth is in no way distributed equally or for the benefit of the social group.  Thus, when considering the homeless shelter experience within the context of social justice, it is the painful reality of extreme abundance coupled extreme deprivation that stands out as the most immediate challenge confronting the average person wishing to contribute to social justice in the face of such extraordinary disparities.  This challenge, attempting through small efforts to close the gap between abundance and deprivation at an individual level, is a social justice challenge that has been complicated by the fact that there seems to exist a simultaneous socioeconomic principle to the effect that all individuals earn their social position in society.

The implication, one the homeless shelter experience suggests is unnecessary and cruel, is that all people to a large extant deserve their positions in society.  People are wealthy because they have earned their wealth and people suffer deprivation because they have not availed themselves of the opportunities availed to them by society.  In the academic literature, noting this type of mentality to the effect that people deserve their fate on the social scale of resources, it has been noted that Welfare egalitarianism, however, is subject to the well-known problem of expensive tastes. Suppose that resources have been successfully distributed in our community in such a way as to leave us all with equal levels of welfare HYPERLINK httpwww.questia.comPM.qstaod5000648163(Keller 530).   Either people do not earn the resources made available by society or they otherwise squander the resources that have been made available.  In either event, and both premises are dubious in a highly competitive and selfish capitalist economy, the average man can contribute positively to social justice by volunteering or helping to eliminate absolute deprivation and to function in some ways as a counselor so that people suffering from deprivation can think of ways to improve their social condition.

Social justice must be purely objective that is, the creation of principles or programs designed to promote social justice or access to social resources for one particular group of people is likely to create more social divisions rather than harmony or equality.  Three months serving dinner at a homeless shelter, to be sure, clearly demonstrates that deprivation is pervasive and that it transcends such human classifications as race, gender, age, sexual preference, and even religious orientation.

The average must not become preoccupied exclusively with the concerns of a particular group if social justice is to be pursued, such as abused children who are homeless, because this type of preoccupation will shift attention and scarce resources toward this particular group and away from other groups also suffering from deprivation and different forms of social injustice.  This may be a controversial suggestion, encouraging the average man to shift away from advocating the cause of particular groups, and yet the homeless shelter experience is persuasive evidence that the best way to make a positive contribution to social justice is not to engage in petty allocation disputes over scarce resources but instead to demand a more equal distribution of abundant resources among all members of society.  This is not meant to suggest that particular groups, say people of color or women, have not faced unique types of social injustices.  Indeed, it is quite well-established that individuals are classified and based on those classifications they face different types of social and economic discrimination.  This reality notwithstanding, dividing the deprived is in a sense conquering the deprived.  The social harmony that one sees when dinner is served at a homeless center is absolutely remarkable people are truly happy to be helped and given advice.   Elderly Caucasians engage in polite and happy conversations with people of color.

Children chat pleasantly with their seniors and openly discuss hopes for a more secure future.  It is in this type of context, where absolute deprivation meets diverse populations suffering from different types of social injustice, that  the common man can make the greatest difference.  This is because attitudes can be changed, deprivation can be alleviated temporarily as people are helped at an individual level, and the problems facing the deprived can be better understood so that public discourse can become better informed rather than dogmatic or ideological.  It wouldnt be a bad idea for all legislators, state and federal, to be required as a part of their highly paid jobs as public servants to serve as homeless shelter volunteers a couple of hours per week in their home constituencies.  The lessons to be learned, and the falsehoods about the homeless that could be disproven, would be of tremendous value.  Legislators becoming the average man could then take these experiences to the policy making arena and perhaps begin to more honestly and more equitably distribute societys abundance resources.

Part I
Significant Brief Counseling Attitudes
A therapist should discover the clients being different which would enable him to discover his or her own realistic limitations. Additionally, he would be able to help reach his goal help the client. He or she should perceive his position of the clients tangible presence so he or she would not lose his own during the sessions. As Buber (1958) asserts, a therapist could effectively aid his client when he grasped the hidden or concealed problem, the afflicted spirit of the client. He also asserts that this can be done through person-to-person approach, and not treat the client as an object.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Maintaining Brief Counseling Attitude(s)
Attitude is a behavioral point of reference prearranged in the course of experiences which respond constantly to an aim, individual, or condition. When attitude is conceived as this it could draw therapists most excellent behavioral patterns and application of appropriate therapy for his client. On the other hand, there were disadvantages such as (1) difficulty in consistency of sessions, (2) lack of adequate training among brief psychotherapists (3) lack of applicability of attitude that is prescribed to psychotherapy settings and other psychiatric settings.

