Psychology

Falsifiability is the inherent testability of scientific hypothesis. It can also be referred to as refutability which is the logical propensity that an assertion can be shown to be false by either physical experiment or observations. The argument held in falsifiability is that when something is named to be false, it does not mean that it is false per se but, in case it is false, then it can be proved by a mean of a physical experiment or by observing. Quite related to falsifiability is the term testability which makes a more direct meaning. Testability is the argument that an assertion can exclusively be falsified by experimentation. The strong argument comes from the reasoning in philosophy, a field that has worked together with science in unraveling the hidden truths about the universe and the world in which man inhabits (Kopper, 1962). The two, science and philosophy, are imperative for the advancement of human knowledge and the general human society development.

Relationship to the Empirical Nature of Science
The statement that all men are mortal lacks some form of scientific empiricism. Scientists always design experiments which provide measurable results used to prove or disapprove concepts. Philosophers act as the driving force in determining the validity of all scientific results before implementation of any policy. The sheer understanding of the statement and the general meaning of the statement in real life finds no problem with the statement. It is regarded as complete and nothing to be added or subtracted (Furst, 2010).

All humans are known to die at some time in their life and the statement that all men are mortal does not mean a controversy to the common understanding. This is the point where falsifiability comes in. it may not mean that the statement is false, but the statement stands to be challenged and proven to be right or wrong. Falsifiabilty maintains that for any hypotheses to be given credence, it has to be disprovable in order to be accepted as scientific proof.

Common statements such as does God exist may appear to be rhetoric to believers that God exists. This statement is never scientific since it has not passed through a rigorous process of checking the scientific validity. It cannot be assumed that God exists from a theoretical perspective in science, all statements have to be tested and empirically shown to be true (Experiment-Resource.com, n.d). The theory that God exists doe not offer to be disproved hence does not satisfy scientific creditability.

The concept of falsifiability holds that there is no theory that is utterly correct unless it passes scrutiny. However, when the theory passes through scrutiny and is not found to be falsified, then that theory can be accepted as a scientific truth. Challenges and philosophical criticism have been directed to numerous theories developed by most of the earlier theorists as well as the theorists today. For instance, the Theory of Gravity which was coined by Sir Isaac Newton was accepted as the truth after the observation that all objects dont randomly float away from the earth (Furst, 2010). Although Newtons theory satisfied all the figures that were obtained after rigorous experimentations and keen research, the reasoning had to be subjected to serous testing.

The acceptance of Newtons Theory of Gravity was witnessed at early stages but later investigations into the theory showed that the laws that were proposed by Newton broke down making the theory not be accepted as truth. By saying that Isaacs concepts where not the truth and were broken down does not mean that his concepts have become obsolete. In fact, most of his concepts are widely used in NASA in the plotting of the courses of the satellites as well as the space probes.

Karl Popper, a philosopher who first coined the word falsifiability saw the term as white and black definitions. To Popper, if a theory was falsifiable, then that theory was definitely scientific. Incase the theory is not falsifiable, that theory is automatically regarded to be unscientific. This concept was strictly followed by earlier scientists although the modern science has revolutionized concepts and there has been what may be known as pseudoscience.

According to Popper, several branches of applied sciences particularly the applied science and the social science do not claim to be scientific at all because they do not offer any possibility of falsification. For instance, anthropology as well as sociology has often used case studies to make observations about the people in their natural habitats without the need to test any form of hypotheses and theories (Experiment-Resource.com, n.d). However, the general acceptance that these forms of sciences have made progression in human development makes them to be accepted in the society.

For a number of years, there have been a form of reasoning about pure sciences and that of falsifiability as being important tools for the generation of the theories that are realistic and testable. The world has gained from Poppers idea in a manner that the truth can be falsified when there is more resources and knowledge. However, the idea of falsifiability scores low because of its strictness in its definition. The idea does not take into account that many of the sciences are descriptive and observable.

To achieve any objective there is need for plan and great commitment. A plan to improve or reduce a behavior should be well articulated with some controls laid down to assist one in evaluating the progress. This paper is a summary report of my studying behavior design and implementation which was aimed at eliminating the deficit in my study so as to achieve a better grade and consequently an A.

Specification of the problem
One behavioral habit influencing my studies is laziness resulting from a carefree attitude, which has almost become addictive to me. However, unlike eating and drug abuse, it does not involve craving for a dizzying puff or yummy bite, but rather the inclination to avoid a behavior that is strenuous and in conflict with our thirst for comfort and easy life.  In regard to school life, laziness manifests itself in the form of a dislike of academic work, since it takes much of ones time and, as my friends would say, takes the pleasure out of college life. Why would I huddle myself in a cold library instead of enjoying watching Camerons latest fictitious sensation Avatar  And what better way to kill a lousy evening than a pub-crawl with the men That is what I believed until I saw the delayed consequences of my laziness in black and white, literally- on my end term script.

Consequently, my present trend in academic performance isnt what I aspire for at the end of my course. My scores fluctuate between Cs and Bs, which I attribute to the little time I spend studying for much of the term, procrastinating studying course work notes for a movies and television programs, house chores, doing assignment improperly and rushing over course notes when the exam time table is out.

Setting of goals
In this regard, I want to develop an effective studying lifestyle with an aim of improving my overall academic performance to A grade. The result of the exam done within four weeks will be part of the evaluation and I will use this information to project the long term goal of improving my overall academic performance in my course work. As such, the studying behavior I intended to emulate was a habit that would enable me to be ahead of course lecturers in class work and finish course work long before exam time. This means I will have to reduce the time I spend on watching movies and television programs, thoroughly and properly doing my assignment and reduce the house chores to the minimum possible. I also intend to have study partners whom I shall be meeting with to discuss various concepts in the course work. Within four weeks, I projected to have revised and updated all previous course notes in each subject. By the end of the fourth week, I had aimed to be one chapter ahead of the course outline. Similarly, I should have short notes prepared while revising for every subject. And finally, I should be in a position to sufficiently tackle class work exercises and answer questions on covered topics with limited reference to course notes.
My simplified model

SHAPE   MERGEFORMAT
To achieve this end, I made a personal commitment to ensure that I adhered to the outlined conditions. They include
The knowledge that my future depended entirely on my academic performance.
The need to secure a good job with a salary that will sustain the kind of life I dream of I realized that I must post good grades.

We live in a capitalist society, and therefore the job market is choked with competition among thousands of graduates churned out of each year by universities and colleges, and only a fraction of them get absorbed into their dream jobs.

