Psychology

Research Problem
What are the immediate and long-term effects of bullying on children

Objectives
The objectives of the study are as follows 1) to determine the relationship between bullying and stress reduction measures, and 2) to identify factors which encourage or discourage bullying among children. The specific objectives of the are as follows 1) to create a simulation model which will explain the general effects of bullying, and 2) provide comprehensive recommendatory memo

Review of Related Literature
For some, bullying among children is considered a harmless kid stuff. However, there are ill effects in consonance with the negligence of this kind of misconducts that are undertaken by children. There are instances when victims of such misbehavior are drawn into the consequences of depression and anxiety. Thoughts of skipping classes or transferring to other schools nonetheless become an option among youngsters in order to avoid their dreaded bullies. But this is not yet the worst scenario, for thoughts of suicidal are also likely to occur if things become a lot more horrid for the child.

According to Jones et al (2001), the immediate effects of bullying are as follows 1) loss of self-esteem, 2) pragmatic loss of self-belonging, and 3) inability to cope with play-related activities. According to Pirkey (2003), the immediate effects of bullying are an integral part of play-related activities because this measures the ability of children to adapt to their environment. However, the negative consequences of bullying far outweigh its sole benefit.

According to the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF),bullying is a behavior by an individual or group, usually repeated over time, that intentionally hurts another individual or group, either physically or emotionally.

Hence, Olweus (1993), stated that it is an aggressive behavior that is intentional and involves an imbalance of power or strength. And thus, happens over a period of time.

There are lots of manners by which bullying may take its form. In its most conventional types, bullying takes place through teasing, name-calling, spreading rumors, doing physical harm and excluding from a group. Nowadays, bullying can also happen over the World Wide Web. This is what is referred to as cyberbullying. It is a form of bullying that is exhibited through sending any derogatory or offensive text or email messages as well as spreading degrading images or videos on the internet.

Similarly, bullies come in all shapes and sizes. It does not matter if youre black or white thin or fat. A bully falls under the category of someone who finds pleasure and psychological satisfaction through the sufferings or injuries that heshe has caused other people.

In contrast with the thought that bullies are people with low self-esteem, that causes them to engage into such acts of violence and other forms of delinquency, bullies are in fact claimed to be people with high, defensive and self-aggrandizing form of self-esteem. When bullies feel that their self-esteem are being threatened, they often react by putting others down, through violence ( Santrock, 2003).

Surveys according to Tellus3 that was carried out in 2008 by OFSTED (the Office for the Standards in Education) claim that about 44 or almost half of young children are being bullied at school. Hence, according to ChildLine  a childrens helpline, from the span of April 2008-April 2009, an estimate of 2,700 calls about bullying per month are being reported to them, making it the number one reason why children call.

Furthermore, statistics from the Violence Prevention Coalition of Greater Los Angeles shows alarming rates of bullying incidents among the vicinity. Their statistics shows that,
In 2005, about 28 percent of 12- to 18-year-old students reported having been bullied at school.
In 2005, 19 of students said that they had experienced bullying that consisted of being made fun of 15 reported being the subject of rumors and 9 said that they were pushed, shoved, tripped, or spit on. Of those students who had been bullied, 79 said that they were bullied inside the school, and 28 said that they were bullied outside on school grounds.

Of the students in 2005 who reported being bullied, 53 said that they had been bullied once or twice in 6 months, 25 had experienced bullying once or twice a month, 11 reported being bullied once or twice a week, and 8 said that they had been bullied almost daily.

 Among students who reported being bullied in 2005, males were more likely than females to report being injured during such an incident (31 vs. 18).

In 2005, some 11 of students ages 1218 reported that someone at school had used hate-related words against them, and more than one-third (38 percent) had seen hate-related graffiti at school.

A 1998 study of 6,500 students in rural South Carolina further claims  that  23 percent of students in grades 4-6 had been bullied several times or more while 20 percent had bullied others.

Likewise, a 2001 study of 15000 U.S. students show that 17 percent of students in grades 6-10 reported having been bullied sometimes or more, with 8 percent being bullied once a week. 19 percent said they had been a bully to others sometimes or more.

Henceforth, according to bullying statistics, 4th up to 8th graders comprise the biggest group of youngsters that experience bullying.

There are different reasons why bullying takes place for both the victim and the perpetrator. Social status, racial discrimination, gender, homosexuality, and disability are several reasons why someone is being bullied or hurled around. However, bullying could also take place for no reason at all. On the other hand, false title for power or dominance would account for the bullys step of action.

Looking at the wider picture, Psychology as a branch of social science provides ideas as well as concepts that may trace down to the root cause of misconducts and misbehaviors of children, especially those under their middle childhood stage such as fourth graders.

Schickedanz, Hansen and Forsyth (1990), identifies that during middle childhood, children use verbal hostility rather than physical aggression like they used to be in their preschool stage. Through verbal hostility, children express their dislike, anger or displeasure for someone.

Sroufe, Cooper, Dettart and Marshall (1996) explain that during the early stages of childhood, preschoolers use instrumental aggression. Instrumental aggression is the use of hostile behaviors in order to get something heshe wants such as to how a young child struggles to get hisher playmates toy. However, after this period, and children start to enter their life as elementary pupils, their tendency to use instrumental aggression declines but their hostile aggression which is solely aimed to hurting someone, does not. Children in their elementary years are most likely to be engaged in verbal disputes and insults rather than hitting someone. This commonly transpires when children feel that their egos are violated or just by getting even with someone.

However, Papalia and Olds (1990) claims that not all children are conformed to such change because there are instances when a child becomes more and more aggressive and hostile to other people because of some factors in hisher life. When this gets out of hand, this can be very dangerous. 

Frustration together with imitation is also seen to be factors affecting the behaviors of children which can lead to acts of bullying. This can be better understood through an experiment conducted by the social-learning theorist, Albert Bandura and his colleagues in 1961.

Their experiment led to the clear influence of imitation towards a childs aggression. Through observation, it was seen that, the children who were the subjects of the experiment imitated various aggressive behaviors that they have seen displayed by adults against the Bobo Doll. Their behaviors closely mimic the specific actions that they have previously seen the adult perform.

Moreover, though frustration does not always result to aggression, children who  are experiencing frustration commonly due to insults, trauma, or punishment are more likely to be aggressive than a contented child.