However, what is most important is that the therapist treasures and enhances his rapport with his client and others. Therapeutic skills can be learned but his affinity would not take the place of any other. Also, when he can extract himself from his own family, community, or culture he can be effective in aiding his client heal. Friedman (1998) declared that if a therapist is enmeshed with these social factors then healing would be for naught and his endeavor to restore clients wholeness would be hindered by the societal system.

Problems of Client
There were five problems the client has (1) his was a street drinker, (2) he had a prison record, (3) he is at present subject to a probation order that required him to attend an alcohol rehabilitation centre programme, (4) he didnt have a job, and (5) so lacked money.

Appropriate Goals for Client
The following appropriate goals for the client (1) he had to refrain from drinking, (2) he had to resolve his alcohol addiction, (3) he had to attend counseling, (4) he had to find job, and (5) he had to move on and earn.

Rationale for Client Goals
Just like in other goals in brief psychotherapy, helping the client conquer his problems or discomfort. And the therapist should also discourage client to search for psychotherapeutic assistance. Hence, the therapist should enable the clients coping skills for him to handle or prevent potential problems in the future. However, it is very crucial for the therapist to have a clear and manifest goal for the client, especially as he needed to gain clients trust and confidence.

Role-play Practice
For this specific problem solution-focused brief therapy would be applied, and thus, the therapist should be creative in his communication to the client. At first John is reluctant and merely talked about his subconscious desire for the future which he deemed unrealistic. His idea of miracle as for him to attain the goal of the therapy had destroyed his psychological blocks. He was made to see that his miracles are reachable he just has to have a change of frame of mind. Throughout the session the therapist thrown him series of related questions that piques Johns interest as it was about him. And if Johns psychological block surfaces the therapist would draw miracle and asked John how to resolve the block. The therapist did not advise or encourage John to perform any prescribed activity or tasks. He merely thanked John for his openness and honesty, his will to fight his problem, his perseverance in living a hard life even his loyalty to his drinking friends. The following is the transcript of a single-session therapy of John. He is a 37 year old street drinker who is on legal probation that commanded him to attend counseling for his alcohol addiction. The therapist is to meet with his one time and hence it is crucial to effectively persuade John (Iveson, 2002). Observe how the questions were asked and its effectiveness in finding the hidden problem and the rationale for his behavior.

Therapist So John, what do you expect in this session
John I dont know.
Therapist What do you think of it
John I think it might be useful.
Therapist Why do you think it would be useful
John I dont know.
Therapist What do you think of it
John To stop me drinking.
Therapist So if this session helps you end drinking, do you think its worthwhile
John Yes.
Therapist So can I ask you a few curious queries
John Sure - Ive gone through numerous doctors and Im used to it
Therapist Okay. Heres an unusual question for you  lets visualize that tonight even as youre sleeping a miracle takes place and your drinking problem is resolved. But since youre sleeping youre not aware of it. What do you think you will you notice the morning you wake up
John I dont know. I cant imagine anything like that.
Therapist Have a go
John Well, I dont have faith in miracles.
Therapist No, neither do I, but its incredibly useful for me to have an impression on how you crave your life to be so we can progress in the right course. So what time would you is your wake-up time
John Around nine.
Therapist And what usually is the first thing youll discern about you that is different that set off to inform you a miracle has occurred
John I dont think anything would be different  I usually get up, take in something that would clear my woozy head, drink coffee and go out of the house.
Therapist Stuff
John Ill take whatever I can get hold of like pills, the lot. It helps clear the woozy head.
Therapist So lets just say the miracle hindered you to require the stuff and desire to drink, would there be anything different when you go out
John You see most of my friends drink and Im no different.
Therapist No, youre surely not different  so what do you think you should do to help you stop drinking
John I dont know at all, there are all sorts of things to do.
Therapist So tell me, what might one of them be
John with a resigned sigh Fine, maybe Id go to the library and read the papers.
The session continues by drawing out, question by question, what would be different about his day if he went to the library. As his description progresses John becomes patently more interested in his account. Each time a possible block arises, the therapist invokes the miracle, not to remove the block but to ask how John would deal with it if drink were no longer a problem
John Truth is, I think that its unattainable to focus on anything since Im constantly worrying about cash.
Therapist So, what would you detect about the way youre concerned about money if drinking were not a problem anymore
John Well, I think that Id have to do something about it, shouldnt I
Therapist So what do you think you should be doing at all
John Well, I think I can get work as I can get work if I need it  I do gardening.