The law of natural selection favors the fittest, and apparently natures hidden hand is at work out there. If it is survival for the fittest, then I must be fitter than the fittest to have an edge.
To remind me of this fact each possible moment, I had a text on my cell phones screen that read A million brains seek your job day and night. Each time I flipped the flap on my way to a friends room, it glared at me with a mockery that changed my route- to the library. In my house, directly facing you as you entered was a scribbling on the wall that asked What did the Prof. said today about what he said last week It was a sure way of racking my brains and, inevitably, taking a moment to peruse through the last weeks notes. Another one read Bill Gates did not drop out of college he was doing the best of what he was doing when he was doing it. What are you doing now
Targets to show that I have achieved objects
When I have updated all my notes
When I have covered the course outline in tandem with he syllabus
When I have studied one chapter ahead of class timeline
When I can sufficiently answer class assignments and questions on covered areas.
Making a commitment to change

The importance of letting others know what you are up to is the pressure and challenges it imposes on you. For these reasons, I hinted to my close friends, most of them fellow classmates, that I was aiming to score above B grade in all subjects in the end term exams. I also created a list of benefits such as good grade consequently good job, improvement in performance, good preparation for exams and avoidance of fail in exams. I put the list near the place I wrote my exam results.  To emphasize on my commitment I put copies of my antecedents and list of benefits on the first page of my notes books.

Data collection and analysis
My data was included numbers of hours spent on private study, number of times I watched movies and television programs before and after studying, number of hours I spent in the study partners groups per week and the work covered. My data also included the grades scored in all exams. I also recorded the number of topics I revised per every subject. I drew a graph having the exams results against the hours spent in studying. I then compared this graph with the projected graph. I made it known to my friend that I am on a process of improving my exams results. On the other hand, the comparison of the projected graph against the resulting graph was a great help in determining whether my plan was working

My projected graph, (w) and the resulting graph,(x).
 SHAPE   MERGEFORMAT Creating an enabling environment

Next was the need to create an environment that encourages studying and at the same time limits the possibility of doing something else that is unrelated to academics.  To begin with, I took all my books out of the closet and placed them on the reading table where I could easily reach them. I love computer games, and I almost thought of keeping my laptop in a friends house. However, I needed it to search materials online and type assignments. Nonetheless, I uninstalled games programs and deleted my profile from Face book and Twitter. Until then, it never occurred to me that I spent at least four hours a day chatting with fictitious characters. Usually, it carried on to late midnight and as a result I slept till late morning. With the new order of things, I was able to wake up early for morning study. Similarly, I limited my TV watching to news and two programs in a week, and one movie on Friday night, strictly from 9 nine to ten.   I also committed myself to spending at least half of the private study in the college library instead of studying at home

Self control program
To manage my time properly in dedication to my new lifestyle, I had a time table that outlined my daily activities. Apart from lectures, I planned for personal studies which mostly involved revisions, updating lecture notes and preparing short notes as I revised along. I also had past examination papers that I used to gauge my progress. On weekends, I restrained from going out and switched off my phone when I was studying from my house.

From the beginning, I anticipated the possibility of relapsing in my commitment to a changed lifestyle. For instance, I envisioned the moment when I would blink my eyes one early morning to the sound of the alarm and mumble What the hell, it is only a quarter past four, and it is not as if Buffet Warren will call me upon graduation and surrender his position at Berkshire Hathaway to me Worse still, after a long session of yawning at the library, close the pages and think Why this self denial, not everyone in this library will get an A or drive a Mac because they numbed themselves reading books.

To counter such drawbacks, I needed a strong foundation upon which to frame my new studying behaviors. Thus, I frequently asked myself why I was doing it. The answers reflected back to my long term objectives and commitment. I reminded myself that schooling is like a kiln, of whose products the builders will chose the best bricks. To be the chief cornerstone, I needed to be fully roasted and un-cracked, if, once again, you see what I mean. Half baked and cracked bricks will end up in the pavements and driveways, which is not a very appetizing prospect, if bricks had the appetite. Besides, I wanted that dream job and the kind of life that God Himself would desire if he had the money. The bottom line is that my ambitions and dreams inspired me through my transitional period.

Conclusion
The relapse of behaviors such as preference to study from the house, watch television programs and movies I enjoyed most was a great problem to solve. However I achieved a lot in terms of improvement of my grades. It was a worthwhile experience which will lead me to my long run objective of achieving an A grade.

Group therapy is one of the most important features of counseling psychology. In order to further assess its importance in our society today, it would be necessary to discuss three relevant peer-reviewed journal articles that focus on the effects of group therapies to specific group of psychologically compromised patients. Consequently, the findings of this research paper suggest that group therapies are beneficial to adult patients with ADHD, females who were sexually abused during childhood, and to men who have faced emotional disturbances.

Psychology is one of the most diverse branches of Science nowadays which deals with the study of human behavioral patterns, personality, and social interrelationships (Seager  Thummel, 2009).

Subject areas under Psychology are likely to arouse the interest of many individuals because they are usually based on the interpretation of individual functioning and group performance of population aggregates (Bramham et al., 2009) In line with this, counseling psychology is one of the sub-divisions of Psychology which manifests ideas regarding various approaches that will employ renewal of the mental and emotional capacities of psychologically disturbed patients and other ordinary individuals (Lundqvist et al., 2006). Group therapy, on the other hand, is one of the most interesting topics of counseling psychology which deals on the nature, types, dimensions, and immediate to long term effects of group therapies to psychological patients. In order for a Psychologist to gain more familiarity on the topic of group therapy, they must learn to develop and employ skills related to finding, evaluating, and analyzing resources within the field of psychology. In accordance to this, the goal of this research paper is to execute a journal search on the Capella Library and collect one main journal article and two related peer-reviewed journal articles which focus on the topic of group therapies. These articles must be critically analyzed in order to reveal the reason by which they are considered scholarly and to be able to compare and contrast these articles to each other, an activity which will show if the concepts of each document contradicts or agrees with that of the other articles. The three journal articles that will be used in this study are the following Evaluation of group cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with ADHD by Braham et al. (2009), Group therapy for woman sexually abused as children mental health before and after group therapy by Lundqvist et al., (2006), and, Chocolates and flowers You must be joking Of men and tenderness in group therapy by Seager and Thummer (2009).

Discussion
Evaluation of group cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with ADHD
This study is the primary article that was used in this research paper. It deals on the effectiveness of brief cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) on the reduction of comorbid symptoms of adult patients that were diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Bramham et al., 2009).

