Psychology

The bystander effect (Genovese effect or syndrome) is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals fail to assist in an emergency situation where other people are present. In the past, the probability of help has been thought to be inversely proportional to the number of bystanders, thus the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that one will help you. The people around assume nothing is wrong because nobody else looks concerned. Observers are more likely to take action if there are a few or no other witnesses. The opposite of bystander effect is bystander intervention, which states that if a person requires help, another person, unaccompanied by friends or witnesses is much more likely to offer help.

When a group of people witnesses a person in need of help, confusion begins to arise about who should assist and most people assume that another person will intervene thus ending up not assisting the one in need (Christensen, n.d). In their research, Latane and Darley found out that the amount of time it takes the participant to take action and seek help varies depending on how many other observers are present (1969). They found out that the bystanders go through a five steps process during each of which they can decide to act or not.

The first step is where they notice the event or they are in a hurry and pretend not to notice. The second step is where they realize the emergency or assume that because others are not acting it is not an emergency. In the third step they assume responsibility or assume that others will help. The fourth step is where they know or do not know what to do. And in the last step they act i.e. they worry about danger, legislation or embarrassment (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d)

There are two major factors that contribute to the bystander effect. The first one is the presence of other people which creates a diffusion of responsibility. Because there are other observers, individuals do not feel much pressure to take action. The responsibility to take action is thought to be shared among all the present individuals. The observers assume that the other party will intervene and as a result they feel less responsible. Secondly, there is the need to correctly and in a manner that is socially acceptable. When other observers fail to intervene, individuals in the scene take this as a signal that a response is not needed or not appropriate. The onlookers may also fail to intervene if the situation seems ambiguous (Baron, Branscombe  Byrne, 2008).

There are several reasons why people may choose not to help. To begin with, individuals assuming other bystanders are more qualified to help in times of need for example presence of police officers or doctors. As a result, they feel as though their intervention would be unhelpful and therefore unnecessary. The other reason why people fail to act is as a result of evaluation apprehension, where some people feel self conscious about the image they portray to other bystanders. To avoid losing face, the individuals choose not to respond to a person in need of aid. Other factors that lead to one not offering help are fears associated with perception, which include fear of being superseded by a superior helper, fear of offering help that is unwanted, or fear of facing legal consequences as a result of offering inferior and perhaps dangerous assistance. There is also fear of victimization where people avoid conflict because they dread being attacked if they help.

The most frequently cited example of the bystander effect by psychologists is the brutal murder of a young woman whose name was Catherine kitty Genovese, on Friday march 13, 1964 (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d). The young lady was returning home after work. While at her entrance she was attacked and stabbed by a man who was later identified as Winston Moseley. Despite her repeated cries for help, none of the witnesses called the police early enough to save her life. It was not until after 30 minutes that the first person contacted the police. If anyone intervened immediately, maybe Genoveses life would have been saved (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d)

There is a five step cognitive model for avoiding the bystander effects as developed by the psychological community. The steps include, noticing something is happening by basically paying attention and knowing what is going on. Try to asses the situation as best as you can from your own knowledge and do not turn to others to see what they are doing.  Interpreting the situation if it is an emergency, then, taking responsibility and lastly choosing a form of assistance and implementing it immediately (BBC, 2001).

In order to overcome the bystanders effect, there are some things that you need to do when you witness an attack. First, use your cell phone or any other phone and dial whatever the emergency number is in your region you can do it at a distance from the attack and you can remain anonymous if you want. Secondly follow your gut instincts if you sense that something is not right, it probably isnt. The third thing is to suppress your what if I am wrong, what if I embarrass myself inside voice. The effects caused on the victim as a result of the attack might be worse than the effect of a little embarrassment on you. The fourth thing is to empathize with the person being attacked. One should be able to help irrespective of whether you share the same social group or if you have connection with the victim in some way. You should see the victim as another student, sister, brother, or in fact another human being just like you.

The fifth thing you need to do to overcome this effect is to get training. This is because the major reason making bystanders not intervene in times of emergency is quite simple, they do not know. Bystanders know very well that they should do something but have no clue what course of action to take and are scared of doing something wrong or make things worse. So if for example you want to stop sexual assault, you should research on how to identify and stop such situations. This will prepare you and also make you confident on what to do when the right time comes. Then you should know that your intervention will help no matter what. Some actions like yelling, shouting loudly, or calling the police do not need special training. The more you are knowledgeable about something, the more you are capable be of dealing with it in the right manner. If you convince yourself that the reason you cannot help is because this effect is distorting your judgment, then, you are more likely to overcome it and take action.       