Aspects of Therapists Language and Technique
Therapists chose of language and his delivery of questions is crucial in a short timeline such as in brief therapy. He has to deliver questions that would invite clients to contribute not just to their dialogue but throughout the treatment programme. In this way it would be most likely that this approach would be complimentary to the clients primary treatment. Just like in physical treatment, patients view to the diagnosis as well as recommended treatment is vital for his recovery.

Psychotherapy Best Practices
In psychotherapy, it is crucial to supplement one-to-one therapy with family therapy andor intergenerational (three or more familial generations) family therapy. For instance Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy et al (1973) carries out and promotes this technique as it also emphasizes the significance of establishing that climate of confidence, and that sense of affirmation of otherness (Friedman, 1983) in which therapeutic meetings can thrive on each point. Additionally as Garfield (1998), clients views as well as actions should be treated in a direct way and not indirectly. This would make all transactions manifest and hence win the client over.

Part II.
Benefits of Psychotherapy Interventions
The psychotherapy process typically provides opportunities to teach mastery. An able therapist will encourage the patient to focus on personal meanings as opposed to events. In the process, the patient is encouraged to become an observer of himself or herself. Even brief psychotherapy can teach new skills. For the patient who is not prohibited from using what he or she knows, but rather is ill-equipped for the task, this is the usual approach. Central to this teaching is a framework that stresses multiple choices for most situations and then views likely consequences for each choice.

Evaluative Case Analysis
Therapists can only instruct, lead, or explain however he can not force the client to change. Changes in clients perception and his behavior can only be controlled and decided upon by him. This is a crucial stipulation in any psychotherapeutic procedure. Any factor that would promote clients improvement should be openly stated. The therapist may only point out any discrepancies between clients confirmed views and reality.

Moreover, with regards to the specific study we had executed the setting for the psychotherapy conducted, the number of clients as well as the type of supervision implemented varied greatly. We found out that there should be a creation of improved psychotherapy procedure and training programs for clients.

Case example 3 Being quiet
Danny is a five year old boy at the brink of being kicked out of school. He is usually out of control and very aggressive. He has a large family and a mother who has advanced multiple sclerosis. He has grandparents who were supposedly helping out but had become a major friction between family members. A so-called full report about Danny told him that he was unable to cope up with what is going on in his environment. The brief therapy was the last attempt to resolve the Danny problem. It was attended by his mother, grandfather, his teacher and special needs teacher. In the session, they were asked to relay to the group what they think is their preferred future for Danny and what they can do to help him attain it. In other words, the session is a problem-free talk, and everyone suggested target behavior for Danny to be good at school, then ranking where used to denote Dannys (very restricted) advancement for Danny to be in good behavior. For Danny, it was crucial to adapt to a language he can use. However, contrary to the full report, he has grasped school routines and regulations, study hard and determined to stay at school. He was requested to describe a good day at school by being quiet in sitting, lining up and walking. Everyone was asked to join his demonstration and he participated actively. He showed that he knows how to behave properly and he can indeed behave properly. Afterwards, adults around him had noticed that he was indeed advancing after all.

Creating a Win-Win Situation
For a session to be win-win for both therapist-client parties, they should both feel positive about the negotiation of the problem as well as timeline and intervention type. This helps them keep good relationship afterwards. This should rule the approach of the conciliation  dramatics and exhibition of emotion is okay because they would not weaken the rational foundation of the sessions. Additionally, emotion is a significant focus of discussion since clients emotional needs must be fairly met. If emotion is not conferred where it needs to be, then the contract reached can be inadequate and provisional. On the other hand, therapists should be as detached as possible when discussing his emotions. Perhaps he should discuss them as if they belong to someone else.