But perhaps the most useful way to trace down a childs behavior and conducts is to go back to the foundation of the child. Psychology as well as other fields of social sciences agree that the best way to assess an individuals personality is to start with his immediate family. Psychology claims that there is a recognized pattern between the implications of a childs early attachments with hisher parents to hisher current behavior and personality.

Children, who were identified to be securely attached to their parents during their infancy stage or early childhood development, seem to be a lot friendlier, more outgoing and approachable. Likewise, there is also a connection between ones early attachments to his tendency to become a bully or a victim. A recent study of 4- and 5-  years-old found that victimizers, or bullies, had anxiousavoidant attachment histories at 12 and 18 months. Furthermore, most victims- children who are consistently passive in the face of aggression  had anxiousambivalent attachment histories. In fact, in all the cases in which a child with an avoidant attachment history was paired with a child with a child with ambivalent attachment history, one victimized the other (Schickedanz, Hansen and Forsyth , 1990, p252).

Indeed, parents take the biggest part in rearing their childs behaviors. It pays to take note of a childs early developments as well as paying attention to his or her experiences outside their home. Parents should keep their eyes open for any signs that their child are being bullied or thus,  are engage in any bullying activities.

It essential to establish a good communication set-up with your child in order for them to be more open in sharing their thoughts, opinions, experiences and most importantly their problems.

A childs home should be a learning place where values are inculcated and social norms are founded. It is a childs first and continuous learning environment by which heshe acquires hisher ideas, behaviors and manners being shared with other people. The manner by which a child interacts with other children can be traced down to the kind of discipline the child receives at home. A child who is being disciplined through yelling or hitting by a parent shows a clear manifestation of the same manner towards other people. More often than not, a child who experiences bullying at home demonstrates the same kind of action.

There is a need for parents to be very much careful of how they talk or act in front of their children. Children tend to look at an adult especially hisher parents with much respect and admiration that whatever these adults do are considered right and appropriate in the eyes of a child.

A child who observes marital disputes between hisher parents to the extent of physical assaults will most likely handle his own arguments in the same manner.  Name calling as well as using derogatory words are common among children. Though they may notbe much aware of its impacts as well as not totally meaning what they said, these are considered forms of bullying that could have been acquired through what they have heard over a conversation of adults. Parents should be aware as well as being very careful with the language and words they use at home. Thus, they should never tolerate their children in doing so. As what has been often reiterated, prevention is better that cure. That is why, at an early stage of a childs life, parents should already treat the root cause of the problem.

The success of facilitating a nonviolent and anti-bullying environment is not a one man program. According to recent researches, bullying happens most frequently in places where there is lack of adult supervision during breaks and free time. But, there are great chances of diminishing cases of bullying if only there will be strict implementations of school policies, raising awareness and providing support and protection for students. Thus, there is a great need for mutual understanding as well as cooperation from both the school administration and the parents.

Even if in such case that a school offers a good anti-bullying program but parents do not take part in imparting the necessary help the school needs, then, the program will only go to waste.

On the other hand, even if parents sustain their children with values and supervision, but if the school does not do anything to prevent or eradicate bullying prevalence within the school grounds, statistical  data of bullying incidences are sure to rise.

In any angle that youll look at it, bullying brings about turmoil to its victims. Yet, bullying in the long run nonetheless causes its perpetrator more vivid side effects in all of hisher aspects of life. Acts of bullying will eventually lead to a life of misery and destruction on the guilty party if interventions are not to be taken as soon as possible.  Bullying takes its equal share of karma- what comes around, goes around.

Research Problem
What are the immediate and long-term effects of bullying on children

Objectives
The objectives of the study are as follows 1) to determine the relationship between bullying and stress reduction measures, and 2) to identify factors which encourage or discourage bullying among children. The specific objectives of the are as follows 1) to create a simulation model which will explain the general effects of bullying, and 2) provide comprehensive recommendatory memo

Review of Related Literature
For some, bullying among children is considered a harmless kid stuff. However, there are ill effects in consonance with the negligence of this kind of misconducts that are undertaken by children. There are instances when victims of such misbehavior are drawn into the consequences of depression and anxiety. Thoughts of skipping classes or transferring to other schools nonetheless become an option among youngsters in order to avoid their dreaded bullies. But this is not yet the worst scenario, for thoughts of suicidal are also likely to occur if things become a lot more horrid for the child.

According to Jones et al (2001), the immediate effects of bullying are as follows 1) loss of self-esteem, 2) pragmatic loss of self-belonging, and 3) inability to cope with play-related activities. According to Pirkey (2003), the immediate effects of bullying are an integral part of play-related activities because this measures the ability of children to adapt to their environment. However, the negative consequences of bullying far outweigh its sole benefit.

According to the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF),bullying is a behavior by an individual or group, usually repeated over time, that intentionally hurts another individual or group, either physically or emotionally.

Hence, Olweus (1993), stated that it is an aggressive behavior that is intentional and involves an imbalance of power or strength. And thus, happens over a period of time.

There are lots of manners by which bullying may take its form. In its most conventional types, bullying takes place through teasing, name-calling, spreading rumors, doing physical harm and excluding from a group. Nowadays, bullying can also happen over the World Wide Web. This is what is referred to as cyberbullying. It is a form of bullying that is exhibited through sending any derogatory or offensive text or email messages as well as spreading degrading images or videos on the internet.

Similarly, bullies come in all shapes and sizes. It does not matter if youre black or white thin or fat. A bully falls under the category of someone who finds pleasure and psychological satisfaction through the sufferings or injuries that heshe has caused other people.

In contrast with the thought that bullies are people with low self-esteem, that causes them to engage into such acts of violence and other forms of delinquency, bullies are in fact claimed to be people with high, defensive and self-aggrandizing form of self-esteem. When bullies feel that their self-esteem are being threatened, they often react by putting others down, through violence ( Santrock, 2003).

Surveys according to Tellus3 that was carried out in 2008 by OFSTED (the Office for the Standards in Education) claim that about 44 or almost half of young children are being bullied at school. Hence, according to ChildLine  a childrens helpline, from the span of April 2008-April 2009, an estimate of 2,700 calls about bullying per month are being reported to them, making it the number one reason why children call.