Adults with ADHD are said to have suffered more emotional and intellectual criticisms from their peers as they grew up because of the fact that their medical abnormality was not identified on the earlier phase of childhood (Bramham et al., 2009). The underlying concepts of this study was hinged on the idea that adult ADHD patients will acquire more knowledge about their medical abnormality, will experience reduced comorbid symptoms, and will fully benefit from the potential effects of a supportive circle once they are exposed to the activities of a cognitive behavioral therapy group (Bramham et al., 2009). Consequently, the goal of the researchers was to bring about changes in the knowledge, self-esteem, and self-efficacy of the patients after their exposure to the group therapy interventions (Bramham et al., 2009). In order to fulfill this goal, the researchers recruited 61 Caucasian clients, all of which are diagnosed with ADHD upon their exposure to the DSM-IV criteria, and were asked to attend three one-day ADHD workshop series in three months at the Maudsley Hospital in London (Bramham et al., 2009). Intervention methods employed during the group therapies involved the completion of sessions which were directed to address the problems on memory, impulsivity, frustration and anger, anxiety, depression, social relationships, time management, problem solving and preparing for the future (Bramham et al., 2009, pg. 436).

Furthermore, it is worthy to note that the main goal of the CBT was to encourage the adult ADHD patients to open themselves to the dimensions of a group endeavor and to motivate them to help themselves revolutionize the manner by which they view the things that happen in their lives in order to create a more rewarding lifestyle (Bramham et al., 2009). After the completion of the aforementioned intervention methods, data collected from the participants were analyzed and were subjected to statistical treatments. Results showed that brief group cognitive behavioral therapy treatments are potential and highly promising methods to promote individual renewal of the adult ADHD patients in order for them to utilize psychological concepts to repair their self-esteem, empower their cognitive capabilities, and recognize their importance in the society despite of their medical condition (Bramham et al., 2009). Also, the cost-effectiveness of the CBT further affirms its applicability to the majority of adult ADHD patients in the world today (Bramham et al., 2009). In addition to the undeniable importance of CBT, this article is also believed to belong in the class of scholarly articles because it was able to manifest credibility of the resources, empirical method of data collection, unbiased method of data analysis, and reference to other peer-reviewed articles. The availability of these properties supports the scholarly nature of the paper.  

B. Group therapy for woman sexually abused as children mental health before and after group therapy.

This study made use of 45 females who were sexually abused during their childhood and were tested according to the effectiveness of the traumatic group therapies to which they were exposed two for about two years (Lundqvist et al., 2006). Pretest and posttest analysis were employed in the investigation because data of the patient properties that were collected prior to the study were compared to the data of the same patients after the study (Lundqvist et al., 2006). Intervention methods were characterized of the administration of questionnaires, employment of emotional empowering talks, and exposure of the patients to activities that will encourage them to let go of the bad memories and aspire for a better and brighter future (Lundqvist et al., 2006). The parameters which the researchers wish to investigate are composed of the determinants of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and sense of coherence (SOC) (Lundqvist et al., 2006). After the experimental procedure, it was discovered that the determinants of post-traumatic stress disorders among the participants were significantly reduced after their exposure to the traumatic group therapies (Lundqvist et al., 2006). However, minimal changes were achieved on the sense of coherence aspect of the patients after their exposure to the treatments (Lundqvist et al., 2006). Hence, it can be said that group therapies were indeed essential in reducing, if not totally eliminating, the unwanted psychological effects of childhood sexual abuse in women (Lundqvist et al., 2006). Furthermore, this article is also of scholarly nature because it was able to provide firm background to the study, empirical method of data gathering and a critical method of data analysis (Lundqvist et al., 2006).  
Chocolates and flowers You must be joking Of men and tenderness in group therapy.

Men, all throughout history, were given the notion of not being expressive of their feelings and emotions because such kind of activity will give them the title of being tender or soft (Seager  Thummer, 2009). However, information from this journal article tells us that group therapies in men is of equal importance to female group therapies, and thus, must be given sufficient academic and scientific attention (Seager  Thummer, 2009). Men of our society today tend to manifest anxiety, depression, and aggression and to some extent, suicidal tendencies, when exposed to problems and other life-changing events (Seager  Thummer, 2009). The authors of this article believe that these types of men must be subjected to group therapies in order to address their emotional and psychological needs and to enable them to express their suppressed emotions (Seager  Thummer, 2009). This study supports these hypotheses with the findings from a mens group that was facilitated in an NHS psychology department in a hospital environment in East London (Seager  Thummer, 2009). Results showed that the utilization of group therapy in men enabled them to transform the destructive relationships into stabilized and peaceful overall health status (Seager  Thummer, 2009).

The group therapy result is more technically termed as the splitting off of the softer emotional aspects of men which required the establishment of a reconstructed masculine identity that was able to defy the negative notions of men involvement in group therapies (Seager  Thummer, 2009). It is also worthy to emphasize that this journal article is also of scholarly nature because empirical data collection process was employed and a reputable literature search was included in the paper.

Conclusion
The primary article that was discussed in this paper focused on the effects of group therapy to adult patients with ADHD while the two supporting articles to this paper have focused on the effects of group therapies on females who were sexually abused during childhood and on the effects of these kind of therapies to males who have suffered from emotional problems, respectively. The two articles supported the theoretical framework of the primary study because they both cited the positive benefits of group therapies to psychologically compromised patients. In general, it can be inferred that group therapy is one of the most essential intervention in Psychology because it allows the restoration and subsequent improvement of the psychological patients. Also, the fact that these articles are scholarly in nature further supports the acceptability of the importance of group therapies in our society today.

Drug and alcohol-related problems are the major issues that the government is dealing with and many people are suffering from. Alcohol is the most abused substance, and it is often paired with a number of alcohol-related problems in the society. Drugs, on the other hand, is often associated with a number of violent behaviors exhibited by an involved individual.

The problem of drugs and substance abuse is so prevalent in all parts of the world. It is a concern that is addressed to the community by the government due to its harmful effects on the overall health of an individual.

However, despite many advices and warnings, many people still indulge themselves in such destructive behaviors.

The following discussions will focus on how the abuse of alcohol and drugs among the Native Americans impact their lives as well as their health.

Purpose of the paper
The main purpose of this paper is to look at the issue of drug and alcohol abuse among the Native Americans. It is going to focus on the problems that occur as a result of alcohol and drug misuse. It will discuss the prevalence, the harmful effects, as well as the treatment and interventions of substance abuse. It will also focus on what kind of treatment is necessary for the Native Americans since they have different culture and beliefs.

The paper will also give focus on Nancy as an example of a female Native American substance abuser. Based from the effective substance abuse interventions for Native Americans, this paper will incorporate such interventions into Nancys case to determine its effectiveness.