While it would appear like a person in a public place is relatively safe from an attack, it might not be the case as proven by research on the bystander effect. To counter this effect, if you are attacked in front of a crowd, you should appeal to one person in the crowd only, eye contact with that person may also be helpful in gaining help. The other thing that may help is to make people understand that the bystander effect exists. Being aware of this means that when you see a crime occurring you should possibly try to offer some help (Baron, Branscombe  Byrne, 2008). Shouting at other people watching the crime with you might also be very helpful as this will motivate others in the crowd to intervene. The other thing is that if you see a crime happening do remember to call the police, do not just assume that another person might have called already.

Anyone on the street has the power to intervene when we see something wrong happening. More often than not, all it takes is just a single word or gesture to show the perpetrator that people can notice. The only problem that people face, is overcoming the social forces and tiny voices that run through our heads telling us that we cannot for one reason or another. In other words, we should not be afraid or insecure to take action no matter how difficult it is since the little action you take can save a life.

Many studies have been done regarding the behavior of children and the reasons why some interact with others in a negative andor disruptive way and why others do just the opposite.  In this research paper we looked at the different possibilities leading to negative behavior such as, parenting techniques, development of empathy, self-esteem and even such disorders as autism, attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as well.  At the conclusion we hope to have gained a valid perspective into the behavior of children as well as summed up several different theories involving this matter.

It is difficult to pinpoint exactly why some children behave negatively in social situations and why others do not.  Much research has been done on this matter and many theories have been developed.  Which ones are correct  How do we know exactly what causes children to be sensitive to social interaction when every child and situation is different  What about the lack of empathy, or even, too much empathy  Can diagnoses such as autism, attention deficit disorder (ADD), and its close cousin, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) be solely responsible for such behavior issues in some children.

In this paper we attempt to answer these questions by looking at the research surrounding the issue of child sensitivity to interaction.  Parenting models, development, or non-development, of empathy and self-esteem and even increased or decreased heart rate will all be analyzed as possible causes behind this issue at will be looked at in greater detail.  In summary, a general theory about the reason(s) why children behave in a positive or negative fashion will be introduced and supported through research of academic journal articles related to this matter.

Oppositional, aggressive children are characterized by a tendency to act on their negative impulses, often without apparent attention to any effects upon the well being of others (Hastings, 2000).
It has been discussed that lack of empathy is one of the main reasons why some children behave in a negative way toward others in social situations.  Children who do not understand the effects their behavior has on others, generally tend to not care when they act out or behave in a negative way.  They simply dont understand why others feel bad when they do so.  Some will even feed off of the others behavior, which can result in the inducement of more negative behavior and have a snow-ball effect. 

These children who lack in the empathy department also see attention given to others as being a threat to them.  They have a hard time understanding why people would feel bad or even good about someone else when they clearly dont have those feelings themselves.  This usually will result in either, negative behavior patterns, or total shutdown and seclusion from the social activity or interaction. 

Studies have been done showing a link between a childs lack of empathy and their upbringing.  Mainly two different parenting styles have been identified authoritative and authoritarian which pose as polar opposites of each other.  Authoritative parenting includes being warm, responsive, and supportiveauthoritarianism centers on harsh, restrictive, punitive and inappropriately controlling parenting (Hastings, 2000).  The latter being one of the main causes of lack of empathy in children.  The former usually results in socially appropriate behavior and children who are aware of others feelings. 

It appeared that the strongest connection to parenting styles and effects that it has on children happen around 2 to 3 years of age.  Even though it is eminently discernable to see empathy, lack there-of, and negative and positive behavior taking place beforehand as a result of parenting styles, a strong connection exists between those in the 2 to 3 age group and the influence their parents have on them.
Now that doesnt mean that how a parent treats a child at that age will ultimately determine how that child will behave in social situations.  Certainly there is a stronger correlation between parenting style over the course of the entire childhood and social behavior, however, according to studies that have been done, the ages of 2 to 3 are critical in establishing a baseline as to how sensitive a child will be in social interactions.

There have also been studies linking a childs heart rate and the correlation with empathy.  Those that have a lower resting heart rate are more likely to show less empathy toward others versus those that have a higher resting heart rate. 

How about those who have too much empathy  Not many studies have been done regarding this, however, is it possible that too much empathy could result in children who are withdrawn for fear of hurting other peoples feelings  Perhaps they are afraid of doing something that would cause others to not like them and probably over-analyze everything based upon what others would probably think or feel.  This could result in a distorted perception of reality and detachment from social interaction.

A child who is withdrawn, non-attentive to others, lacks in empathy, easily distracted or lazy, or suffers from low self-esteem can be diagnosed with ADHD-PI (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive) or commonly referred to simply as attention-deficit disorder or ADD.  These children are more susceptible to being overlooked, however, because they are not usually disruptive.  Instead, many will receive negative feedback from teachers stating that they are just not trying hard enough or are not participating and applying themselves.  Failure to diagnose and treat these children can have severely negative affects on their outcomes as students and therefore, as productive citizens later on in adulthood. 

