Psychology

Everyone has those times in their lives that they choose to either cherish or bury. No matter what kind of memories we have, it is undeniable that these circumstances or happenings in our life shape who we are. For years and years, much study on how and why we act has been done. Tracing back to what theorists have stated and connecting our memories to what we have developed today. We can see that much of the findings brought about years ago have been true and still are. What happened in our memories define what we become, affect how we react and act now, and still project significant contribution to how we will be in the following days, weeks, months and years.Aggression and

Banduras Theory
While Pavlov has done extensive research on conditioning which involves punishment or reinforcement, Albert Bandura proposed his own theory on which makes use of observational learning and focuses on learning through vicarious experience. Banduras research on imitation of aggressive behaviors by 4-year olds shed much light to the phrase monkey see, monkey do. With his experiments, the 4-year olds projected actions done by the adult model even down to the details of what the model would say (Mazur, 2006, p.282-284). Banduras theory applies to my memory of seeing my father abuse my mother at age four.

Because of my fathers repeated abuse towards my mother, aside from having trust issues with men, I learned as the children in Banduras experiments did. Because I saw that there was no punishment for being aggressive, I saw the lack of punishment as passive reinforcement. Hence, from that experience, aggression became a bigger part of me than it would for others. I felt that when one was aggressive, one would not fall victim to others. I felt that those who were aggressive were strong and would not be victimized, so, I became as they were  violent  towards others and towards myself.Principles of
Banduras Theory Applied on Positive Development

Aside from Banduras experiments on aggression by means of modeling, he also proposed four deciding factors for imitation to occur. These factors, in a nutshell, state that to learn one must pay due attention, be able to remember the information on the task, translate the retained information into action, and have incentive or motivation to do the task (Mazur, 2006, p.284). Though this theory does not apply to a single task, it applies to my development after my father left me and my mother.

With all the abuse, it was not so hard to accept that my father left my mother. Though it hurt, it was almost a relief  she was safe. However, seeing as my father was gone, she had to raise me all by herself. I saw her work hard, I saw her persevere, determined to raise me without the need of a husband. Seeing this, observing such from my mother, it made me believe in independence and turn to feminism. As she successfully led her life and raised me without a man by her side, I grew to be independent as she was and I believed that anything boys can do, girls can do better. A Synthesis
I have learned much through many ways that could be explained by a wide array of theories. Albert Banduras work on aggression and imitation only explains a small fraction of my being and shows how learning could either produce negative or positive traits or behaviors. With lifes experiences, the memories and the learning we are left with, it is astounding how actions from once upon a time impact us today, after years and years, and still would, years and years into the future.

The movie A Beautiful Mind is the story of John Forbes Nash Jr., a math genius, an economist and a Carnegie scholar who graduated at Princeton University.  Nash received the Nobel Memorial Prize in 1994 for his contribution to economics, this despite having been debilitated by paranoid schizophrenia since his teaching days.

The portrayal of the main character, John Nash, by actor Russel Crowe has been widely acclaimed as very realistic.  As stated in one movie review  Crowe seems to be able to make any film great just by his mere presence but it is his acting ability that highlights A Beautiful Mind (Oliver).  The story is indeed amazing especially in the way the mathematical genius of Nash is presented -- how as a student he could work for days on math equations in the library and write them on the glass windows, how he could see common realities in terms of math equations and after he graduated, how the numbers just seemed to leap at him as he searched for the codes during his special assignments to the Pentagon.