Furthermore, statistics from the Violence Prevention Coalition of Greater Los Angeles shows alarming rates of bullying incidents among the vicinity. Their statistics shows that,
In 2005, about 28 percent of 12- to 18-year-old students reported having been bullied at school.
In 2005, 19 of students said that they had experienced bullying that consisted of being made fun of 15 reported being the subject of rumors and 9 said that they were pushed, shoved, tripped, or spit on. Of those students who had been bullied, 79 said that they were bullied inside the school, and 28 said that they were bullied outside on school grounds.

Of the students in 2005 who reported being bullied, 53 said that they had been bullied once or twice in 6 months, 25 had experienced bullying once or twice a month, 11 reported being bullied once or twice a week, and 8 said that they had been bullied almost daily.

 Among students who reported being bullied in 2005, males were more likely than females to report being injured during such an incident (31 vs. 18).

In 2005, some 11 of students ages 1218 reported that someone at school had used hate-related words against them, and more than one-third (38 percent) had seen hate-related graffiti at school.

A 1998 study of 6,500 students in rural South Carolina further claims  that  23 percent of students in grades 4-6 had been bullied several times or more while 20 percent had bullied others.

Likewise, a 2001 study of 15000 U.S. students show that 17 percent of students in grades 6-10 reported having been bullied sometimes or more, with 8 percent being bullied once a week. 19 percent said they had been a bully to others sometimes or more.

Henceforth, according to bullying statistics, 4th up to 8th graders comprise the biggest group of youngsters that experience bullying.

There are different reasons why bullying takes place for both the victim and the perpetrator. Social status, racial discrimination, gender, homosexuality, and disability are several reasons why someone is being bullied or hurled around. However, bullying could also take place for no reason at all. On the other hand, false title for power or dominance would account for the bullys step of action.

Looking at the wider picture, Psychology as a branch of social science provides ideas as well as concepts that may trace down to the root cause of misconducts and misbehaviors of children, especially those under their middle childhood stage such as fourth graders.

Schickedanz, Hansen and Forsyth (1990), identifies that during middle childhood, children use verbal hostility rather than physical aggression like they used to be in their preschool stage. Through verbal hostility, children express their dislike, anger or displeasure for someone.

Sroufe, Cooper, Dettart and Marshall (1996) explain that during the early stages of childhood, preschoolers use instrumental aggression. Instrumental aggression is the use of hostile behaviors in order to get something heshe wants such as to how a young child struggles to get hisher playmates toy. However, after this period, and children start to enter their life as elementary pupils, their tendency to use instrumental aggression declines but their hostile aggression which is solely aimed to hurting someone, does not. Children in their elementary years are most likely to be engaged in verbal disputes and insults rather than hitting someone. This commonly transpires when children feel that their egos are violated or just by getting even with someone.

However, Papalia and Olds (1990) claims that not all children are conformed to such change because there are instances when a child becomes more and more aggressive and hostile to other people because of some factors in hisher life. When this gets out of hand, this can be very dangerous. 

Frustration together with imitation is also seen to be factors affecting the behaviors of children which can lead to acts of bullying. This can be better understood through an experiment conducted by the social-learning theorist, Albert Bandura and his colleagues in 1961.

Their experiment led to the clear influence of imitation towards a childs aggression. Through observation, it was seen that, the children who were the subjects of the experiment imitated various aggressive behaviors that they have seen displayed by adults against the Bobo Doll. Their behaviors closely mimic the specific actions that they have previously seen the adult perform.

Moreover, though frustration does not always result to aggression, children who  are experiencing frustration commonly due to insults, trauma, or punishment are more likely to be aggressive than a contented child.

But perhaps the most useful way to trace down a childs behavior and conducts is to go back to the foundation of the child. Psychology as well as other fields of social sciences agree that the best way to assess an individuals personality is to start with his immediate family. Psychology claims that there is a recognized pattern between the implications of a childs early attachments with hisher parents to hisher current behavior and personality.

Children, who were identified to be securely attached to their parents during their infancy stage or early childhood development, seem to be a lot friendlier, more outgoing and approachable. Likewise, there is also a connection between ones early attachments to his tendency to become a bully or a victim. A recent study of 4- and 5-  years-old found that victimizers, or bullies, had anxiousavoidant attachment histories at 12 and 18 months. Furthermore, most victims- children who are consistently passive in the face of aggression  had anxiousambivalent attachment histories. In fact, in all the cases in which a child with an avoidant attachment history was paired with a child with a child with ambivalent attachment history, one victimized the other (Schickedanz, Hansen and Forsyth , 1990, p252).

Indeed, parents take the biggest part in rearing their childs behaviors. It pays to take note of a childs early developments as well as paying attention to his or her experiences outside their home. Parents should keep their eyes open for any signs that their child are being bullied or thus,  are engage in any bullying activities.

It essential to establish a good communication set-up with your child in order for them to be more open in sharing their thoughts, opinions, experiences and most importantly their problems.

A childs home should be a learning place where values are inculcated and social norms are founded. It is a childs first and continuous learning environment by which heshe acquires hisher ideas, behaviors and manners being shared with other people. The manner by which a child interacts with other children can be traced down to the kind of discipline the child receives at home. A child who is being disciplined through yelling or hitting by a parent shows a clear manifestation of the same manner towards other people. More often than not, a child who experiences bullying at home demonstrates the same kind of action.

There is a need for parents to be very much careful of how they talk or act in front of their children. Children tend to look at an adult especially hisher parents with much respect and admiration that whatever these adults do are considered right and appropriate in the eyes of a child.

A child who observes marital disputes between hisher parents to the extent of physical assaults will most likely handle his own arguments in the same manner.  Name calling as well as using derogatory words are common among children. Though they may notbe much aware of its impacts as well as not totally meaning what they said, these are considered forms of bullying that could have been acquired through what they have heard over a conversation of adults. Parents should be aware as well as being very careful with the language and words they use at home. Thus, they should never tolerate their children in doing so. As what has been often reiterated, prevention is better that cure. That is why, at an early stage of a childs life, parents should already treat the root cause of the problem.

The success of facilitating a nonviolent and anti-bullying environment is not a one man program. According to recent researches, bullying happens most frequently in places where there is lack of adult supervision during breaks and free time. But, there are great chances of diminishing cases of bullying if only there will be strict implementations of school policies, raising awareness and providing support and protection for students. Thus, there is a great need for mutual understanding as well as cooperation from both the school administration and the parents.