ADHD is commonly diagnosed in children under the age of 7 and is a bit easier to catch than ADD.  Children with ADHD have difficulty in pretty much any social situation in that they are generally disruptive and will act on impulse.  For these kids, the social filter simply is not present and there is seldom any resemblance of empathy.  They may display feelings of empathy toward others after the behavior took place, however, rarely will that affect them the next time they act out on their impulse.

Studies have been done regarding children diagnosed with ADHD implying a connection between their behaviors and lack of empathy and their working memory (WM) deficits.  This study shows that WM can be improved by training in children with ADHD.  (It) also improved response inhibition and reasoning and resulted in a reduction of the parent-rated inattentive symptoms of ADHD (Klingberg, 2009).  These were with children that were not on their normal medication for ADHD in order for real results to be exposed.  Although this is definitely good news in regards to the treatment of ADHD in children, there hasnt been anything done yet that implies long-term solvency.  Until then, medication will continue to be the proper treatment.

Autism continues to be somewhat of an enigma in the psychological and medical community as it is not clear as to what the causes of this disorder are.  The fact that the autism spectrum is so great poses a significant challenge as to determining the causes and treatment of those diagnosed.  There are those that display very low cognitive functioning and virtually no social awareness and then there are those with Asperger syndrome that display some of the attributes of autism, however, they are able to function at a fairly high level in society with some assistance.

Doctors are usually able to diagnose Autism within the first two years of a childs life through a screening process called the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers or CHAT.  The CHAT can be used to identify cases of Autism and related pervasive developmental disorders at 18 months of age.  It is emphasized that the CHAT is not a diagnostic instrument but can identify potential cases of autism spectrum disorders for a full diagnostic assessment (Baird, 2000).  Follow up is then done up to six years of age.

Socially, those that are diagnosed with Autism are impaired and show a lack of communication skills, obsession with certain interests and will repeat certain behaviors over and over again.  These traits generally continue through adulthood and constant supervision and support is needed for them to have their needs met.  Studies have shown that those afflicted with this disorder seldom have feelings for others.  They lack a concept of the effect that their behavior has on others.  Therefore, just like those in the above examples, they lack empathy. 

In conclusion, although there are many different reasons why some children act the way they do in social situations, one factor seems to dominate in all of the cases that were studied.  The lack of empathy seems to be the common denominator when looking at social impairments, whether they be negative, disruptive, withdrawal, or just inability to interact at all.  Those children that are unable to understand what others are feeling and be able to process that information in an appropriate way are generally susceptible to having a social behavior disorder of some sort.  Therefore it is imperative that parents, educators and those in the medical and psychological field properly adhere to the signs of social impairments so that proper treatment can be given.   

An extensive literature review conducted by Narcoss (2002) demonstrated that in therapy, the relationship is one of the most important factors in outcome variance (as cited in Tursi  Cochran, 2006, p.393).  The clinical interview is the first step in initiating and developing this client-therapist relationship.  Discussed in the succeeding paragraphs is an example of a clinical interview conducted with a mother and her teenage daughter who was arrested for hitting her teacher.  The daughter has been mandated by court to seek professional help to better manage her anger issues.  I will be evaluating the conduct of the interview in the next few of paragraphs.

At the beginning of the interview, the mother and daughter appeared somber and nervous, spoke softly and slowly, and rarely engaged in eye contact.  I mirrored the daughters soft spoken tone and was careful to match her pace of speaking.  This was done to make her feel that I am not rushing her and I am genuinely interested about what she was saying.  I also observed that the more I mirrored the mother, the more she became relaxed and warmed up to the interview.  She seemed to take interest in looking for my discomfort that it took it off her.

Attending behaviors, such as eye contact, leaning forward, open posture, head nodding and relaxed manner, were very helpful in encouraging communication during the interview.  According to Murphy and Dillon (1998), it is important that we convey our continuous interest in each person by making periodic eye contact even if eye contact is not returned (p.58).  I noticed that when speaking to her directly without looking at her mom, she too looked less at her mom when answering.  The mother was also attempting to explain the circumstances surrounding her daughters behavior.  Through shifting eye contact during the interview, I was able to convey when questions are meant for the daughter alone and when the mothers opinion was welcomed. 

I employed reflective listening while not engaging into deep conversation about the incident.  At this stage of the interview, the goal is to establish rapport and convey empathy to the client.  I went through the paper asking all the questions systematically and consistently paraphrasing their answers.  According to Sommers-Flanagan  Sommer-Flanagan (2003), this assures clients that you hear them accurately and allows them to hear what they said (p.70).  This also is a way of clarifying that the interviewer accurately heard what the client expressed.  Clinical interviewing serves as basis for the therapeutic approach so information gathered must be accurate.  As expressed by Watson (2006), before implementing any approach, therapists need to be attuned to their clients needs and goals so they can collaboratively choose the best course of action to realize them (p.14).