The portrayal by Crowe was effective because it established the type of individual Nash was as well as the level of intelligence he had which was incomparable to many.  And then when the delusions of Nash started, it transported the viewer into the world of mental delusions that Nash himself went through.
Crowe as Nash was excellent because the transformation from the savvy, confident, math expert to the paranoid, nervous, apprehensive character was gradually illustrated in Crowes accurate rendering of Nashs persona.  He soon becomes a strange individual as he speaks of conspiracies, spies, codes, Russians and it is soon discovered that he has done a roomful of article clippings where he has underscored numbers which he denoted as linked to secret codes, plans, places and shady characters.  Crowes portrayal is particularly convincing, especially when he is first brought to the psychiatric hospital for treatment.  Nash mistakes the psychiatrist Dr. Rosen to be part of the Russian spies sent out to neutralize him for working with Parcher, hence his initial mistrust.  The acting prowess depicted by Crowe is very intense as he presents various phases of his paranoia like cursing his room mate Charles as he is brought to his room at the psychiatric ward, speaking softly to his wife because there might be people listening and looking for the implant on his left arm without feeling any pain despite the gaping wound, and blood splattered all over his clothes.   

One negative point of the movie is the inclusion of confusing scenes about Nashs hallucinations which are interspersed within the story.  The viewer is then left hanging with these questions  1) when did the illusions start  2) what possibly triggered them  3) how come nobody noticed that Nashs room mate was imaginary  4) why did nobody question Nashs activities even if they were classified  and 5) didnt the university have control over their faculty members, who should be first and foremost be accountable to them  These are some questions raised by the movie.

John Nash had to undergo insulin shock therapy which was the commonly used treatment at that time.  This was usually conducted 5 times in a week for two consecutive weeks.  Aside from this, Nash was given anti-psychotic drugs to be taken at home to prevent the progression of his ailment.  In the movie, Dr. Rosen makes use of the psychodynamic approach where there is an active and open relationship between the therapist and the client.  Behavioral therapy was also practiced with Nash being made to undergo exposure therapy sessions allowing Nash to see his imaginary friends  Charles, William Parcher and Marcy.  Because humanistic therapy holds a hopeful, constructive view of human beings and the individuals substantial capacity to be self-determining (Humanistic Therapy), Dr. Rosen gently guided John into realizing that everything he had been seeing were merely products of his imagination and not seen by others.  He talked to John patiently that not taking his anti-psychotic drugs have caused his relapse into another state of paranoia which almost put his family in grave danger, hence, John should not let these circumstances to happen again.

One noticeable thing about the movie is the stigma which is attached to Nashs illness.  After he was diagnosed as a schizophrenic, Johns very few friends even became fewer as not all of them came to visit John when he was recovering.  It was just fortunate that he was still given the chance to go back to the university to teach and do what he had always loved doing  math and math equations.  Nevertheless, it was still an uphill battle for Nash as students mimicked the particular way he walked, and people often stared at him because of all the past behavior he had been notoriously identified with. 
Some possible brain-behavior connections are Nashs high intellect, peculiar way of looking at things, uncommon perception of common phenomena which can be correlated to his aversion for people, preference for solitude and not being too comfortable around people.   

A persons behavior is influenced by biological and environmental factors. As such, membership to a gang is a significant factor that can shape an individuals behavior. Since gangs are more likely to be involved in criminal and antisocial behaviors, an individual who is a member of the gang gets influenced to acquire antisocial and criminal behaviors. This paper examines the influence of gang on individual behavior. The intrinsic and extrinsic factors involved in this relationship are highlighted. The paper also looks at influence of gang membership on individual behavior by providing examples of behavior in gang members versus non-gang members. The paper concludes by asserting that membership to a gang causes an individual to acquire antisocial behaviors.

Introduction
Human behavior is determined by both biological and environmental factors. The environmental influence of individual behavior is significant when considering members of a certain group which shares common beliefs and allegiance. The fact that interacting with deviant peers tend to increase deviance in individuals is a clear indicator that group membership affects individual behavior (Gifford-Smith et al, 2005). Belonging to a group is one of the factors that shape individual behavior and ought to be considered when analyzing individual behavior. Gang membership has an influence of the behavior of individuals belonging to the gang whether considered at the current membership or past membership. A gang is a group of not less than three individuals who are bound together by an allegiance and the group is involved in unlawful behaviors. As such, gang membership is undoubtedly a great force that influences the behavior of individual members. These influences are mainly in line with the gang culture and the activities the gang is involved in. In addition, both intrinsic and extrinsic factors shape the influence of gang on individual behavior.