Discussion
Prevalence of alcoholdrug use among Native Americans
Drug and alcohol abuse is so prevalent among people in all walks of life. This part will focus on Native Americans as the particular population, and see how alcohol and drug problems impact their lives.

Alcohol and drug use is one of the major causes of disability and death among Native Americans. According to the Arizona Department of Health Services (2005), alcohol is still the most abused substance by the natives, and is characterized by progressive and severe drinking patterns. Most Native Americans will involve themselves in drugsalcohol to overcome the stresses of life, inferiority complex and cultural conflict (Arizona Department of Health Services, 2005).

In a study carried out on the effects of alcohol on Native Americans, the results indicated that drinking was on the rise with people aged between 12 to 20 years accounting for more than ten million drinkers in America (National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1999). The report continues to indicate that out of this, about twenty percent engage in binge drinking and about six percent are heavy drinkers. According to Wallace et al. (2003), Native Americans have higher rates of alcohol use, as well as other substance use, compared to other minority groups.

Alcoholdrug use among Native American youths. On a research conducted among Native American youths, the average age for them to consume alcohol starts at 13. The percentage of those who engage in substance abuse had risen, with findings indicating a 31 percent increase in the 1990s from seven percent in the 60s (Substance Abuse Among Native Americans, 1996). It is also claimed that since many teenager are engaged in binge drinking and sometimes heavy drinking, about 16 percent of them experienced  black out . Most of them could not recall events prior to drinking as they had lost their conscience (Substance Abuse Among Native Americans, 1996). The act of drinking has been linked to the easy accessibility of alcohol among young people. It has been noted that young people will purchase alcohol without anyone considering they are underage (Alexander, 2000).

Alcohol consumption has also been identified as one of the four causes of deaths among the youth aged between 10 to around 24 (Kann et al., 2000). Other identified death causes were accidents, but in many instances caused by drivers who are under the influence of alcohol (Kann et al., 2000).

It has been indicated that those who begin taking alcohol at the age of 15 is at a higher risk of developing drug dependency than their counterparts who begin at a later age of about 21 (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999). There are greater chances for people who begin drinking at the age of 15 years to use other forms of illicit drugs. Most of them are seven times likely to use illicit drugs, with over 22 percent using marijuana and more than 50 percent using cocaine   a percentage that is way higher than the number of those who do not engage in early use of alcohol (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999).

The possibility of Native American youth under the influence of alcohol to engage in illicit sexual activities has also been found to be very high. The research indicates that about 39 percent of the teens who are sexually active have had sexual intercourse with four or more multiple partners (Costs of Underage Drinking, 1999). The problems that many young people are also contending with include the sexual assaults and acquaintance or date rape cases which are on the rise among the youth.

Alcoholdrug use among Native American adults. Tribal diversity greatly affects the prevalence of substance use in Native American adults. Studies regarding substance abuse in adults are limited as compared to the Native American youth (Szlemko et al., 2006). According to Szlemko et al. (2006), Northern reservations report higher rate of substance-related problems than the Southern reservations. It has also been found that Native American men are more likely to engage in substance use than females (Szlemko et al., 2006). In a survey conducted by the Arizona Department of Health Service (2005), the percentage of substance-related mortality among Native American adults was 58.2 deaths per 100,000 deaths. These deaths were linked with other factors such as substance-related accidents and substance-related diseases. It can also be said that the conducted survey has dramatically increased compared from the 50.6 deaths per 100,000 deaths in 1996 (Szlemko et al., 2006). In addition, the number of age-adjusted substance abuse and alcohol-related mortality among Native American adults are relatively higher than the general population (Szlemko et al., 2006).

Effects of drugs and alcohol among the Native American population
The effects of alcohol and other related drugs on the life of the Native Americans greatly impact their emotional and social life as well as cognitive abilities. Therefore the effects of these substances is very dangerous. In many ways, the effects of drugsalcohol among the Native Americans is primarily due to remote and rural characteristics of their location, lack of infrastructures to deliver prevention and treatment services, language and distance barriers and significant social and cultural history (Arizona Department of Health Services, 2005).

As discussed, alcohol abuse among Native Americans can be a cause of death, accidents and other related disorders, while underage drinkers often suffer from blackout due to heavy alcohol consumption (Substance Abuse Among Native Americans, 1996).

Accidents are also considered to be the effects of substance abuse. In a survey conducted, about 21 percent of reported accidents involved Native American drivers who were intoxicated Many of the lives of these population are lost annually due to the act of driving under the influence of alcohol (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999).

Native Americans have also been influenced by their diverse culture in using marijuana and other forms of illicit substances such as cocaine and metamphetamine. The possibility for them to indulge in drug abuse is relatively high during adolescence and early adulthood (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999).

Female natives who are under the influence of alcohol and drugs can also participate in illicit sexual activities. Effects these activities are dangerous since it may expose them to high risks of acquiring sexually transmitted infections, date rape and sexual violence (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999). Individuals may also have unprotected sex with multiple partners, which poses a great threat to their health. Many organizations and governments are trying to come up with various measures focused on mitigating the spread of sexually transmitted infections, and this can be fully achieved if the problems of drugs and alcohol prevalence among the Native population will be resolved (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999).

These  effects on the lives of Native Americans can be incorporated in the case of Nancy. As told, Nancys alcohol dependence for 2 years involved him in a car accident, in which two people died. Her substance abuse is probably the result of the domestic violence she suffered from her husband. In addition, Nancy also engaged in using marijuana since the age of 15, which can be associated from the cultural diversity of the Native American population in general.

Impact of drugs and alcohol on targeted persons life
In this part, we will focus on how Nancys drugs and alcohol abuse impact her life. As discussed in the literature, the influence of alcohol can make a person become irresponsible and indulge in some life threatening behaviors. Nancy got involved in car accident while intoxicated, harming two people and herself. Her average alcohol consumption is one case per day. Prior to Nancys admission to the facility, her last alcohol consumption was 10 days ago.

Since Nancy began using marijuana at an early age, she is reported smoking an average of one gram per day, and her last usage was one month ago. This is mainly because as one continues to use a certain drug for a long period of time, chances are they become used to it until it has no satisfying effects. They would then increase the dosage to achieve its satisfying effects.

Another impact is that it may lead to violent behaviors that are life threatening. Nancy suffered domestic violence from her husband. She received a severe blow on her head causing a traumatic brain injury, which then resulted to her Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The traumatic brain injury has left a soft spot on the left side of Nancys brain, and put her in a coma state for three months. Nancy was also reported to act violently while she was put on rehab. This is mainly because of the traumatic events that happened to her life as a result of domestic violence. It is also due to her dependence on alcohol and drugs. Prior to her admission to the facility, Nancy has already been kicked out on three previous rehab centers due to her aggressive and violent behavior.