The challenging part of the interview was expressing empathy while trying to explain to her that this was important for her to do so she would be able to complete her requirements to the judge.  During one of the questions, I merely asked her if she needed a case manager.  Reflecting on the interview process, I believed it would have benefitted her more if I explained clearly what entails a case management as she may have no prior knowledge about what it is.

Human civilization has been roaming this world since the span of time.  Approximately about two hundred thousand (200,000) years ago, man has started building their society by building their own language, writing their literature, using the natural resources around them and most especially cultivating the land they own.  Centuries after, man has made large advancements since the era of farmers and hunters but despite those achievements he still has insecurities.  These insecurities have many forms but have a common point to them  fear of the unknown.  Man fears of the unknown date of the todays tomorrow that will never come  the judgment day or the apocalypse.  And yet despite the fear, he has been engrossed in studying this possibility.

Eschatology Death by the Notes
In starting with the understanding of death, however, we do not seem the dilemma for language. (Schwarz, 2009)

Due to mans passion to the predicament of the last days, a study with about the imminent ending of humanity and the world as it is have emerged  that is Eschatology.  It has long been present in civilization dating even back to the ancient world but the word eschatology has said to have been used in the mid -1500s.  Eschatology is widely acknowledged by different sectors worldwide.  In fact, each religion has their own stories of the apocalypse. The Muslims have Isa, as their Messiah (Savior) who shall come down to Earth before the End of Days.  On another note, the Jews have an almost similar plot line from the Muslims -  Messiah will come forth during the days of the end.  Meanwhile, the religion Buddhism never predicted that there should be such ending to the humanity.  They, along with their closely related religion Hinduism, firmly believe that samsara shall never cease. Samsara is the cycle of life and death  that one goes through everytime they have died.  After which the person is reincarnated into another life or will proceed to Nirvana.  (Nattier, 2008)   The most influential religion perhaps, to have touched this matter and have probably gained believers despite different faiths is Christianity.  Their massive number and highly advertised celebrations have reached many people of different religions even. One can probably ask anyone of any religion different from Christians about Christianitys apocalypse and most of them can answer accurately correct. 

Fascination of Apocalypse
Throughout the many centuries of predicting what-not predictions, eschatology has developed.  It is the official or non-official study of anything related to the ending of the world. This happened as a result of the humans very peculiar fascination with the death of itself and the world.    Today, many (most especially Christians) have joined this practice in the hopes of finding answers to the questions about humanitys end. As mentioned earlier in the introduction, man may only be insecure as to the tentativeness of the date this shall occur  it is only the fear of the unknown.  This fear takes control of the situation and drives us into setting the dates for our own assurance.  This is still not proven though but it is most likely how mans thinking is, whether it is consciously or subconsciously done.  By consciously, means the instigator of the predicament and by subconsciously means the man only follows. 
 
Regardless of faith, people will always believe for the best- should the day come, man shall be saved.  That duality of the mind only shows how complex and beautiful mans thinking is. 

Previous Predictions
The earliest prediction of the apocalypse date back from 2,800 BC  the prophecy was inscribed on an Assyrian clay tablet and goes as follows, Our earth is degenerate in these latter days. There are signs that the world is speedily coming to an end. Bribery and corruption are common. (Moran 2008)  In 1st century AD, Jesus has predicted the end to happen thousands of years after his death.  The prophecy goes as follows,  Verily I say unto you, there be some standing here, which shall not taste of death, till they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom. (The Bibles Book of Matthew 1628) in 2nd century AD, the Montanus founded Montanism and established a base in Anatolia, Turkey where they have awaited the end.  The Montanists distinguished themselves from Christians  they clearly defined their movement as the New Prophecy not Christianism. (Butler, 2006) In March 25, 970 AD, Lotharingian (lower part of nobility) computists have predicted that the end would be on a Good Friday when the Annunciation fell on it.    This has troubled people for years after many Good Fridays have passed.  In 1284, Pope Innocent III predicted that the Messiah would come again on that same year although it never did happen.  In February 1, 1524, London Astrologers along with Johannes Stoeffler predicted that there would be a Great Flood (in reference to Noahs Ark) that will start in Thames river. In 1648, Sabbatai Zevi predicted the Messiah to return in the same year but recalculated it after a new year emerged. (Moran, 2008)  In 1666, many believed that the unlucky year with the imperfect-perfect number 666 was the end. In December 25, 1814, Joanna Southcott claimed that she bore Christ and that she would give birth on December 25 but rather than the end of the world, it became the end for her.  In 1836, the John Wesley of the Methodists predicted the Great Beast in the Bible to emerge on the same year.  In 1881, the Jehovahs Witnesses and pyramidologists predicted that the world would end that same year.  Another prediction by Mother Shipton in the 16th century stirred a commotion among the people - The world to an end shall come, in eighteen hundred and eighty one. In May 18, 1910, scientists have not predicted but have hypothesized the end of the world as Halleys Comet returned  the threat was the vapors from the comets tail. It was the first assumption based on a more scientifical view.  Decades later, on the 29th of April 1987, the Halleys Comet hypothesis was brought up once again. In March to May of the year 1997, Chuck Shramek made a statement about the end of the world and somehow found its way over the internet.  The Heavens Gate cult seized on these combined rumors as their signal to commit mass suicide in March of this year. (Moran, 2008) In the year 2000, many believed that it will be the year of Christs second coming.  The latest prediction of the end is the Mayans prophecy of the date December 21, 2012  they have predicted that at the stroke of midnight of the said date the world will take a new face.  (Burton, 2006)