Gang influence on individual behavior
Before exploring the influence of gang on individual behavior, it is worth looking into some common characteristics and behaviors associated with gangs. Although most of the activities that gangs will get involved in are not unique to what the mainstream society does, there are peculiar things that are common amongst gangs (Decker, 2000). A marked difference is the component of violence and criminal behaviors amongst gang members whenever they engage in mainstream activities.

Confrontations between rival gangs are a common phenomenon which involves assaults and other serious violence such as drive-by shooting. Other criminal activities to be identified with gangs include illicit drug trade, auto theft, robbery, vandalism and extortion. Gang graffiti is a common gang identity that signifies a gang territory, gang power and gang allegiance (GGIA, 2010). The violence and criminal behaviors found in gangs are mainly aimed at instilling fear to rivals and residents as well as intimidating rivals. The rivals may be other gangs or any other member of the society who is not a member of the gang. Also notable about gangs is that most of the times there is no identified leader. As such, the toughest person, based on factors such as possession of money or committing toughest crimes, is considered the leader.

Being involved is an exposure into a network that is bound to affect ones behavior as determined by the forces of the network. This is because the networks in a persons life influence a persons behavior. In fact the more persuasive a network is in a persons life, the more powerful the effect it has on his or her behavior (Battin-Pearson et al, 1998, p 5). By belonging to a certain gang, one must readjust to the demands and the conduct of the group. DeLisi and Conis (2007) indicate that individuals who join gangs have to find ways of acquiring social status within the gang. To achieve such a status, an individual is compelled to engage in offending behavior. The expectations of membership in a particular gang directly imply that an individuals behavior must be reshaped to fit into the expectations. Even the mere introduction into the gang is enough to change an individuals perceptions and behavior in general. For instance, DeLisi and Conis (2007, p 148) mentions that joining membership to a street gang may involve being beaten in which an individual takes to mean that their interactions must be violent. A gang member who has the perception that his interactions must be violent is likely to possess weapons such as guns which to them they are for self-defense from being attacked or intimidated by other gangs while others will possess such weapons for status purposes.

An individuals behavior may be shaped by being a gang member in an indirect manner. This means that expectations coming from outside the gang may influence a person to behave as per what belonging to a gang implies. A gang member may perceive that others outside the gang are viewing them as bad or as per what the gang is involved in even while this is not so. This spurs the expectation of the individual as far as their interactions with other people in the society are concerned. The individual ends up behaving violently or delinquently so as to fit into the societys label (Vitaro, Brendgen  Tremblay, 2000).

It is a common observation and a clue that one is in a gang member to see individuals change in not only their interactions with other people but also in their day to day lives. All these are influences of the gang labels and norms on individual behavior. Riley (2006) for instance cites the use of certain tattoos among members of a gang with different tattoos symbolizing different things in the culture of the group. In addition, an individuals dressing may change to fit into the demands and expectations of the group. These changes are forms of non-verbal communication which have an influence on the behavior of an individual.

When an individual joins any group, there is tendency to shift personal views from self to being part of a group. This implies that the self loses predominance and the group takes control. This happens since people are always working towards attaining a sense of social identity as well as achieving a positive self-image. These pressures impact individual behaviors and one acquires the behaviors that are within the group or those that are associated with the group (Mansour, Marceau  Mongrain, 2006). This is the case with belonging to a gang. In search of the sense of self worth and positive self-image, an individual takes up the practices of the gang and does away with the self. As a member of a group, one is obliged to show commitment to the group members and activities. This obligation may not necessarily come from group members but also from the self as one seeks approval and gets cushioned from disapproval by fellow members. In the process, individual behavior tends to conform to group expectations. 