Research Questionnaire
Interviewee Responses
The results of the questionnaire are as follows

I. Socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of clients
(1) Sex  45 male 55 female
(2) Age  25 to 55 yo
(3) Education level  high school graduate and up
(4) Marital status  married  divorced
(5) Economic status  middle class
(6) Religious views  protestant
(7) Political views  democratic 35 republican 35 does not care 30
(8) Familial background  close-knit family 40 independent family 30 does not care 30
(9) Diagnosis  has mental illness 90 does not have mental illness 10
(10) Familial psychological history  Have previous record 40 Does not have previous record 60
(11) Medical history  Have previous record 40 Does not have previous record 60
(12) Other behavioral observations  Reluctance 50 Edgynervous 30 Second-thoughts 20

II. Clinical variables of clients including the
(13) Start of therapy  Soon 30 Rescheduled 50 Cancelled 20
(14) Types of psychotherapy practiced Group 30 Family 20 Single 50
(15) Frequency of preliminary interviews  Once 40 Twice 30 Three or more 30
(16) Total frequency  Once 50 Twice 30 Three or more 20
(17) Potential group therapy  Yes 50 No 40 Maybe 10
(18) Whether or not therapy was terminated  Yes 20 No 80
(19) Situation at the time of therapy termination  on probation 70 Self-willed 30
(20) Causes of therapy termination after negotiation  Reluctance 60 Financial incapacity 40
(21) Reason for stopping therapy  Reluctance 65 Financial incapacity 35
(22) Important difficulties faced at the time of psychotherapy Reluctance 45 Financial incapacity 15 Location 20 Time 20
(23) Combination of drug therapy or not  Yes 25 No 75
(24) Major substance of drug therapy  Comorbid 5 Zolpidem (Ambien CR) 40 Benzodiazepine 15 Pyrazolopyrimidine 10 Antidepressants 30
(25) Route of asking in psychotherapy  Direct 80 Indirect 20
(26) Effects of psychotherapy  Productive 80 Unproductive 20

III. The settings in which psychotherapy was conducting including
(27) Time frequency of psychotherapy  Once 50 Twice 30 Three or more 20
(28) Estimation of psychotherapy fee  HMO 50 Personal 30 Familial 20
(29) Time point at which the fee for psychotherapy is paid  Concluded session 100 payment Cancelled scheduled session 40 payment
(30) Fee when a client does not arrive on time  100 payment 90 Penalty 20 10
(31) Fee when a client referred a friend  Deduction of 5 50 Deduction of 10 20 None  30
(32) Whether or not the psychotherapy is audio recorded  Yes 70 No 30
(33)  Whether or not psychotherapy is video recorded and  Yes 5 No 10 Do not know 65
(34) Whether or not the psychotherapy is memorized  Yes 5 No 5 Do not know 65
(35) Whether or not they can use audio-visual components in the session  Yes 5 No 10 Do not know 65
(36) Whether or not they may commune outside the therapy set location
 Yes 50 No 10 Do not know 40
(37) Whether or not the client may reach the therapist in emergency situations
 Yes 80 No 5 Do not know 15
(38) Whether or not they can have therapy through email communication
 Yes 20 No 40 Do not know 40
(39) Whether or not they can have therapy over the phone
 Yes 400 No 30 Do not know 30
(40) Clients feeling on online interaction
 Yes 10 No 30 Do not know 60
(41) Clients view on online intervention
 Yes 5 No 10 Do not know 65

IV. The supervision of psychotherapy, including the
(42) Method of supervision  Directed by client 5 Directed by Therapist 35 Both 60
(43) Place of supervision Directed by client 30 Directed by Therapist 30 Both 40
(44) Time of supervision  Directed by client30  Directed by Therapist 30 Both 40
(45) Location of supervision  Directed by client 30 Directed by Therapist 40  Both 30
(46) Frequency of supervision  Once 50 Twice 30 Three or more 20
(47) Potential change of time to be effective  Once 50 Twice 30 Three or more 20
(48) Change of location to be effective  Once 60 Twice 20 Three or more 20
(49) Therapist meeting of the family of the client  Once 40 Twice 20 Three or more 40
(50) Therapist meeting of colleagues of client  Once 90 Twice 10 Three or more 20
(51) Therapist meeting of other special person of the client  Once 50 Twice 30 Three or more 20
(52) Visitation of client to therapists house  Once 65 Twice 25 Three or more 10
 (53) Therapist changes of therapeutic diagnosis  Once 90 Twice 10 Three or more 0
 (54) Level of client satisfaction  Satisfactory 20 Great 70  Unsatisfactory 10 Undecided 10
(55) Client references  Yes 50 50 No
(56) Future potential therapies for further growth  Yes 60 40 No
(57) Therapists referral of colleagues  Yes 70 30 No