The Bibles Prediction
The Christians Bible is one of the widely known sources of text which talks of the end of the world.  Christians worldwide uphold what is written in the Bible to be absolute as such, they are one of the most devoted believers in the worlds coming to an end.  The bible has been quoted numerous times of which the second coming or the end has been mentioned.  These are present in several books and the most common quoted are from the Book of Mark, Matthew, James, Peter, John and Revelations.

Jesus Christs prediction
Jesus Christ, the Christians Messiah, have been stating of the end even before the world is in no shape to have been predicting the horrible thought.  He said to his disciples, Truly, I say to you, this generation will not pass away before all these things take place.  (The Bibles Book of Mark 1330) Jesus told his disciples of the signs that the end is near the presence of false prophets rumors of famine and war shall surface his followers will be persecuted and the antichrist shall take hold of the Holy Land.  By false prophets, he meant that many will claim to be him and those prophets shall delude people into following them thus, tripping the people to the right faith.  Centuries after his death, many people did and are still impersonating as him.  The rumors Jesus have stated are far from the whispers he said they would be  - famine and wars are already happening in the current world.  Many of his men and those followers who spread the true word of God will be condemned by the people believing in the anti-christ.   And this antichrist is pointed out to be someone, whom the Apostle Paul described in the Book of Thesalonians, Let no man deceive you by any means for that day shall not come, except there come a falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition Who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God. 

The Four Horsemen
In the book of revelation, the end is just as Jesus has described in the Book of Mark although more symbolic figures are involved in the foretelling it.  In the nearing of the end, four horsemen with significant missions will come to earth  the white, the red, the black and the pale horsemen.  The white rider stands for those who rise to power and fame much like the anti-christ and the false prophets earlier stated.  This rider shall bring forth the next  the red rider.  This horseman brings war and bloodshed like what Jesus has stated in the Book of Mark.  The red horseman shall bring forth the black rider who brings famine and hunger. Lastly, the pale rider shall appear and bring forth death.  The exact passage goes as follows

And I saw, and behold a white horse and he that sat on him had a bow and a crown was given unto him and he went forth conquering, and to conquer. And when he had opened the second seal, I heard the second beast say, Come and see.And there went out another horse that was red and power was given to him that sat thereon to take peace from the earth, and that they should kill one another and there was given unto him a great sword. And when he had opened the third seal, I heard the third beast say, Come and see. And I beheld, and lo a black horse and he that sat on him had a pair of balances in his hand. And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say,A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny and see thou hurt not the oil and the wine. And when he had opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth beast say, Come and see. And I looked, and behold a pale horse and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth. (Book of Revelations 62-8)

2012 Mayans Calendar Prediction
As the Mayans are very fascinated by time, they often made calculations to make calendars for them regardless of the less equipment they have.  They have at least twenty (20) calendars with fifteen (15) published worldwide and all of those derived from the celestial bodies  such as the Sun, the Moon and the other planets. Throughout the years of making long calendars, their astronomers have calculated the exact date of the end of the world  that is in the 13  baktun cycle in the Winter solstice. Today, the date is marked as the twelfth of December of the year 2012.  They believe it to be the completion of the world cycle.  Joseph (2007), the author of the book Apocalypse 2012, met Mayan Guatelema and found out that their prediction werent only from mere calendars.  These control their life and people have different calendars for every type of person  for example, there is a separate calendar for preganant women.  And so, when the astronomers of the Mayan civilization have predicted this date more than a thousand years ago, they have marked it well like a personal organizer on will open up until when the date is near.

Optimism despite the end
Man continues to be enticed by the darkness of the future - that is by nightmares of death and despair the abyss of sins and tales of world abolition.  But believe it or not, this is not mans true wish.   Man naturally seeks the brighter side of the road.  He always has a positive knack for things that surround him.  His natural color is blue  Of the cheerful sea and sky.  He shall alwaysalways turn to the light.  That is, despite the catastrophes that have come or will come, man will always see things through.  He shall hope and in that tiny speck of faith, the Lord shall shelter him. 