Pinizzotto, Davis and Miller (2007) highlights some of the reasons why belonging to a gang changes an individuals behavior and more so to a delinquent one. The interaction with other gang members leads to poor development in social behaviors, delay of gratification as well as poor control of aggression. This is as opposed to other children who are in other social settings like schools and well-adjusted families where these deviations are checked. The interaction with fellow gang members does not allow appropriate social skills to develop as there are no appropriate correctional measures. On the other hand, a child who is in a well-adjusted family and social setting always receives correction whenever they seem to deviate from socially acceptable behavior. This makes them develop socially acceptable behaviors as opposed to persons who grow up in a gang. Gang members on the other hand tend to acquire socially unacceptable behaviors since they do not have external regulators in their behaviors. In fact any one who is not within the gang membership is viewed as a threat to their safety. Pinizzotto, Davis and Miller (2007, p 1) indicate that a member of a gang will either ignore, encourage, or recognize the socially unacceptable behavior as adaptive for their survival. It is therefore no wonder that gang members are remorseless and most of them will take pride in doing unlawful acts remorselessly such as cold-blood murder.

One of the reasons why many people join a gang is feeling deindividualized thus no sense of individuality. Loss of individuality lessens the sense of responsibility and accountability and this affects the behavior of an individual (Hitchcock, 2008). Since a person who is in a gang feels less accountable, they are more likely to get engaged in deviant behavior. In fact, the size of the gang determines the rate and severity of individual deviance since the larger the gang, the more anonymous one feels and less the accountability feelings. As such, the severity and frequency of deviant and harmful behaviors among individuals of a large gang is higher (Skarin et al, 2010 ). Skarin and colleagues also note that being in a large gang decreases the level of self-awareness thus increasing loss of a sense of individuality. The loss of individuality and self-awareness then leads to an increase in deviance characteristic to the gang. Moreover, belonging to a group affects arousal with a large group membership decreasing arousal. Increased arousal increases the sense of loss of individuality and this increases delinquency.

Exposure to criminal and delinquent behaviors of a gang seems to desensitize an individual. With time, the reaction towards the initially unacceptable behaviors becomes tolerated and the individual indulges in gang-associated activities more often and freely. Skarin et al (2010) mentions that desensintization towards crime and violence among gang members makes the gang members accept the behaviors of the gang. It is therefore no wonder that members of a gang will find it less offensive to behave violently against civilians. After all, they have been exposed into such violations while in the group.

Belonging to a gang has been associated with increase in criminal behaviors. Criminal activities have been demonstrated to be higher with individuals who are members of a gang as opposed to non-gang members. In addition, gang members initiate criminal activities at quite a tender age. Pinizzotto, Davis and Miller (2007) highlight that there are gang members who begin criminal activities even at the age of nine years. Most important is that involvement in criminal activities tends to increase as one stays longer into a gang. Some of the criminal activities which gang members will be involved in include murder, armed robberies, burglaries as well as drug crimes. Escape from detention centers is also common amongst persons who are members in certain gangs than non-gang detainees.

A myriad of delinquent behaviors have been observed and linked to being a member of a gang especially among the youths. Thomas, Holzer and Wall, (2003) studied delinquency amongst 66 youths in Galveston, Texas to find the relationship between delinquency and youth gang membership. It was identified that most of the delinquents were either currently in a gang, were members of a gang in the past or they had friends or a family members who were gang members. Several behavior problems were noted among the subjects with two of the five females in the study reporting being involved in a gang fight. Those who were currently gang members portrayed the most severe and frequent antisocial behaviors. For instance, most of them were more aggressive and externalizing compared to those who were in gangs in the past or who had never been gang members. Current gang members also showed poor communication and had a lower number of good peers. The number of offenses such as larceny, serious assault and public disorder among other offenses were also higher among youths who were currently in a gang compared to those who had never been members of a gang. 