Treatment options for targeted population
Alcoholism and other substance abuse is a major problem for Native Americans. It is important that prior to the treatment procedure, one must consider the cultural diversity and historical context of the population (Duran et al., 1998). Interventions and treatments for the said population can be categorized into non-native-centered and native-centered (Duran et al., 1998).

Non-native centered treatment
Some interventions focus on non-native-centered, which are found to be effective for European Americans. However, these interventions are found to be less effective for the natives since they have different world view as well as mistrust for some government-sponsored agencies. Such mistrust is reasonable because of the cultural diversity of different Native Americans tribes (Duran et al., 1998). As a result, natives may not participate in certain treatment procedures due to lack of cooperation with the agencies and health workers.

Native-centered treatment
The other category, which is native-centered is considered to be more effective for the Native Americans. Cliff (2005) stated that social workers must familiarize himherself first into the culture, beliefs and history of the natives prior to the treatment procedure. There are also substance abused  Nativized  programs that had been culturally modified for the Native Americans. These treatment programs basically include coping and social skills training, culturally-modified AAs, relapse educationprevention and cognitive behavioral modification.

Prior to the treatment, the use of  traditional ceremonies  greatly improves the outcome of the treatment. Since Native Americans have a variety of traditional beliefs, it is important to incorporate it to the treatment programs to enhance their social, physical, mental as well as spiritual health (Cliff, 2005).

Talking in circles is a nativized form of group therapy for the Native Americans, which begins with smudging and ends with a prayer. This form of group therapy is found to be effective in enhancing their social communication skills as well as participation (Szlemko et al., 2006).
Another form of effective substance abuse treatment is with the use of  sweat lodges.  Sweat lodges are similar to saunas, but the only difference is that it incorporates the  spiritual elements  of the Native American tradition. Aside from its popularity as a substance treatment program, sweat lodges has been found to be effective in curing many forms of illnesses (Szlemko et al., 2006).

Treatment options for targeted person
Going back to the case of Nancy, it will be difficult for the social health-worker to implement treatment options if heshe will not familiarize himherself to the background of Nancys culture. Treatment for Nancys substance dependency can be native-centered to ensure that the highest quality of care will be delivered.

According to the story, Nancy was also already enrolled in different treatment centers, but she was kicked out due to her violent and aggressive behavior. It is also said that Nancy was a notable drinker and drug user. It is important to explore Nancys feelings towards such behavior because it is the result of substance dependence as well as PTSD.

Initially, it is important to thoroughly assess Nancys overall well-being. Since she is a victim of domestic violence, Nancy suffered from PTSD. Therefore, health-workers must educate Nancy on the prevalence and origin of PTSD to decrease her anxiety and increase her participation in other program interventions. Health workers should also encourage Nancy to verbalize her feelings to establish rapport and increase her over-all mental health.

Focusing on Nancys drug and alcohol dependency, social health-workers must use both native- and non-native-centered treatment interventions. Non-intervention treatment must be utilized initially so that Nancy improve her coping, social and cognitive skills. Since Nancy was reported to assault co-patients and staff members, interventions should initially focus on a one-on-one basis. As soon as Nancy exhibits improvement on the said treatment, she can now engage in group activities to further enhance her coping skills.

Other native-centered interventions can then be utilized to ensure that Nancy is receiving a  standardized and quality care. These include sweat lodges, culturally-modified AAs, group therapy sessions and other traditional ceremonies by the Native Americans.

Barriers to successful treatment for targeted person
It is however at times difficult to treat people who are suffering from drug and alcohol related problems as we have seen above. This is due to the fact that alcohol and drugs have already altered the mind functions. In Nancys case, it is obvious that lack of participation in treatment programs is the main problem.

With regards to Nancys PTSD, she has a noted reaction to loud noises. She is also reported to be crying and flinching without valid reason. These symptoms can also be associated with her substance dependence. Nancy also insists to be on her bedroom instead of joining other patients in the rehab, demonstrating lack of social participation.

Since Nancys husband assaulted her with the use of a hammer, Nancy developed traumatic brain injury. This is another barrier for Nancys successful treatment since she is noted to have slow speech, deficits in reading and lack of retention of information.

On her third treatment, Nancy chose to leave the center on her own saying that  It was just too much.  Obviously, this phrase means that Nancy is trying to struggle from her problem, but she feels like there is no way she can recover from her substance dependence. This barriers can be considered as a great barrier for the health-workers to develop a well-planned intervention and treatment program for Nancy.

Considerations for RehabilitationCommunity Counselors
Considered to be a major problem not only for the Native Americans but also for the general population, substance dependence greatly impacts the lives of the affected individuals. Most substance users do not admit that they are already addicted even though the symptoms are obvious. This is the main concern why families of affected individuals often seek the help of counselors and rehabilitation centers.

If a person starts to exhibit acts of violence and other abusive behaviors due to substance dependency, it is a must for himher top be referred to treatment programs or institutions. It is very helpful for these individuals to get help from experts to help them overcome their dependency.

In Nancys case, her substance dependency is already severe since she started engaging in such activities at an early age. Cultural differences and beliefs greatly affect her over-all well being. Therefore, considerations for rehabilitations is a must for her.

Counseling sessions could be carried on from rehabilitation centers, depending on the damage caused by the effects of the drugs and alcohol. The main importance of the rehab is to keep involved individuals away from the reach of addictive substances, as well as help them recover from the state of addiction.

Conclusion
The prevalence of alcohol and substance abuse among the Native American population is wide and growing concern that cannot be ignored. The effects of these problems  can be dangerous to ones health. Therefore, counselors should work hand-in-hand to help individuals suffering from such problem. It is important to consider the Native Americans historical context as well as cultural beliefs to ensure that the best quality of intervention and treatment will be delivered by the social health-workers.

The Indian American communities are believed to have some history in the engagement of alcohol and drug abuse. Many resulted to the act due to the continued loss of lives, land and the depressing government policies which ruled their land. The communities are therefore said to consistently suffer form the post traumatic stress disorders. Many people ended up engaging themselves in alcohol consumption either as a mean of socializing or sharing the trauma. The habit however only worsens the current situation in the region as alcohol consumption creates a false mentality which lasts for a short while. Originally, alcohol substance was meant for ceremonial purposes some of the nations even went as far as strictly forbidding the non-ceremonial consumptions. The restrictions were meant to address the increased chronic alcohol addictions in the region.