Evaluation of Interview
During the interview the researcher observed that therapist had given adequate clarification of what is anticipated and how the result is gauged. Typically therapist also set the timelines for achievement recap strategy or guiding principle as desired during the client evaluation or progress reports. And he also identifies possible difficulty areas before they turn into major stays. The therapist is personally involved as a resource and motivator which accounts for skill and maturity level of the client. On the other hand, the client is quick to learn and absorb new information. Heshe had become comfortable dealing with abstract concepts as well as specific details. Heshe also enjoyed learning willingness to solve problems intuitively

Annotated Bibliography
Boszormenyi-Nagy, Ivan Spark, Geraldine M. (1973). Invisible loyalties Reciprocity in intergenerational family therapy. Oxford, England Harper  Row.XXI, 408
This book described an approach to family therapy wherein it amalgamates dynamic psychology, existential phenomena, in addition to systems theory. Take note that this type of therapy identifies the loyalty conflicts that might consign the client to his family and nevertheless hold back independence.
Buber, M. (1958). I and thou (2nd rev. ed., R. G. Smith, Trans.). New York Scribners
In 1923 Buber had written as well as published his book, I and Thou (also know as Ich und Du). This book focuses a system of comprehension of Judeo-Christian tradition. Here, he establishes a contemplation method of the interconnectedness or interdependence of human beings.
Friedman, Maurice S. (1983). The confirmation of otherness In family, community, and society. New York Pilgrim

In this book, Friedman maintained that the confirmation of individuals difference brings forth exclusive association to reality. Here, he encourages and honors the realm of dialogic meeting as it was advantageous for human to come out in the open.Friedman, Maurice S. (1988). The Healing Dialogue in Psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 28 No. 4, Fall 1988 19-41 London, UK Sage Publications Inc.

In this book, Friedman used effective communication throughout psychotherapy to aid clients.  He holds that through social institutions a client will be facilitated to change and develop.
Iveson, Chris (2002). Solution-focused brief therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment Vol. 8, pp. 149157 Leeds, UK The Royal College of Psychiatrists

Originally trained as a social worker, Iveson proposed Solution-focused brief therapy. The approach to psychotherapy will be based on solution-building instead of problem-solving. In three to five sessions the therapist explores existing resources and future expectations insated of presenting problems and precedent causes of the problem.

Garfield, Sol Louis (1998). The practice of brief psychotherapy. Hoboken, NJ John Wiley and Sons.
This book by Garfield had been an authoritative training textbook as well as professional guidebook on brief psychotherapy. It focuses more on procedures in addition to findings from varied therapeutic approaches for their helpfulness in achieving positive results.

Personal Experience Attestation
Though clients are viewed differently, their healing that came from the bounds of psychotherapy entered the seriousness into their social groups (from family, group, community and various communities). And with regards to personal experience that had influenced interaction with others, the researcher holds that whatever client brought up to counseling, demoralization usually surfaces (Schuyler, 1991).  For the intervention to be effective, the approach should move past the limitations of psychotherapy. Also, the approach would be cross examine the clients environment  his family, group, community as well as the relations between those communities he is living with.

Lessons Learned and Implication of the Study
The area of psychotherapy grows more and more chaotic. Psychotherapy had evolved in the previous years and its changes had lead to the therapeutic setting. However conflicting claims had also surfaced. These claims turned out to be variants of dyadic interview therapy. Then group therapy had surfaced which was dominated by psychoanalytic perspective. Recently, group therapy had budded and psychologists have launched an emergent repertory of behavioral therapies. Presently, an intense growth of psychotherapeutic methods had been tied in with increase of trained or untrained healers.

Part III.
Peer Consultation Group Advantages, Challenges and Strategies
Most clients found comparatively few barriers to learning throughout the peer consultation therapy. However, the greatest difficulty surfaced as a correlation of the procedure of the Peer consultation reflection exercise in their ability to ask a question at a time. Hence, the therapist has to guarantee that clients are from different locations and that they all havent had a problem with confidentiality. In this sense, the therapist should feel free to encourage clients talking about their personal lives and thereby would not get any direct unwelcome feedback.