The Lord will roar from Zion and thunder from Jerusalem the earth and the sky will tremble. But the Lord will be a refuge for his people, a stronghold for the people of Israel. (Joel 316 New International Version)

It is not much of a deal should apocalypse come in a few years or so. Just keep on living the way youd want and obediently listen to His words.  He shall protect you everyday up until the last of days

Alzheimers disease is the most common form of dementia. It is a very serious disorder that adversely affects the daily life of a person through loss of memory and cognitive changes (Jalbert, Daiello, and Lapane, p. 15). As per the DSM IV-TR criteria (2000), disorders of dementia are characterized by numerous cognitive as well as memory insufficiencies (Weyandt, p.79). They are however categorized as different disorders according to their causes. Prevalence of dementia varies widely depending on the subjects sampled, type of dementia, seriousness of the disorder, and the areas studied. On the other hand, according to the DSM IV-TR, approximately 3 of the whole population suffers from serious cognitive disorders (Weyandt p, 81). Almost half of the dementia cases in clinical and hospitals studies are of Alzheimers type. Population based studies reveal that most of dementia cases are of Alzheimers type. Dementia of Alzheimers Type, according to Welsh-Bohmer and White, develops from Alzheimers disease (p, 10). These disorders involve gradual alterations in memory, thinking and language. Chemical imbalance in conjunction with structural changes in the brain leads to slow destruction of the ability to develop, learn, recall, reason and interact with others. Excessive death of critical brain cells, as illustrated by Schwartz, leads to deterioration of personality and failure of the whole body system (p, 71). These problems may start as minor problems later becoming grave conditions requiring serious medical and family assistance.

Dementia of Alzheimers Type
Dementia of Alzheimers Type is exemplified by numerous cognitive deficits manifested by both memory disorders and cognitive disturbances that result in significant deterioration in social and occupational functioning. These disorders, which have progressive onset and continuing decline, do not occur as a result of substance induced or medical conditions. They usually occur after a person has attained the age of 65 years. Age is therefore a predisposing factor to this disorder. Rates of prevalence of the disorder increase considerably with increase in age. According to the DSM IV-TR (2000), Dementia of Alzheimers Type is more common in females than in males (Weyandt, p. 82). Dementia of Alzheimers type is characterized by excessive loss of cognitive capability. This comprises of disrupted thoughts, recollection, way of thinking, language, as well as cognitive speed.

This disorder is degenerative in nature it is characterized by deterioration of cognitive functions with time either gradually or more rapidly depending on the etiology of dementia and the individual (Schwartz p, 75). The early stage of dementia is referred to as mild cognitive impairment. This stage involves mild problems of memory, language and other cognitive abilities. At this stage, a person is still able to carry out various cognitive functions. Most people with mild cognitive disorders in the long run develop Alzheimers disease (Weyandt p, 85). However, some people with mild cognitive impairment eventually attain normal health. Head trauma, leading to brain damage, and stroke are believed to be causes of this disorder. Genetic factors increase the risk of developing dementia. Diagnosis of dementia, as asserted by Tonarelli, includes clinical examination and presence of insufficiency in at least two areas of cognition (para, 2).

The following are the symptoms of Dementia of Alzheimers Type as illustrated in the DSM IV-TR 2000 development of numerous cognitive insufficiencies manifested by memory impairment and cognitive disturbance. In memory impairment, a person cannot recollect previously learned information or learn new information. Various cognitive disturbances include aphasia also referred to as language disturbance, apraxia or the inability to carry out motor activities properly in spite of an undamaged motor function and Agnosia. Agnosia is the inability to recognize objects although the sensory function may still be intact. The last cognitive disturbance is the disturbance in executive functioning (Weyandt p, 84). Other symptoms of dementia include changes of personality, intellectual impairment, inability to carry out normal chores leading to neglect of personal hygiene, hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia, inappropriate habits, disorientation to time and place, and problems in maintaining balance and gait (Jalbert, Daiello and Lapane p, 18). These effects are not as a result of old age and they may be serious enough to affect the daily life of a person, interactions and autonomy. The effects of dementia, as per Brian, come from a wide range more than the recorded neuropathological alterations in the brain of an individual thus diagnosed (p, 155). These effects can be made worse to some extent by the way an individual is treated by others in the day to day activities of the social world. Through critical evaluation of the position an individual suffering from dementia is put by others in the process of interaction, it can be appreciated that these interactions have profoundly negative or positive effects on the subjective experience of the individual with dementia the extent to which an individuals can reveal the remaining intact cognitive capabilities the aptitude of an individual to carry out various day to day activities and the value of an individuals social life as well as the meaning found in everyday (Weyandt p, 85). Welsh-Bohmer and White agrees that social interaction of a person suffering from dementia becomes limited to the examining health professionals (p, 12). People suffering from dementia appear too ill to be taken out to attend functions away from home.