The cultural alienation in the native America children who were mostly sent to boarding schools far away from their parents perpetuated the substance abuse to majority of them. The cultural alienation further accelerated the weakening of the Native American communities who were previously guided morally. The loss of culture is believed to be the major cause of social problems also associated to the substance abuse in the region. Other major physical, mental and psychological disorders have been observed as a result of the continued substance abuse in the region. This paper seeks to address the therapeutic treatment for the drugs and alcohol abuse in the Native American region.

PurposeThe topic is not widely recognized in general public but is a bigger issue within the specific population.

Considering the social and financial problems that faces the Native Americans in Idaho, proper and well coordinated therapeutic programs should be initiated. The social harassments for the young girls and women have been a major cause of traumatic stress within the society. Such psychological experiences mainly deter and influence the victims behavior and concentration in schools.

Therapeutically designed programs therefore need to be established within the social and educational institutions so as to assist the affected communities. Considering that there is a huge number who have resulted in alcohol consumptions as they seek to run away from the reality, haste decision should be found for the communities. It should be understood that delay inn countering the PTSD which currently affects the community will just add up to more severe impacts as alternative measures will be sort by the victims (Nebelkopf  Phillips, 2004, p.14). Once the PTSD effects becomes too much for the victims to control, they end up indulging themselves in alcohol and drug abuse activities. The PTSD among the native victims currently leads to the rise of social injustices in the region. Few but to mention are the continued tribal wars, torture, rape and natural disasters in the native lands. The financial losses have also been on the rise and as a result given rise to family problems such as divorces and marriage breakages. There are much social violence which stresses women and children in the Native American region as rape and crime rate increases. These social problems are mainly caused by the alcohol and drug abuse. In addition the PTSD also greatly contributes to these abnormal behaviors. The reported cases of the homicides, suicide and theft cases have been on the rise especially in Idaho and Washington.  The behavior is however common in the Indian tribes in this region (Witkiewitz  Marlatt, 2007, p.141).

From the survey cultural beliefs and practices and poverty among the communities have greatly contributed to the substance abuse among the communities. Additionally, the PTSD has led to moral deterioration among the youths in the regions. People therefore have feared to invest their money in such places as the insecurity is on the rise. The economic operations and activities in the region have therefore been significantly below the required and normal level further impoverishing the communities. The hopelessness and joblessness in the region causes some sever PTSD making the communities to live in constant fears. Some has constantly had some intrusive re-experiencing of their past traumatic memories such as rapes and combat previously encountered.  Native American communities have therefore ended up avoiding such intrusive memories throughout their lives. They therefore live on denial a condition which bars people from the reality of life. The PTSD also causes some physical tension among the victims which consequently affects their psychological peace. They therefore experience sleepless, angered and tensed life throughout their lives (Wekerle  Wall, 2002, p.106). The insecurities have therefore greatly contributed homicides among the Native American communities. The extreme addiction of the substance also causes trauma and guilt among the victims who end up committing suicides. The respective authorities and government in the Native American countries therefore needs to critically address this issue as it not only affects the current but also the future generation of its population.

To bring awareness to topic, especially with the possibility of working with the local Native American population in order to critically address the issue PTSD and alcohol abuse in Idaho, it is important that the counselors implement a behavioral activation treatment technique as it addresses the depression issues within the Idaho locals. The technique will first enable the victims to come out of their stressors and depressing moments giving them a fresh beginning in life. It should be noted that the majority of alcohol and drug users are mainly on their denial stage. The denial stage therefore makes it completely difficult to assist such victims since the stage is coupled with a lot of resistance. In order to equally cater for the PTSD the victims should be provided with therapy session which will assist them to overcome the painful and disturbing pasts. Therapy treatment will also assist the victims to accept their past in order to enable them focus into the future. The public awareness campaign should be created in order to provide a well broad based communities and tribal supports which will eventually enable the reductions of substance abuse. The awareness should however be more directed to the youths in order to cater for the countries future. Drug abuse also leads to psychiatric and co morbid effects among the drug users (Fullerton  Ursano, 2009, p.163).

The government should therefore lay some economic plans which will empower the communities in order to eradicate hopelessness amongst them. This will enable them divert their energy and strengths to more creative and viable ventures in life. Quite a good number of the young generation can also end up developing their own careers in sports and other recreational fields thus assisting them to raise their self esteem. The authorities should also seek to launch prevention training among the teachers and healthcare workers in order to increase their knowledge and skills capacity. This will enable them to be more equipped when assisting substance abuse victims. Special projects such as early identification and treatment of substance abuse and options for substance abuse treatment and relapse prevention should be established in order to cater for the many victims that the region has. These special programs should also seek to assist the special groups of people such as the pregnant, mentally and physically disabled persons in the society. Treatment Goals
To identify contributors of PTSD and Substance Abuse-Dependency within specific population
 The behavioral conditions in Idaho and Alaska show that the majority of the people living there encounter traumatic experiences. Programs such as exposure therapy should be undertaken as the majority of the victims avoid talking about their past. Such therapy sessions will assist the victims to fully understand that therefore is no need of hiding from their past. The adolescent and young generation with stressing and traumatic past should also be assisted in order to overcome such difficulties.

It is important to consider therapeutic treatment as it assists the victims suffering from the PTSD to overcome the hardships they encounter in their daily lives. Since the Indian American communities are the most affected culprits, therapeutic sessions should be established within their localities in order to assist and treat the addicted victims. The treatment will therefore ensure that alcohol and drug free environment is obtained as the communities reverse their culture to uphold more dignified way of life.

To address the role of acculturation and how it maymay not contribute to PTSD and Substance Abuse-Dependency
Since the traditional beliefs and customs among the Idaho communities encourage alcohol drinking as a socialization factor. It is important that the theraputical treatment take note of the cultural values. In order to win the cultural beliefs, the treatment should major on addressing the negative consequences of the alcohol consumption. The counselors should let the Idaho communities know that PTSD and alcohol and drug abuse worsens the economic position of the community. The stress disorders also deny the individual chance to exploit their full potential in their daily activities. Considering that the majority of the Idaho people are self employed, then less participations means less output. The traditional norm that bars the women from participating in economical activities increases the PTSD among the women.