In this light, Peer consultation reflection exercise has an immediate value. Because the therapy is done in group, clients could expect to have an immediate feedback and examination. Client would obtain various perspectives and have a sense of being able to contribute to others development. He would develop his social and listening skills in a non-threatening way.

Part IV.
Brief Counseling Approach
Solution-focused brief therapy is maintained that of language and dialogue is a creative element that highlights futuristic views. Since it was non-unilateral, the therapist and the client wouldnt clash or disagree. It practices instigative therapy that correctly defines what is really going on in the clients very difficult life conditions so as to plan means on how the client can deal with it. Hence, it would instigate therapist to depend on a type of action so that it would bring forth representations of life situations in that particular session. Clients are helped in an experiential was through everyday descriptive conversation. Kanfer (1979), coined instigation therapy and defined it as a strategy that conceived that behavior can change between therapy sessions, discover goals and implement learning strategies for clients behavior. Accordingly, throughout the sessions clients were assigned tasks, taught tactics and obtain constructive course on clients potential change.

In reality most therapy is time limited lasting six to eight sessions, on average.
It is very easy to describe that brief psychotherapy has time limitation. However, it can be confusing to determine time constraints and how to implement the sessions within timeframe. Additionally, the therapist should come to terms with the client on what problems they will focus on as it is the most vital step of evaluation. When the client discusses his problems, the therapist can learn a lot about him. From here on, the therapist may establish the intervention they both agreed upon.

Alternatively, the brief therapist typically utilizes tasks as the means for shifting from the therapy session toward clients real-life state. Also, clients could be checked from the start if they would undergo brief therapy which is for clients who has no insurance. Whereas long-term treatment would be offered and reserved for clients who has third-party payment scheme.

Part V.
Brief Therapy Guidelines
Structure
For the structure of the brief psychotherapy (BPT) starting from the initial phase through its termination the model ensue in a succession of well-defined stages. This structure would facilitate therapists to move ahead methodically. And in this way he could retrace steps as a means of pinpointing shortfalls in addition to wrong turns.

Integrative Aspects
In every evaluation the therapists should be encouraged to utilize whatever psychotherapeutic theories he deemed advantageous to his client. He has to explain and clarify this to client. At any rate, the degree of BPT structure should compliment the therapists plan and its objectives.

Problem and Task Review
The clients advancement on difficulties in addition to therapeutic assignments is regularly appraised at the start of each session. The appraisal embraces improvement in the setback and what the client has and has not pulled off in assignments so as to settle it. Then the therapist assignments are evaluated in like manner.

Contextual Analysis
Throughout the direction of the evaluation of assignments and dilemma, both client and therapist encounter changes in their tasks and problems. They may find that the target problem would be difficult to change and that they have to because it would hinder client to resolve the problem.

Termination and Durational Limits
In the termination of BPT, as in a lot of short time-lined models, the schedule of termination is set up and agreed upon. They will undergo termination interview that go through a structured format. It would evaluate the progress of problems of both therapist and client. It would discuss the clients growth limited it may be. Then the therapist would summarize and brief client about his unresolved issues and help client plan future strategies to deal with it. Take note that for the interview to end in a positive note, the focus would be to further educate client on problem-solving skills, self-understanding and other treatments he would be implementing in the future.

Evaluation of the Brief Therapy Technique
The brief psychotherapy technique implemented in all probability has merely weak or moderate intensity as a cure and consequently large numbers of clients were mandated to exhibit effect sizes. Therapists dynamic diagnoses which are reproducible and suitable are necessary and undeniably attempts have been made to confront this problem (Blanck and Blanck, 1974 Horowitz, 1976). Moreover, it is unworkable to guarantee unlimited consistency of method amongst a cluster of therapists in an experimental research.

Clients Identity and Brief Therapy
A therapist should learn the clients point of view of how, when and why clients problems occurred and progressed, most especially at the time they were undergoing therapeutic sessions. Evaluation should be implemented to turn problems into context for analysis. Information can be acquired through standardized psychological instruments that should be problem specific. For instance therapist may utilize Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967) or more wide-ranging in extent, for instance, the Fair Assessment Device (Epstein, Baldwin and Bishop, 1983). When the preliminary problem survey has been accomplished, the therapist then devises conundrums from the raw material of their sessions dialogue up to that time. In that way the therapist would endeavor to organize the clients articulated trouble in concise report by means of specific words the client can understand. Subsequently, without subjection with regards to the clients discernment, the therapist work to translate the clients dilemma into laymans outline.