Even if in such case that a school offers a good anti-bullying program but parents do not take part in imparting the necessary help the school needs, then, the program will only go to waste.

On the other hand, even if parents sustain their children with values and supervision, but if the school does not do anything to prevent or eradicate bullying prevalence within the school grounds, statistical  data of bullying incidences are sure to rise.

In any angle that youll look at it, bullying brings about turmoil to its victims. Yet, bullying in the long run nonetheless causes its perpetrator more vivid side effects in all of hisher aspects of life. Acts of bullying will eventually lead to a life of misery and destruction on the guilty party if interventions are not to be taken as soon as possible.  Bullying takes its equal share of karma- what comes around, goes around.

Innovative thinking, creativity and brainstorming exercises have always been encouraged as well as used by corporations and businesses to successfully plan then create and come up with rational services and products. How about the innovation of an electric car to solve some rational and common problems An electric car is a car that basically uses electric motors rather than a combustion engine that is internal. Innovation can be quite complex but interesting (Mumford et al, 2005) Innovation of an electric car can be one of the most essential and interesting activity one can ever come up with bearing the fact that it comes with lots of benefits.

Electric cars are generally for the future. They are of high speed commuters with an on board generators. It is possible to go across the country without necessarily plugging it.  The creative part about the electric cars is that they are rechargeable and flexible. They always have some battery packs that are usually charged to power the vehicle.  They are globally available and are of high hybrid. They will obviously provide a safe and clean alternative to all internal combustion engines. It will essentially have a faster acceleration and produce no exhaust.

It will produce no emission thus they are better and cleaner for environment as compared to some traditional automobiles. Its battery power is effectual thus results in an improved fuel competence with few components involved as it is sustainable. It is patent that it is innovative as it solves some known problems for example the emissions of carbon dioxide through amplified energy efficiency. For many years now, electric cars have been a problem solver thus would agree to most changes that would make the whole situation better and improve on peoples lifestyle and the country at large.

They are also competent as compared to gas powered motors as they have proven to present numerous global catastrophes. Unlike electric cars which can be relied upon, the gas powered cars are annihilating the earths natural balance and creating some climate crisis which can be saved by using the electric cars. The electric car on the other hand is 100 free emission. Also the electric car is made in such a way that its rechargeable battery usually gets better mileage than actually using the gas. The carbon emissions of most cars that are not electric have altered the environment and created air pollution which has led to so many diseases.

Therefore the innovation of the electric cars is effective and competitive which has been motivated by the implementation of some creative ideas. Also, there is great creativity on how the electric cars are made as they are much quieter than the gas guzzlers thus they do cut down on all noise pollution. In the process of relying much on electric gas rather than the gas it means US will no longer rely on other countries for oil and the natural gas which makes them dependent and weak mostly the power and the economy.

The electric cars are of high speed and can actually achieve speeds up to 135 mph and on single charge they can reach fuel equivalent of approximately 135mpg. Electric cars are usually cleaner thus maintaining the environs. Driving of an electric car does make one eligible for some tax credits from the government for driving cars that has got clean fuel (Sandra, 2010). Still, it is not expensive to convert the car into electric and the fact that the whole process is cheap and money saving an electric power is usually safe and perfect for all people. The electric cars are usually an economical solution to combating the rising costs of fuel.

When deciding to convert your cars motor oil into an electric one it can be quite terrifying when you have no any information on the electric cars as changing it can actually be a mechanical limit. Right now we are living in a completely divergent world. It is a world in which gas prices are unpredictable, whose pollution affects each major city and where oil can run out anytime. Honestly you have to get yourself out of this entire dilemma.

You have to go to an extent of reading some outdated books to gather information, reading some schematic diagrams and visiting some other people who are also starting their conversions. You get to learn most things through trial and error.  To come up with a rational innovation, there must be some planning stage which most converters simply end up skipping thus the start of a downfall. One should have a selection of concept and decide what type of an electric car they want to come up with and evaluate their idea. The process is not boring and slow as most people might think but it is fun and quick when you are essentially armed with right information. One has to learn a lot of innovative theory of intelligence and knowledge which prompts them to be curious, empathetic, have an abstract thinking and develop self efficacy. Through the individual level theory of knowledge one has to learn how to work in teams and develop some leadership qualities which will enhance their creativity and innovation. There must be a rational organization in the innovation of an electric company. There should be advocacy where the CEOs are actually the inventors. For one to have a rational innovation the investors must have quality and quantity resources.

There are some models that have to be curtailed in the innovation of an electric car. First of all there should be a problem construction. One should come up with a problem and demonstrate what they really need the car for and what makes it better. For example in the late 1800s and 1900s there was need for a car that was cheap and easy to run as compared to all gasoline powered cars. Second there is the stage of information gathering. You must gather enough information on electric cars and what you really want. Obviously in the information gathering you will get very many contradicting information thus there is concept selection. For example some people may decide to come up with electric cars while others to develop steam engine in their innovation. Then there is conceptual combination stage where engineers combine the electric engines with car to come up with new dynamic model vehicle. Then there is idea generation where people begin to develop some new ways to create some electric car. Then there is the idea evaluation stage where you get deep with your idea and discover what really makes it better than the other one. Electric cars are easier to use than the conventional vehicles thus did not need to use the hand crank as they made less noise and were actually cheaper to use. Then there is the implementation and planning stage where the electric cars got advertised as the easy to use car and anyone can actually operate. This is the stage where other concepts like infrastructure are looked into for example the roads. Then there is the monitoring stage where other means of maintaining electric car is adhered to.

Having a critical mind also does motivate in innovation. The motivational theory states that the reason why two divergent people decide to do something different is because of motivation. There are two types of motivations which are intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic we can give the example of Steve burns who had the dream of electric motors for 25 years. Intrinsic motivation is the most prominent characteristic of an individual who is creative (Runco, 2007). According to Runco, creative people always have a childlike tendency and playful mood indicating a characteristic of spontaneity as well as self actualization. The extrinsic motivation is where one is motivated by monetary reasons. The motivation usually drives behavior and is the force in which a person is able to make decisions to commit to his or her ultimate goal. Motivational theory usually tells us on how to manage people. To change the peoples behavior one must understand their psychology first. There is also the group level theory. Under group level, for innovation to take place there should be the right climate where people are vision oriented.