For perfect solutions to be found cultural changes which will economically and socially uplift these people ought to be made. Only such plans can efficiently enhance the Indian American people to quit from substance abuse and also overcame the PTSD. Treatment Needs  IssuesEducated counselors regarding specifics of Native American culture and views on drug  alcohol addiction and PTSD
The counselors should understand that the Idaho communities first need to be economically empowered. The self esteem among the population should be uplifted in order to ensure that self respect is elevated. Therapy Programs which assist the young generation overcome their PTSD should also be incorporated within the formal educational curriculums (Hillard, J  Hillard, 2008, p.317).This will not only assist the adolescent children to live a stress free life but will also increase their understanding and concentration capacities is academics (Zayfert  Becker, 2006, p.213). It is also important to understand that the unemployment and economic dependency in the region heightens the PTSD among the communities. By economically empowering the Idaho indigenous people the counselors will not only solve the PTSD problems but also the alcohol and drug abuse problem within the community (Kimerling, Ouimette  Wolfe, 2002, p.251).  Counselors getting involved with family, tribe, elders, etc

The counselors should also ensure the support of different social classes in the region. The family, tribe and elders of this Native Americans must approve the treatment programs that the counselors might opt to use. Measures should also be established to improve the environmental conditions among the Native Americans. Solutions to the cultural conflict, post traumatic stress and low self esteem among the youth should be resolved in order to attain a permanent remedy in these communities. The substance treatment should therefore aim at creating a cultural heritage that honors and incorporate some cultural values such as family cohesiveness and dignity. The tribal knowledge will also enable the counselors to effectively communicate with the victims and the society at large. Educating clients on progressive nature of drug  alcohol addiction compounded by the challenges of PTSD

Consistent community training should be established among the native communities. In order to effectively manage the large communities, it is important to divide them into smaller manageable groups. During the session let them understand the dangers associated with both alcohol and drug abuse and PTSD.  In order to effectively sensitize the clients on the drug abuse effects it is important to psychologically prepare them on the challenges that they are bound to encounter such as the PTSD. It should be noted that the post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) if not well managed can result to continued substance use as the victims feel much disoriented without the substance (Williams  Banyard, 1999, p.223). This is mainly because their mental and physical functioning usually depends on the substance.Addressing level of acculturation and how it relates to and interacts with drug  alcohol issues and PTSD

It is important to understand that the cultural environment plays a big role in molding the individuals behaviors. Well articulated treatment which takes into account the behavioral and cultural values of the Native American should be developed. It is also important to understand some of the political, economic and social problems which may have been necessitated the creation of PTSD among the Native American communities.

How should Native American and non-Native American counselors address issues
The native and non-native American counselors should seek to address the root cause of the substance abuse in the region. Since the effect is greatly on the youths then proper programs should directed towards them. This should be done through raising their financial and self-esteem capacity among the individuals in the communities. Therapeutic sessions should be undertaken in order to uplift self esteem and also enable people to overcome the PTSD. Such sessions will greatly help the community move out of their current degrading condition.

Where should treatment take place (i.e. on reservation or other location in community)
It is therefore advisable for that prevention programs be launched in schools and other learning institutions in order to assist the young generation identify and understand the drugs impact on their lives. Such programs should also be spread around the communities settings in order to ensure that the youth dont suffer from traumatic disorders. There should also be some development of recreational and cultural events aimed at uplifting the self esteem of the populations within the Native American. This is because most of the abuse comes as a result of low esteem among the people within the communities.Should we talk about counselor self-awareness and multicultural counselingThe counselors themselves ought to be aware of the consequences and effects of substance abuse in order to effectively play their advisory role to the rest of the communities. Considering the cultural diversities in the Native American land, it is important that counselors should undergo some multicultural counseling sessions to familiarize themselves to the different cultures. Assessment  Treatment OptionsSince the research shows that the PTSD and substance abuse among the Idaho communities is yet to be resolved. The indigenous communities have continued living under extreme poverty, experience which results to stressing moments empowering them will do them great. It is notable that majority of the Alaska population indulge in substance abuse while still young and mostly in their high school level. There is also an intensified suffering if PTSD among the youths, something which distort them from their normal operations. The majority of the students parents are low income earners who consistently struggle to maintain their families. There are no effective remedies initiates by the state to eradicate the vice.

The already established divisions of behavioral health and recovery (DBHR) in Idaho are relatively low compared to the magnitude of the problem. More programs should be established in order to cater for the rising victim numbers. The program should be state funded and in order to ensure that all the victims are equally and adequately treated for the PTSD. Qualified and competent personnel should be enforced in order to ensure quality result is obtained.

The addiction severity index and burns depression checklists collected among the native Americans living in Idaho shows that the drug and alcohol addictions has greatly risen. The severity of PTSD among the young schooling generation is also very high. Approximately one out of the ten students seems to have experienced a traumatic past in their lives (Carise et al, n.d, 1-17). This past experience has negatively affected their concentration capacity in classes and thus their performances.
It is also notable that the alcohol and drug addiction level in the society have risen thus increasing the dependency level among the people. The communities are therefore living under extreme poverty due to the heightened unemployment level. The hopelessness amongst the youths has also intensified the crime rate in the region. The ASI-NAV research undertaken shows that the current economic condition is worsening in the region (Barbour, 1997, p.276). Quick decision therefore ought to be undertaken in order to rescue Idaho communities.

Employmentindependent living concerns
Most of the Native Americans, suffering from PTSD belong to the low income class and therefore there is need independent income sources to uplift their living conditions. In addition, even the counseling and treatment programs are costly and it is in this view that various alternatives have established in order to improve the welfare of the people in the area. For instance, the government has established a compensation system especially for the war veterans suffering from PTSD. Basically, the national Center for PTSD ensures that the lives of veterans with PTSD as well as those of their families are taken care of through financial and treatment support. There are other agencies that promote the living conditions of the natives including the Recruiting for Information Technology Age (RITA) which links women suffering from PTSD with local employers while at the same time offering them training and soft skills support. The initiation of community programs aimed at ensuring the participation of PTSD patients not only provides an opportunity for rehabilitation, but also enhances them with a chance social cohesion as well as personal development.

Successful Outcomes
Diagnosis and comprehensive treatment of PTSD has significantly contributed to the improvement of health as well as the living condition of the Northwest people. Therapeutic programs have been successful in offering a lifeline to the people suffering from PTSD by offering counseling sessions as well as rehabilitation centers that enhance their focus on their personal lives and adjusting them for the better. Recreation facilities offered by these centers have been very vital for recovery process, for instance, the Sun Valley Adaptive Sports has helped many disabled people through recreation especially the war veterans.

The field counselors advices the government on the severe consequences of the continued substance abuse in the state. Moreover, they have come up with a culturally defined treatment plans especially for the youth which will enable acceptance in the communities. The programs include tribally sponsored chapters of national youth organizations, physical challenge programs that use tribal culture and environment, and peer support groups for students whose main aim is to share feelings and thoughts in an environment that promotes native heritage and social life. In this case, the counselors promote the acculturation level by incorporating the native traditional practices in their treatment plan and the use of group therapy sessions.