The client is then requested to grade the dilemma in terms of the ranking he prefers to perceive them resolved. Only three dilemmas would then be implored, investigated, described in detail, and become the focal point of the BPT intervention.

Potential Ethical and Legal Concerns
Primarily, BPT must be noted that it is only time limited hence the client should expect a strict timeline. Moreover, therapists should practice legal reporting requirements concerned with the way they operate. Legal mandates encourage therapists to report any abuse or dangerous threats of their clients to the authorities. And if in case they fail to do so they would be charged and lose their license.  On the other hand, with regards to ethical issues therapists should maintain standards of performance and practice that is in the bounds of professional organizations. Any failure to adhere to benchmarks would lead them to loose their license or expulsion from their organization. The minimal national criterion for therapists recognized were their standard of practice and not their local community-based standard of ethics (Liebert and Foster, 1994)

Part VI.
Best Practices in Helping Involuntary Client
This would include and not limited to lessened stress and nervousness, a reduction in negative thoughts and self-damaging actions. It would also perk up his interpersonal relationships boost his well-being in social, work, and family settings. He may also have an improved capability for intimacy, and enhanced confidence. On the other hand, participating in therapy may also entail some uneasiness, including remembering in addition to discussing unpleasant events in your life, their feelings and off-putting personal experiences. There may be occasions when the therapist will challenge the clients opinions and beliefs, and present distinctive standpoint. However, the client should be aware that in participating in therapy it may result in a number of benefits.

Guidelines in Therapy Preparation
The therapist should communicate his desire for the client to have an enriching experience in counseling. He also has to relay that it would and should be a collaborative effort. He has to stress that they would target manageable goals that would produce richer, happier and more productive living. Client should be aware that his principles and viewpoints will be respected and there will be no plan to intentionally humiliate or maneuver him. There may be times that the therapist may encourage the client to discuss issues that are uncomfortable to him. However there was always a hope that it would improve his life as well as relationships.

Guidelines in Therapy Scheduling
The therapist even from the initial phone query should guarantee that the information disclosed by the client is by and large confidential and will not be released to any third party exclusive of written approval from the client, excluding when it was mandatory or allowed by law. Moreover, for the reason that therapy is a course which takes time and dedication, each individual involved in the counseling process is requested to always be present at the scheduled counseling sessions. Hence, this would demonstrate the goal of client making a difference in hisher life because of self-awareness, insight, exertion and commitment.

Evaluation of Implemented Therapeutic Technique
The comprehensive evaluation methodology employed in the BPT interviews from the clinicians and clients perspective formally recorded gauges of BPT program accomplishment. It also had illustrated a recently expounded structured observation technique that aimed to depict the environment of the therapy being provided in the course of direct examination of treatment activities. In addition, it has an ability to be independently replicated however it also has a number of significant issues, comprising the employment of understandable description of the behavior or words that is being observed along with intensive training of the observers (Bouffard et al, 2003).

Evaluation of Technique in Handling Diverse Clients
Sue  Nolan (2009) admonished therapists to be culturally sensitive at the same time they had to be aware of the cultural background or upbringing of the client. Moreover, therapists should correlate their cultural knowledge of the client with culture-consistent strategies and then it should be correlated to two basic processes which are trustworthiness and giving. If the therapist analyzes these basic processes, he would obtain a significant technique of screening the function of culture in psychotherapy. Also, he would discover implications for enhancing the psychotherapy practices, training, as well as research for ethnic-minority groups.

Brief Therapies and PTSD Children A Case Study
Problems of Client
(1) Has prolonged exposure to a traumatic event or series
(2) Tries to avoid thinking or talking about the traumatic event
(3) Has difficulty maintaining close relationships
(4) Has trouble concentrating
(5) Potential maternal psychopathology illness
(6) Has or has a potential of having self-destructive behaviors

Goals
This brief psychotherapeutic study analyzed the experimental causes in addition to related susceptible elements that added to the growth of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children and adolescents and further strategies that brief therapy can be additionally enhanced for the specific condition.