Everybody in the group must participate and bring in their efforts and creative ideas. The group must be task oriented in which they work hard together to get the ready to shown like what happens with the General Motors. The group must have expertise and creative skills of thinking to come up with something valuable. Ones personality can also aid or hinder peoples goals according to personality and individuality theory. There are personalities which are competitive and others are laid back. For one to come up with effectual innovative work in the electric car, group and team work does help as you get new ideas from people whom you share same goals. Working in groups is usually building blocks in meeting some organizational goals (Kathryn, N.d).

Innovation of an electric car is basically the most effectual and promising idea one can ever come up with. It requires a lot of creativity and patience. It needs motivation and team work as well as the right mind. One has to come up with a plan on how to make the whole system work and then focus on attaining his or ultimate goal. Electric cars are quite beneficial mostly in our recent economy.

As Good As It Gets is a critically acclaimed 1997 film by James L. Brooks. The protagonist, Melvin Udall suffers from Obsessive Compulsive Disorder  (OCD) that prevents him from functioning normally in his daily life. Some of Melvins unusual behavior include a unique way of locking his door, repetitive washing of hands in scalding hot water, eating lunch at the same table at the same restaurant everyday, walking awkwardly to avoid cracks on the street and contact with people, and wearing gloves when he goes out. He is almost a recluse and is usually described as cranky, intolerant, and unfriendly.

Melvin falls for Carol, the beautiful waitress in his favorite restaurant. Then one day his homosexual neighbor Simon is hospitalized. Melvin is forced to take care of Simons dog. At first Melvin finds it a nuisance but slowly he bonds with the dog. Things begin to change for Melvin. He develops a romantic relationship with Carol. He opens his home to Simon and his dog. When Simon needed to travel to his hometown, Melvin even takes the trip with him. They invite Carol to go as well. The three strike a strong relationship. In the midst of everything going one, Melvin slowly overcomes his OCD. In the final scene where Melvin and Carol going to a corner bakery to buy some bread, illustrates how Melvin learns to trust other people and open up to them. He is able to do things that in the beginning were very difficult for him.

The film is clear about OCD and what people who has it struggle with everyday. However, it is unfortunate that as strongly recognizable the OCD symptoms are in the film, they are confused with another psychological condition, Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (Phillipson, n.d.). Melvins behavior leans towards OCPD and not OCD. The two are very different. While OCD is always associated with perceived anxiety, OCPD is more a dysfunction of philosophy (Phillipson, n.d.). This is the fundamental confusion in the film.

Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa may be described as major eating disorders. These may also be described as psychological disorders associated with eating and not eating. The compulsion to eat or to go on diet is extreme, which is gradually increased and gets out of control. These people fear becoming fat or perceive themselves as being fat, when actually they are not. Apart from anorexia and bulimia, the other food related disorders include binge eating disorders, food phobias etc. Although not much is known about what actually causes eating disorders, there are several theories on how people develop them.  Eating disorders are generally evident between the ages of 13 and 17. This is a period associated with adolescent growth and with immense emotional and physical changes. This is also a period where there is academic and peer pressure on an individual, just when he or she struggles with relationships and identity. During puberty, teens get a feeling that they are not in control of their individual freedom, which sometimes include their own bodies (Nemours, 2010). It is normal for girls to put on weight during puberty, which may even be said as being necessary too. However many may see this increase in weight as an adverse development, desperately wanting to get rid of it. Eating disorders can also lead to depression, anxiousness and obsessive compulsive disorder.

Eating disorders are not a recent development. There have been plenty of references to eating disorders in the literatures. During the late 17th century, the English physician Richard Morton described the symptoms as Nervous consumption. Anorexia was formally diagnosed for the first time in 1873.  In 1873 Charles Laseque and William Withey wrote about intentional restriction of food, in which they described symptoms to diagnose anorexia, that were similar to what is followed today. The symptoms however have been observed 300 years early. The number of anorexics has increased tremendously since World War II. Bulimia has also been known for centuries although its prominence and relevance has increased only in the last few decades (Dalkilic, 2004). It has been recorded that people in ancient Rome used to vomit food, they consumed during a feast. There were even specially designated places vomitorium. Physicians in the 18th century perceived bulimia with respect to overeating and vomiting. It was more considered as a gastric dysfunction than an eating disorder with a psychological bearing. It was only in the 20th century that an awareness of anorexia and bulimia came to prominence with a better understanding. In the 1970s, systems of bulimia were identified that were different from anorexia.

Anorexia may be described as a condition associated with dieting that has got out of control. Anorexia often begins with dieting, intended to lose weight. With time however, achieving weight loss is seen as a sign of mastery and control, and the fear and need to control the body becoming important. The urge to become thinner is actually not the primary concern. The individual takes to destructive eating which is often associated with other behaviors like use and overuse of diet medications, over exercising and use of laxatives. It must be noted here that some disorders may be associated with a lack of appetite, but the characteristic feature of anorexia is the deliberate restricting of food. In order to experience a sense of control over the body, these individuals take to extreme limits like even moving close to starvation. The restrictive eating cycles become an obsession, which in many ways is a type of addiction. Women are more prone to anorexia with about 95 of affected population being women although men too can develop the disorder. Anorexia normally manifests in an individual during the early adolescence period. In advanced countries like the US, one in every 100 adolescent girls is expected to have the disorder. It has also been determined that Caucasians are more prone to anorexia compared to people of other backgrounds. Another significant correlation of anorexia is that it is more prevalent among the middle class and upper class sections. According to estimations of the US National Institute of Mental Health, about 0.5 to 3.7 of the women would experience anorexia, sometime in their lives. Individuals belonging to professional groups like sportsmen, dancers, actors etc. who aspire to be thin are especially prone to anorexia.