Intelligence is said to be the capacity of our rational mind to consolidate and evaluate external stimuli by integrating sensory input with our memory and our programming (Intelligence). An individuals intelligence can be acquired as well as influenced in a variety of ways. All individuals are born with a certain level of intelligence. That level is influenced or determined by the individuals genetic makeup and is considered to be a hereditary intelligence. As individuals grow, their intelligence is further influenced by the environment that surrounds them on a daily basis.

In the article Effects of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence authors T.M. McDevitt and J.E. Ormrod conclude that ones intelligence or in this case ones IQ score correlates with the measures of information processing speed within one brain (McDevitt and Ormrod). Furthermore, process depends on neurological efficiency and maturation, which are genetically controlled (McDevitt and Ormrod). For instance, a child born with a genetic defect will have a lower IQ than hisher peers with no genetic defects. The intelligence level the child is born with is in a sense genetically controlled and hereditarily influenced.

The childs intelligence has in a way been predetermined however, could it be possible to change the intelligence level through environmental influences It would seem that outside forces such as special teachers, training, and even some medical procedures could actually increase the childs level of understanding. At the same time, the childs level of understanding could also be influenced in a negative way in that the intelligence level could actually decrease. If the child were to be placed in a room all day without any kind of nurturing care, training, etc. then heshe could actually lose capabilities of intelligence. It is best to conclude that hereditary influences on intelligence actually predetermine an individuals level of understanding while environmental influences can actually change an individuals level of understanding.

Operant conditioning is the mode of conditioning behaviors by use of consequences to modify the occurrence of a form of behavior. Majorly, operant conditioning involves the correction of behavior, which can also be termed as conditioning of behaviors. There exists two types of behavior conditioning there is the classical and the operant conditioning (Theodore, et al, 2005). Classical conditioning can be distinguished from operant conditioning in that, in operant conditioning, it involves modification of voluntary behavior, whereas classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behavior which is elicited by antecedent conditions. That is, behaviors conditioned by classical conditioning are not maintained by consequence, but those conditioned but operant, are maintained by consequence.

Operant conditioning was invented by B F. Skinner, who was a famous behaviorist. It is sometimes called instrumental conditioning and its particularly a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through this mechanism, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence. After discovery, it was believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior, but external observable causes of human behavior (Theodore, et al, 2005). The term operant refers to any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.  Skinners theory explains how we acquire the range of learned behaviors that we come across each and every day of our lives. That is to say that, in each and every passing day, there are those behavior that we come across with, either from the people we interact with or the experiences that we are part of, when we analyze such behavior and imitate or rather start behaving as such, we will have undergone operant conditioning.

For instance, in our surroundings, we can notice employees working so hard in their different working sectors so that in the long run they can get rewards or even job promotions. Another instance can be seen when school students compete to work harder among themselves so that they emerge the best in the class works so that they can receive rewards from the teacher. In these examples, the individuals involved, most a time have this thought in their minds that there is a possibility of rewards. This will motivate them and it will therefore cause an increase in behavior (Theodore, et al, 2005). But in other cases, we can realize that the operant conditioning can be used to decrease the occurrence of behavior. The removal of an undesirable result or the use of punishment can lead to decrease and prevent undesirable behaviors. If an individual has some knowledge that doing or practicing some kind of behavior will land him or her into trouble, then the individual will not think of doing activities that will lead him or her to such effects. For instance, children may be told that they will lose rewards of even holiday privileges if they continue showing defiant characteristics in class. This possibility of punishment will make the children decrease in disruptive behaviors.

There exist components or rather procedures for operant conditioning. They are reinforcement, punishment and finally extinction. They all occur in the positive and negative senses. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish or extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people. We can not of course argue that organisms are being reinforced, punished or extinguished rather, it is the response that is reinforced, punished or extinguished (Theodore, et al, 2005). More over, there is a concept of avoidance learning. It is a type of learning in which certain behavior results in the cessation of an aversive stimulus. For instance, performing the behavior of shielding ones eye when in the sunlight will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in ones eye.

To start with, reinforcement happens in two senses there is the negative reinforcement and the positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is when a behavior or rather a response is followed by a favorable stimulus that is commonly seen as pleasant, and thus increases the frequency of that behavior. Skinner conducted an experiment that he termed as Skinners Box, and from all that deductions he made, we are able to learn and apply the various components of operant conditioning.

For instance, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever (Theodore, et al, 2005).  Its evident that when an individual knows at the end of whatever he or she is doing there will be good results, his or her intensity of doing whatever he or she was doing will definitely increase. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is when a behavior response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus that is commonly seen as unpleasant, thereby increasing that behaviors frequency. For instance, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise sounding from the rats cage continuously until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. In both these cases, of reinforcement, the behavior is seen to increase.

We are able to conclude that, positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after a behavior has been done and mostly in these situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something such as praise or direct award. On the other hand, negative reinforcers involve the removal of events that are not favorable or rather results after the exhibition of a behavior. In such situations a response can be strengthened by the removal of something that is seen unpleasant (Theodore, et al, 2005).

Punishment also exhibited in two senses, there is the negative punishment and the positive punishment. Positive punishment is the presentation of events that are not favorable or outcome in order to weaken the response that it follows. Negative punishment on the other hand occurs when a favorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Its known as punishment by removal. In both cases of punishment, the behavior is seen to decrease.

According to Skinner box experiment, positive punishment when a behavior is followed by an aversive stimulus for instance introducing a shock to the organism in the Box experiment will lead to a decrease in behavior. While the negative punishment, occurs when a behavior is followed by removal of a favorable stimulus for instance taking away a childs toy being a result of a behavior that is undesired (Theodore, et al, 2005). This will definitely result to decrease in behavior.

Another concept is that of Extinction. This occurs when a response that had previously been reinforced in no longer effective. For instance, in the Skinner Box experiment, the rat is pushing the lever and in return it gets a reward of  food pellets several times, and then pushing the lever again and never getting the food pellets again, eventually the rat will stop pushing the lever.
 
Under the reinforcement sense, there is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organisms response. This is called, non contingent reinforcement. The idea here is that the target behavior decreases because it is no longer necessary to receive the reinforcement. This involves time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining the response, which serves to decrease the rate of the target behavior.

Another concept brought forward by the operant conditioning theory is the concept of vicarious learning. Learning from watching the consequences of behavior. That is students in a class watch their colleagues go through a chain of punishments and refrain from deviant behavior in order to avoid going through the same experience as their colleagues (Theodore, et al, 2005).

Operant conditioning and the system of reinforcement both positive and negative  have been used widely in education to decrease the occurrence of overt behaviors and increase the elicitation of pleasurable behavior, like improving students performance in class and the like.