Jalbert, Daiello and Lapane note that the effects of dementia can have a deteriorating effect on very many aspects of a persons life (p, 20). It is therefore beneficial, as noted by Brian, to know the signs as well as symptoms that may occur in case the brain function is affected (p, 122). After developing dementia, a person finds it very hard to complete tasks that were previously easy for himher. Short term memory of a person is greatly affected (Schwartz p, 22). Such a person therefore keeps on repeating one thing for a long time. A person suffering from dementia easily forgets that heshe had asked a certain question, for example, and keeps on asking the same question time and again. In case there is no information in the short term memory, information in the long term memory is then lost forever. A person also becomes lost in time and space. Personality and mood of a person are seriously affected. Such a person easily forgets simple information and it becomes difficult for him or her to learn new information. People suffering from dementia also do not have motivation.

Conclusion
Alzheimers disease is the most common form of dementia. It is a very serious disorder that adversely affects the daily life of a person through loss of memory and cognitive changes. Dementia of Alzheimers Type develops from Alzheimers disease. This disorder is degenerative in nature it is characterized by deterioration of cognitive functions with time either gradually or more rapidly depending on the etiology of dementia and the individual. Age and genetic factors are the main predisposing factors of Dementia of Alzheimers Type. Diagnosis of dementia includes clinical examination and presence of insufficiency in at least two areas of cognition. Various symptoms of Dementia of Alzheimers Type include changes of personality, intellectual impairment, inability to carry out normal chores leading to neglect of personal hygiene, hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia, inappropriate habits, disorientation to time and place.

According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is classified as an anxiety disorder. GAD is characterized by continuous extreme worry that is difficult to be controlled by the patient. The most common worries related to this disorder are work responsibilities, health matters, finances, and household duties. The DSM-IV-TR explains the anxiety that characterizes GAD as being free-floating, this implies that it can manifest itself to a broad number of aspects or issues within the patients surrounding. Those suffering from GAD start worrying without being provoked any particular trigger, for instance they might begin to worry about money simple because they have received a number of bills in their mail.

Diagnostic criteria identified
Diagnosis of Generalized Anxiety Disorder, specifically in primary care situation is a bit complex due to a number of issues. One of these issues is its high level of co-occurrence among GAD and some other mental disorders. The second issue is the significant overlap existing between many anxiety disorders and depression. A number of healthcare practitioners have a belief that GAD and depression may just be similar disorders, since several studies have continuously verified the presence and common incidences of a mixed depressionanxiety disorder.

However, the DSM-IV outlines the following steps when diagnosing if the patient is suffering from GAD

Patient interview it is necessary that the doctors asks the patient to give a description of the anxiety and the doctor will if it the anxiety is acute (occurring for many hours to days) or if it is unrelenting (going on for months to years). Supposing the patient says that heshe went through a stressful event of late, then the doctor will examine himher for double anxiety, this implies that the patient is checked for acute anxiety and underlying unrelenting anxiety.  At the same time, the doctor could as well use diagnostic questionnaire to analyze the existence of anxiety disorders in the patient. The mostly used tool to analyze anxiety disorders is the Hamilton Anxiety Scale, which assess all kind of anxiety disorders. However, the (GAD-Q-IV) or the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire for DSM-IV is the latest diagnostic instrument that is specifically meant to analyze GAD (DSM-IV-TR)
Medical assessment non-psychiatric mental disorders such as hyperthyroidism and carcinoid syndrome that mainly result in anxiety have to be ruled out together with some drugs like steroids and thyroxin among others, which also could result in anxiety when used as a side effect of the drugs. The doctor should as well get the patients history about herbal preparations.

Another diagnostic aspect that the doctor has to check is substance abuse this is because substance abuse in many times results in anxiety or withdrawal syndrome. Thus the doctor has to find out if the patient uses caffeine, alcohol as well as other usual substances that could be abused (DSM-IV-TR).
Assessment of other psychiatric disorders it is also important to check out for any other psychiatric disorders since there is a lot of overlap among GAD and depression (DSM-IV-TR).

The origins of the disorder
Studies indicate that GAD can starts considerably early in a persons life. Though it can be worsened through an unexpected crisis occurring at any particular age when a child is over seven years. The notion that GAD normally starts at childhood age though its symptoms may not be visible until when a person reaches late teenager stage is increasingly being accepted. Nearly 50 percent of those diagnosed with GAD indicated that they start to worry when in childhood stage or when teenagers. Others state that they have been worried all through their lives about one thing or another. Such kind of persistent anxiety can be taken as being part of an individuals temperament or inherent and at times it refereed to as trait anxiety.

Nonetheless, it is normal for individuals to suffer from GAD in their adulthood age, mainly because of their reaction to constant stress or due to anxiety-resulting circumstances. For instance there are cases where a person develops GAD following years of nursing of a close relative suffering from dementia (DSM-IV-TR). 