Method
There are one hundred successive recommendations to an inner-city child and adolescent psychiatry clinic. Out of one hundred, there are fifty-nine who had experienced a trauma that can be qualified potentially as PTSD. Moreover, the potential patients have ages ranged from 3 to 18 years old. Out of these patients 39 (or 66 of the 100) were males. The researcher utilized a sequence of multiple regression analyses to assess the contribution of (1) demographic traits, (2) the description of the stressors, and (3) the function of pre-existing medical signals in the progress of PTSD. At the end of the interview there are fifty-nine patients to be further evaluated as they really have signs of PTSD.
The assessment was established on about 6 hours of interviews. During six sessions they were interviewed with their parents or guardians. The appraisal utilized a semi-structured comprehensive interview timetable, the KID-SCID. Psychometric properties for the KID-SCID have been reported (Matzner, 1994 Matzner, et al, 1997), and the instrument has demonstrated and determined to have an acceptable reliability. The KID-SCID integrated the information which was provided by parentsguardians and children in constructing a diagnostic resolution. All PTSD assumed children that were referred to the clinic had received this standardized assessment. The PTSD module of the KID-SCID particularly required that both the patient and the parentguardian regarding twelve diverse traumatic experiences. At the same time the diagnostic signs in the part of childrens disturbing thoughts, avoidant behaviors, and psycho-physiological activation were explored.
Afterwards, children would undergo brief therapy wherein therapist had to deliver questions that would invite these especially reluctant children to contribute not just to their dialogue but throughout the treatment programme.

Evaluation
The researcher had assessed qualified factors of the diverse personal history as well as factors of the children. It had a dependent gauge that was based on the number of existing signs and symptoms of PTSD from the KID-SCID. The researcher had also assessed the childrens cognitive measures such as IQ through utilization of subtests from the age-appropriate Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (19). He had also evaluated any academic delays and diagnosed potential learning disabilities through screening assessments.

With regards to the brief therapy, the therapist had implemented solution-focused brief therapy. The instigative therapeutic way of handling the children had encouraged them to face, accept and handle their difficult life conditions. The focus was on recovering for the trauma and moving on.
The therapist is personally concerned as a resource and motivator which is beneficial and at level with the skill and maturity level of the children. On the other hand, the children had illustrated quickness in learning and absorbing new information. Additionally, the beauty of this type of therapy had surfaced as it has an ability to be independently replicated. However still, it has a number of significant issues such as the solid definition of behavioral description of the children.

Results
There are twenty-two percent of the fifty-nine children who had been traumatized met full criteria for PTSD. However, thirty-two percent had some symptoms of PTSD yet they did not meet full criteria. Moreover, forty-six percent had no symptoms at all. Most children had witnessed domestic violence or had been physically abused. As of those children with preexisting aggressive behavior, they are usually victims of physical abuse.

Moreover, the children who were defined as having PTSD had undergone brief therapies. After 12 sessions of therapy these children had a significant change in their confidence, and they have sense of affirmation of otherness. The children had also learned to become an observer of himself or herself. The children had also developed their social and listening skills in a non-threatening way.

Conclusions
In reference to the study, the children at greatest risk for developing PTSD are the susceptible nervous children who were exposed to violent behavior, most especially violence in the family. Detection children who are at risk in an offensive home condition appeared a vital goal for a preventive interference from authorities. Psychotherapy could be the most valuable tool if it were intended for prevention of the improvement of avoidant behaviors and improving psycho-physiological establishment. The results had illustrated that the pre-existing medical situation in addition to individual disposition factors of the children had become extreme stressors for them.
Furthermore, just like solution-focused therapy there are various treatments for PTSD that share not merely attributes familiar to every psychotherapeutic methods (such as the common factors conventionally explained in the therapy writings) but additionally aspects that are common to brief treatments which focuses on helping patients deal with post traumatic events. For instance, contact could not simply promote habituation or extinction while it can also present a prospect for rethinking historical interpretations of the traumatic event (Wechsler, 1974).

Consequently, traumatic experience intermingles with aspects between the child and family so as to be a factor to the occurrence of PTSD. Any trauma that imperils family reliability emerges as an intense and glaring contribution to the occurrence of PTSD. Additionally, the increased understanding of the elements that had spawned PTSD provided supplementary prospects for developing valuable interventions and therapeutic strategies.