Gifford-Smith et al (2005) also examines delinquency amongst children and adolescents who have been in gangs versus those who have never been in gangs. This study acknowledges that delinquency is higher in adolescents who are members of a gang and the trend is mainly a factor of peer pressure. This is so because it has been observed that one members involvement in a deviant behavior is likely to lead others to engage in a deviant behavior. It is also notable that being exposed to deviant peers such as gangs not only increases the likelihood of engaging in delinquent behaviors but it also increases the range of the delinquent behaviors. As such, a member of a deviant peer such as gang may be involved in drugs, violent behaviors, and high-risk sexual encounters and at an early age and secretive antisocial behavior. This is in comparison with persons who are affiliated with a family or a school. From this study, it is also evident that an individual who was initially delinquent becomes more delinquent once they are members to a delinquent peer group whereas those who have never involved in delinquent acts start deviant behaviors. Furthermore, the magnitude of delinquency increases as individuals interact more with the members of the deviant peer group (Krohn et al, 2009).

Gang involvement has some differences in its influence on a deviant peer than belonging to any group whether a delinquent or non-delinquent peer group. This is because the delinquent behaviors developed in individuals in gangs are more serious mainly being criminal activities. Gifford-Smith et al (2005) says that a gang culture has the capacity to influence individual behavior in ways that are beyond the influence of the individual. This is an indication that individuals behavior is definitely influenced by a gang whether they already had an antisocial behavior or not. Battin-Pearson et al (1998) report higher offence rates among gang members than in non-gang members based on individual offence rate (IOR).

The report identifies substance use and delinquency as measures of offending to be highest among gang members and lowest non-gang members who are non-delinquent. Delinquent youths who are not gang members have relatively higher offending rates but not as high as gang members. Gang members have significantly higher rates of involvement in violent offending behaviors, non violent behaviors as well as general offending behaviors. Some of the violent behaviors especially among youths include using force against others, assault, sex offense, possession and use of a weapon. Huff (1998) also asserts that gang membership has a tendency to increase criminal behavior in individuals. Huff reports a higher rate of criminal activities among individual gang members than in at-risk individuals. For instance, cases of individual gang members being involved in car theft were markedly higher than among at-risk individuals. Similar trends were identified when considering more violent crimes such as homicide, possession and use of guns in crime and selling of drugs.

The positionstatus that one holds in the gang seems to influence the individuals behavior significantly. Huff (1998) for instance mentions that gang leaders are more likely to be engaged in more serious criminal behaviors. Gang leaders are not only likely to be involved in a proportionately high numbers of crimes but the crimes are also more offensive. Most gang leaders will be involved in such violent crimes as domestic violence, murder and illicit drug trade. Being labeled as tough by fellow gang members influences one to act in a tough manner in order to retain the status or power associated with the toughness. Unfortunately, the toughness has to be won by being engaged in more grievous crimes. Equally, a gang member who is perceived by other members as soft is likely to feel pressurized to act tough so as to equal the other members. This endeavor involves a change of behavior specifically indulging in more and serious antisocial behaviors. 

In increase in the number of antisocial behaviors among gang members compared to non-gang members is consistently reported thus indicating an influence of gang on individual behavior. Arfaniarromo (2001) highlights a high likelihood of school dropout cases among other antisocial behaviors among gang members than in non-gang members. Arfaniarromo specifically investigates the Latino population in the U.S. and identifies that there are up to 40 percent of the urban Latino population who are gang members. The Latino gang members are termed by many people in the general population as not only sociopathic but also psychopathic. The issue of society expectation as well as expectation from within the gang groups is raised in this case. Since the Latino gang members have been associated with school drop out, involvement in criminal behaviors and other delinquent behaviors, the gang members seem to be compelled by these pressures and they end up engaging in the expected behaviors. The Latino gang members are made to feel that without engaging in the criminal and antisocial behaviors, they have not attained the expected norms.