Bulimia is also an eating disorder associated with excessive or binge eating, only to be followed by inappropriate weight control methods like over exercising, induced vomiting and abuse of laxatives. The condition occurs subsequent to uncontrolled dieting.  The individuals quickly get obsessed with the cycle of over eating and vomiting, similar to drug and substance addiction. The disorder manifests after a sequence of unsuccessful dieting attempts. Bulimia in the US is believed to affect about 3 of all women at some point of their lifetime. About 5 of females in their early twenties and 6 of teenaged girls are expected to suffer from Bulimia. Bulimia is also closely associated with addictions and compulsions. It has been estimated that about 20 to 40 women affected with Bulimia have a history of drug and alcohol abuse, indicating behavioral control problems. Sometimes bulimic behavior is also seen in anorexia. Binge eating is not actually driven by hunger but triggered by depression, stress and other feelings associated with body weight and shape. Generally there is a feeling of satisfaction or happiness after binge eating, but soon there is self-loathing that sinks the short-lived happiness. There is a loss of control during binge eating and the individual resorts to vomiting in an effort to regain control. It should be noted here that all Bulimics do not engage in induced vomiting, use of enema or laxatives. While some resort to fasting for a few days to compensate a binge session, others may resort to excessive exercising. The excessive exercising includes exercising at inappropriate times and places or indulging in it even when sick or injured. Bulimics often experience weight fluctuations, but however their weight loss is not as severe as in anorexia. Also long term prognosis and recovery rate is higher for bulimics compared to anorexics.

Eating disorders can be successfully treated when diagnosed early. Anorexia and bulimia are often overlooked in males, as these are relatively rare in boys and men. Identifying people with such disorders and bringing them under treatment is indeed difficult. The longer the disorders prevail, the greater is the treatment difficulty and its effects on the body. Long term treatment might also be required in some cases. Family and friends can contribute to the success of the treatment by playing a crucial role by offering support and encouragement. Whenever an eating disorder is suspected, a physical examination must first be carried to rule out all other illnesses for the weight loss. Based on the assessment by the clinician, the patient may be hospitalized or treated as an outpatient. Conditions requiring hospitalization include excess and rapid weight loss, extreme binge eating and purging, clinical depression, major metabolic disturbances etc. Given the complex association of psychological and emotional problems in eating disorders, a comprehensive treatment plan involving various experts is necessary. The treatment team should ideally include an internist, a psychotherapist, a nutritionist and a psychopharmacologist, or an expert psychoactive medications. 

Anorexia and bulimia have notable similarities and differences. There is much in common, with both these disorders being associated with people who are unnaturally concerned about becoming obese and begin to diet. They are always preoccupied with weight, food and personal appearance. Wanting to be perfect they struggle with depression and anxiety even taking to substance abuses that probably stated with diet pills. The basic difference between anorexia and bulimia is that while in anorexia people starve themselves or compulsively exercise people with bulimia eat large quantities of food or binge eat only to force it out through vomiting, use of laxatives etc. (Family doctor). Among the other notable differences between the two is that, although both are worried about other peoples opinion, those with bulimia are extremely worried. They are more concerned of pleasing others, wanting to look attractive and get into intimate relationships. They tend to be more sexually active compared to those with anorexia. People with bulimia are driven only by few obsessive qualities that drive anorexics.  However they are likely to get easily frustrated, have long histories of mood swings and find it difficult to control their impulses. Individuals with bulimia are more likely to frequently change friends and relationships and experience strong emotions. One third of those affected by bulimia also exhibit personality disorder characteristics. Another major difference between the two eating disorders is reflected in their medical complications (Susic P, 1999). While almost all women with anorexia are amenorrhic or have irregular menstrual periods, only about half those who suffer bulimia experience it.

The cause of eating disorders is not much known although many are speculated. There is no definite known cause for anorexia despite studies pointing out to genetic links playing a crucial role for an individual becoming susceptible to anorexia. Preliminary studies indicate a gene at chromosome 1p as being responsible for anorexia nervosa (Edwards R. D, 2010). There is also evidence attributed to dysfunction of the hypothalamus of the brain. There has also been evidence of neurotransmitter imbalances in the brain causing anorexia. The risk factors associated with anorexia are, a history of under eating, feeding difficulties during infant stage and depressive symptoms in mother. Negative feelings and an inclination to perfectionism may also predispose an individual to anorexia. It is perceived that people, who have any eating disorders, are likely to have experienced childhood abuse. With a poor self-image, individuals fall under pressure to be attractive and thin, with which the destructive cycle begins. Anorexia cannot be easily diagnosed as individuals often hide their symptoms, through denial and secrecy. The denial is evident when an individual refuses to seek professional help, not willing to accept that there is a problem with him or her. In most cases, diagnosis is established only at the onset of medical complications. Professional help is sought by the family members only when they are alarmed by the weight loss. When sought by the healthcare professional, anorexics would not be able to account for their condition and developments, being unreliable and inaccurate in providing an insight into their problem. Their cooperation is also reflected from their severely malnourished condition. Necessary information for the treatment is therefore sought from parents or other family members. Some important criteria for diagnosing anorexia include

Not wanting to maintain body weight at or above the minimum weight proportionate to height and age. Anorexia is indicated when a bodyweight of less than 85 of this expected weight is maintained.

Despite being underweight, there is an extreme fear of becoming fat

Highly distorted self-perception where weight loss is either not fully acknowledged or is minimized.

Among menstruating women, when three or more consecutive periods are missed or periods occur only after administration of a hormone.

The psychological and behavioral effects associated with anorexia have the potential to devastate an individuals life. It can also affect other family members too. The psychological and behavioral attributes in anorexics are

Depression and withdrawn socially due to extreme underweight.

Gets easily irritated and upset and face difficulties in their interaction with others.

Concentration and attention is reduced.

Most individuals who suffer from anorexia get obsessed with food and thoughts of food. They constantly think of food, prepare meals for other people and stock food

Mood disorders, personality disorders and anxiety disorders are also evident in these individuals.

Anorexia affected individuals complain about everything except food. They normally do well in school and in various activities. Physical appearance being important, excellence in other fields is emphasized too, that they are mostly high achievers.