Website that is a support for people with GAD
People suffering from GAD can get help from Anxiety Disorder Association of America (ADAA). The new things that I have learnt from this website are that

A lot of people suffer from this disorder, indeed according to ADDA, over 6.8 million adults (3.1) American suffers from GAD each year. Women have a double possibility of suffering from GAD.
People suffering from GAD but who show moderate anxiety can interact well within the society and continue to work as usual at their work place if they just keep away from some situations since they suffer from GAD. Yet again in severe cases even performing simple daily chores will be difficulty.
That is possible to treat GAD, and cognitive-behavioral therapy has proved to be successful for many patients, since it assists them to identify, acknowledge and change their thoughts and conduct. More so relaxation methods like yoga and mediation are other way of treating GAD.

Conclusion
We can therefore conclude that GAD is a disorder that mainly starts early in live and those suffering from it exhibit persistent and extreme worry about issues like family, money and work. Diagnosing of GAD entails observation and the patient must show symptoms of excessive anxiety for a period of six months and over. The doctor can also use Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire to ascertain if the patient is having GAD. There are several bodies that assist those suffering from GAD and one such organization is Anxiety Disorder Association of America. However, GAD is treatable and those having GAD can just live a normal life.

There is a growing amount of evidence that has associated stress exposure with the physical body deterioration. Stressors occur in many forms some of which can be brought by any changes that the body encounters and that the body should get adjusted to. In situations when the body fails to adjust to stressors, stress can subsequently result to physical body deteriorations due to stress-related disorders. Although some psychologists have claimed that stress can have some positive effects in keeping individuals alert and escape some danger, stress in larger part cause some array of physical body effects derailing an individual and causing health conditions such as ulcers and irritable bowel syndrome (MedlinePlus, 2009).

Stress often leads to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), which does not seem to easily improve on treatment in case the afflicted individuals do not avoid being stressed (MedlinePlus, 2009). I have often experienced this condition especially when am facing difficult situations. Perhaps this does not apply to me alone it has happened to a number of people especially students who experience bowel syndromes when facing examinations. In irritable bowel syndrome, students heading to their semester examinations experience loose bowels which are very disturbing. One feels to relieve him or herself but cannot accomplish the need.

Another physical effect of stress is heart attack and hypertension (Cohen, Kessler,  Gordon, 1995). Constant exposure to stress can cause the blood pressure to increase. The consequence of high blood pressure is the intense stress on the walls of the blood vessels. The stress may cause the vessels to burst leading to stroke. The intense pressure is also inflicted to the heart leading to conditions of heart attack (MedlinePlus, 2009). It has been identified that the lowering of stress reduces the chances of heart attack and stroke. Stress which only originates from the brain causes the afflicted individuals to have stomach ulcers (Dua, 1993). There is massive production of stomach acids, gastric acids during stress. A number of reasons are attributed to the excessive production of stomach acids. Some of the reason that causes overproduction of the acids in the stomach cam be attributed to lack of having regular meals, which compromises on the health of the stomach hence ulcerations from the acids. In normal situations, the acid is produced in order to help in digestions process. Hydrochloric acid, the acid which makes up gastric acid is important in the activation of the precursor forms of the enzyme that digest proteins. Incase food is not provided to the stomach this acid will always be produced and will encounter an empty stomach wall. The stomach wall will be worked upon by the acid causing ulcerations in the stomach. This condition usually leads to physical health breakdown as a result of poor eating habits (MedlinePlus, 2009). 

Ulcerations in the stomach have always occurred among some of my friends. I remember one of my friends who lost both his parents at once in a road accident. He was all left alone with his younger sister. The situation was a sad one and the boy could not keep up with the stress. He often refused to eat for up to four days even after several months when the death of his parents occurred. One great consequence was that the boy developed many health complications including stomach ulcers. The boy became frail often experiencing loose bowels and to make it worse, he developed problems of high blood pressure despite him not having any genetic predisposal factors to hypertension.

The friend of mine then developed chronic fatigue and insomnia which his doctors recommended him to try and eat some food to regain the energy. Chronic fatigue is a condition that can be caused by the excessive release of hormones that are produced only during stress (Cohen, Kessler,  Gordon, 1995). The hormones such as adrenaline will stimulate the brain which will communicate to the peripheral organs in order to cause a response. Insomnia sometimes continues without the afflicted individuals having any sleep (Dua, 1993). The person then becomes tired a condition called chronic fatigue. This is an example of physical signs of stress.

Chronic stress can also be associated with obesity (MedlinePlus, 2009).  In another situation, our family friend processed for a divorce with his wife who they had stayed together for over ten years. He later developed a habit of comfort eating where he thought he was reducing his stress. Later, he became obese after what he thought was an enjoyment for a while which turned to be another suffering for a while. I have observed other typical cases where stress has caused a number of physical health problems to the afflicted individuals. Other problems which might as well be associated with stress include muscle aches and cancer.

In general, stress which is a process that takes place in the mind brings about problems to the physical body, which can range from simple effects to complicated conditions which might require serious medical intervention. It should therefore be important for individuals afflicted by stress to learn on how to prevent such stressors before they get worse with the conditions. It follows that early prevention of stressors improves the quality of life.