The medical complications of anorexia include gastrointestinal complications, complications of the heart and the circulatory system. Anorexia is associated with abnormally slow heart rate and low blood pressure. There is also disturbances in the cardiac rhythm, although these may not be life threatening. With regard to gastrointestinal complications, constipation and abdominal pain is common. The process of food absorption into the body is slowed, and enzyme level changes cause liver damage. Adolescent girls with anorexia are particularly prone to disturbed menstrual cycles (Familydoctor.org, 2010).  Although the renal function may look normal, there is an increased or decreased urination. Another important complication of anorexia is osteopenia, a condition related to thinning of bones. There is a rapid bone loss in girls with anorexia. It should be noted here that anorexia is one of the psychiatric conditions with high mortality rates. About 6 of those affected by anorexia succumb to the disease. Cardiac arrest and electrolyte imbalance are the prominent medical complications associated with anorexia leading to death. Under proper treatment, it is possible for half the affected population to make a complete recovery. About 20 of those affected by anorexia remain chronically ill. The treatment for anorexia may stretch for several years and sometimes may require lifetime treatment.

Similarly bulimia too currently has no known cause, but generally perceived to develop with a dislike to ones body. Despite being underweight, an individual looking at a mirror might see a distorted image of being fat, only to start dieting. With the body image continuously perceived as being large, dieting only escalates and induces one to bulimic practices. Studies indicate bulimia to be associated with abnormalities in the levels of neurotransmitters of the brain like serotonin. Studies have also indicated that bulimic individuals have a decreased perception of satiety, altered metabolic rate and abnormal neuroendocrine regulation. Just as in anorexia, bulimia too is associated with secrecy and denial, making diagnosis very complicated (Healthyplace.com). Here too the individuals seek professional help only when the medical or psychological conditions have worsened.  The basic criteria in diagnosing bulimia is

Sequential binge eating within two-hour period, where food consumed is much more than what most people would have.

Uncontrolled eating with a feeling of helplessness to stop.

Compensatory behaviors like vomiting, laxatives abuse, fasting, excessive exercising etc.

While individuals affected by bulimia may be underweight, overweight or normal weight, some symptoms that are likely to indicate bulimia are

Going to bathroom to induce vomiting after every meal.

Swollen cheeks and jaws, damaged tooth enamel, broken blood vessels in the eyes due to excessive vomiting.

Unnecessarily preoccupied with body image or weight.

The medical complications associated with bulimia are mostly due to continued binging and purging. The purging behavior has several effects on the body system. Vomiting can lead to oral complications with the acidic gastric contents eroding the tooth enamel, due to continued exposure. There is an increase in dental cavities and also sensitivity to hot and cold food is developed. Repeated vomiting can also cause the salivary glands to swell and sore. Bulimic behaviors affect esophagus and colon the most. Regular vomiting also cause ulcers and ruptures of the esophagus. When use of laxatives is regularized, the normal elimination process gets impaired. With regard to diuretics misuse, there is an abnormal build up of fluid. The combined abuse of laxatives and diuretics can put a bulimic individual at risk for electrolyte imbalance, which at times can even be life threatening.  A bulimic mother can also cause complications to the fetus or the infant. When untreated psychological problems escalate, the restoration of the normal body functions become difficult.  However these are reversible through treatment. 

Bulimics in serious conditions require to be first brought to a stable physical condition. The treatment of bulimics requires to be directed at meeting both the psychological and physical needs of the patient, so as to restore physical health and normal eating patterns.  An ideal treatment needs to identify and address issues associated with control and self-perception. It is also crucial for the patients to identify the feelings and beliefs that caused the initial disorder. The patient needs to be counseled on nutritional effects, behavior control and best practices in weight control. They need to accept their bodies and strive for a healthy physical and mental life. The recovery process requires immense patience, as the results would be slow.  A positive attitude together with personal efforts on the part of the affected individual is vital for a successful recovery. Several antidepressants have been proved to be beneficial in the treatment of bulimia. Several studies have showed fluoxetine as being effective in treating bulimia. The FDA of the US has also approved fluoxetine in the treatment of bulimia. Fluoxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)  type of antidepressant. These are popular than the monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) due to its reliability, safety and low side effects.

People with eating disorders require their emotional issues to be identified and addressed and therefore psychotherapy is generally used. Mental health professionals provide emotional support and help the patient to understand and cope with the illness. Group therapy has been proved to be successful in the treatment of bulimia. The effectiveness of combined psychotherapy and medications has been studied by scientists of the National Institute of Mental Health. Researchers have recently established that group therapy and antidepressant medications are beneficial to patients, when administered either alone or in combination. Antidepressant medications were also seen to be most beneficial when combined with cognitive-behavioral therapy. The combination has been observed to be very effective in preventing relapse subsequent to the discontinuation of medications. For anorexia, a combination of antidepressant with other forms of treatment is more effective. These antidepressants are also capable of treating co-occurring depression. The metabolic changes associated with eating disorders have made their treatment very difficult. Individuals suffering from anorexia may have to take more calories of food, than required for a similar, normal person, for them to even maintain a stable weight.

Given the increasing prevalence of anorexia and bulimia, todays society has an important role in tackling eating disorders. The food and fashion industry in particular have a responsible role to ensure that people in our society have a perfect physical and mental health. Teenagers watching television fall for the idea that they would only be accepted when they are thin. They are brainwashed into believing that becoming thin is important and aspire to be as thin as their models on the screen. The diet commercials give the implication that losing weight would lead to happiness. Magazines claim to provide the newest and the best diet, each month. Most of these diets are actually unhealthy, depriving the body of the required nutrition and also initiating health problems.  Dieting can be rightfully said to have become obsession with a large section of the population in North America. Today, we see and respect the persona from the outside rather than the inside that actually matters (Thompson C, 2009). We need to accept and love for what we are and not for what we look. Children need to be taught to emphasize on who they are, and to accept others for who they are. They need to be taught healthy eating habits and the irrelevance of being thin. 

According to Murray (2006), post-traumatic stress disorder is an emotional as well mental condition that occurs after an event happens.

It can occur after a few days or years from when an event occurred. A person suffering from the disorder can have the following symptoms He or she could be having dreams of the event, he may also have memory lapses. This means that he forgets some important things. Thirdly, he or she may feel that there is no future. Therefore, the post-traumatic stress disorder results in depression which later makes one to be forgetful and thus it affects the learning process of an individual. It is important to learn its characteristics and causes as well as the remedial strategies that can be used to solve the problem.

Before we look into the effects of stress it is important that we discover the tell tale signs of post-traumatic stress disorder. First, a person lacks the interest in participating in some activities. For example, he or she may not want to do any work. The student may not want to do his or her assignments which are important in the learning process. Secondly, he may be withdrawn. He may not want to relate with other people and therefore he stays alone far away from other people. The student may not want to be involved in group during the learning process. Thirdly, such a person may have a problem concentrating in one activity. The person becomes very active and jumpy. This therefore affects his or her education or learning since she cannot concentrate in class. He may also appear hyper-active sometimes. They may also be involved in so many activities at any one time and they do not seem to be getting tired. The emotions of such people cannot be predicted since they sometimes become angry without a specific reason. Such an attitude is very detrimental since it affects the learning process. The teacher may fear the student and therefore they may not communicate well.
The students suffering from stress may also not have an interest in learning since they feel that they do not have a future. Consequently they end up losing hope and performing poorly in class. Such students may have suicidal thoughts and they only think of ending their lives. In some occasions they seem to lack some feelings. Additionally, students suffering from anxiety, depression or the post-traumatic stress disorder may work very hard to avoid places, people, thoughts or activities that are associated to the trauma. This in turn affects their learning because if for example a girl was raped she may hate all men including men teachers. This means that she cannot understand whatever the men teachers teach. The student may have dreams relate to the activity that led to the trauma (Kinchin 2005). He also continues to state that people or students suffering form post-traumatic stress disorder may have a low self esteem and they also have an impaired learning ability. They feel that they cannot achieve or attain high marks and this limits their performances. If the situation is left unattended to it could get out hand and the students may also drop out of school.

The behaviors that can be seen from the above discussion can only be detrimental to the learning process hence the poor performance.

Before we add onto the effects of post traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression on education it is important that we understand the various causes. The causes according to Kinchin (2005) will be discussed below

Abandonment This occurs when a child feels that they are not loved. They go looking for the love in other zones which could be dangerous. The students or children may end up being sexually harassed or beaten. A child may feel abandoned if the parents do not spend some time with the child or they are divorced. Such a child may not also learn well in school since she may develop the characteristics exhibited by stressed people.

A second cause of post-traumatic stress disorder is abuse. When a child is physically or sexually abused the child may develop post traumatic disorders and thus her education will be affected.  If the family of the child has domestic problems her education will also be affected. It is important that we can now discuss the effects of stress on education.

According to Bodeeb (2010) students are most likely to suffer from post traumatic stress disorder because of child abuse, sexual harassment among others. He continues to state that most high school students suffer from the disorder due to the above reasons and many others. He supports Murrays view that the signs indicating that a person is suffering from post traumatic stress disorder may manifest themselves immediately or it may take a longer time which could be several years or decades. This disorder may therefore make the students not to understand what they are taught.

To understand how stress inhibits proper learning the following notes are important. When a student experiences stress the body releases cortisol. This hormone may cause too much fat to accumulate at the belly. This fat is very dangerous as it results into cardiac problems. Additionally when we become anxious the body releases adrenaline into the blood. Cortisol remains in the body for a very long period of time which enables it to negatively affect the brain. Cortisol affects the neurotransmitters and thus the brain cannot function properly. The neurotransmitters carry messages from the brain to the other parts of the body or vise versa. If their communication is impaired the student suffers from memory loss. This indicates that if the stress levels are low then the brain will work properly. There will be no memory losses and consequently high performances will be guaranteed.

Kar and Bastia (2006) looked at adolescents and discovered that the students who were suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder anxiety or depression had a poor performance in school.

Bodeeb (2010) observes that if a student or students is seen to have the characteristics of someone suffering from post traumatic stress disorder the following should be done to assist them
First it would be prudent that the teachers and parents talk to the student. If a teacher notices that the behavior of a student has changed it is wise to talk to them. Students feel relieved if someone shows concern to them. If the student is discovered to be suffering from post traumatic stress disorder he or she should start treatment immediately. The teacher should also look for information from the school psychologist which he shares with the student. The student should also visit the psychologist regularly and this will make him or her feel that someone cares. The students emotions may stabilize with time and hence her performance also improves. The students should also be provided with information on the books or websites such as  HYPERLINK httpwww.pstd.org.uk www.pstd.org.uk that could be of help to them. In addition to the above, any student suffering from the post traumatic stress disorder should get a combination of medication and counseling.

In conclusion, it is necessary to identify students who are suffering from the post-traumatic stress disorder and intervene to help them. This is important because this is the only way that the students can be assured of performing well in school. The teachers are the ones that are close to the students most of the times. This therefore means that they are most likely to notice the changes in children behavior. They should talk to the students and if the student is suffering from stress they should notify the parents and they should work together until the student is healed. They should get the necessary medicines and attend the counseling sessions as recommended. Children of all ages are nowadays predisposed to the risks that can lead to them suffering from the post-traumatic stress disorder. However it was believed that only the adults that suffered from stress. This is not the case nowadays due to the many changes that has occurred in the society. Both parents are working and the children are left under the care of some people who may not be very careful. The children may get accidents which may make them suffer from the post traumatic stress disorder.

Many experiments and much theoretical debate have come from Adams motor learning theory. Adams theory makes use of two concepts, perceptual trace and memory trace. It is Adams theory that has given birth to the concept of differentiation of two different types of learning apparent when one acquires most motor skills.

The two most important concepts for Adams theory are perceptual trace and motor or memory trace (Mazur, 2006, p. 310). Perceptual trace is synonymous to reference input or what it feels like to perform the task. Motor or memory trace on the other hand focuses on the need for a person to be able to coordinate his or her muscles to produce the needed action.

Along with Adams concepts are his big contributions to motor learning  the two stage theory, the first stage being the verbal-motor stage. The stage was named as such because of verbal feedback dependent improvement. KR (knowledge of results) must be available from the instructor to the learner to compensate for lack of perceptual trace and lack of differentiation between good or bad performance (Mazur, 2006, p. 311).

The second stage is that of the motor stage which happens when the learner has good perceptual trace and has no need for external KR. Adams  says that while performance is possible without external KR, it could be improved by refining the precision of the motor trace (as cited in Mazur, 2006, p.310). The point of debate is where studies show the importance of external KR to motor learning.

Adams theory has launched many experiments and caused many a debate. His work brought to attention the concepts of perceptual and motor trace as well as his two stages, the verbal-motor and motor stages. Though there are still debates on his work, his most important contribution is the idea that two types of learning are possible during motor learning.