Conclusion
A gang is a group that undoubtedly has influence on individual behavior. This is in consideration that a gang has its own culture and its membership requires conformation to the demands and expectations of the gang. These expectations may come from within individual, the gang or the society at large. The erosion of sense of individuality causes gang members to feel and acct less accountably hence they indulge in antisocial behaviors more often. Loyalty and allegiance to the gang influences the individual to compromise to the demands and expectations of the gang. Research has shown that gang membership influences individuals to engage in criminal activities among other antisocial behaviors associated with gangs. Members of a gang show higher rates and severity in delinquent behaviors such as illicit drug business, robbery, murder and violence in general compared to non-gang members. Although the mechanism of influence is not explored in this paper, there is no doubt that an individuals behavior is influenced by gang membership.

According to healthy place.com (2008), Alcoholism is a chronic illness characterized by the habitual intake of alcohol. Alcohol use is to the degree that it interferes with physical or mental health, or with normal social or work behavior. Its effects range from physical to psychological. Physically, it affects the brain which further leads to Difficulty walking, blurred vision, slurred speech and nausea while psychologically, it may lead to slowed reaction times, impaired memory among other effects. Alcoholism is also for responsible for diseases like oesophageal cancer, liver cancer, cirrhosis of the liver and epilepsy (About.com, 2010).

Apart from cigarettes, alcoholism is currently the worlds biggest health concern with relations to drug abuse. The severity of its abuse exceeds the costs of all lung diseases combined with Cancers. In fact, in USA, it is estimated to be the third largest killer after smoking and obesity (Vaillant, 2002).  As of 2004, a report by the WHO (World Health Organization) estimated 2 billion people being in consumption of alcoholic beverages. In spite of these grim statistics, the graph of more alcohol consumers getting trapped in the tragedy-bound web of alcoholism just keeps rocketing higher every day. So to what pleasure do we owe this treacherous addiction are we amused by the prospects of losing our jobs and families in the name of being alcoholics, or are we just too lazy to the point of not caring about putting a halt to this habit

Primarily, alcoholism affects the immediate consumer. However, recent researches amass that on a secondary level, alcoholism affects the people close to the victim. This includes siblings, friends, relatives, workmates and even children in the case of victims with families. It is for these great risks posed by alcoholics that constant efforts are made worldwide to curb the problem of alcoholism.
Some of the method commonly used to help alcoholics include counseling, rehabilitation centers, doctored prescriptions of anti-alcoholic drugs and joining support groups. Most of the aforementioned method offer great help. However, lately, there has been an increased use of support groups in the name of alcoholics anonymous groups. This is mainly because of their intensive program which has been many times attested of being efficient.

In my recent visit to gaylesbianTranssexual alcoholics anonymous meeting in my community, I was able to interact with the members, learn from their support group and generally, got to be enlightened on the operations of alcoholic anonymous groups.

The main purpose of this alcoholics anonymous group is to cultivate an amiable environment where the people struggling with alcohol addiction are able to come into terms with their problem, and then decide to voluntarily make positive efforts towards changing. More aptly represented in the motto of alcoholic anonymous To stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety.

Initially, the group constituted of residents who were from our immediate surroundings. However, with its growing popularity, alcoholics from other areas who were propelled with the need for change were incorporated as members. Currently, the group consists of approximately 80 members. This is inclusive of men, women and teenagers ranging from the age of 15 up to 75 with the men slightly outnumbering the women.
 
According to a report by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2004), Heavy drinking may have extensive and far reaching effects on the brain, ranging from simple slips in memory to permanent and debilitating conditions that require lifetime custodial care. This is the reason why most alcoholics find it difficult to control their drinking. In response to this, members of the alcoholic anonymous group from my community advocate for a rigorous and interactive process which, if followed, will utterly reform the alcoholics.

To begin with, the process involves attendance of group meetings twice a week. During the first meeting, focus is made on encouraging new members to stay alcohol free. This is mostly done by recovered alcoholics through testimonies of their experiences. The second meeting is then centered on the new members voicing out their experiences, challenges and asking for help if need be. Depending on the directive from the group leaders, meetings can occur in an open or confined environment.
In other groups, programs like rehabilitation from other harmful drugs are incorporated in their curricula (About.com, 2010). However, in our communitys alcoholic anonymous group, focus is only made on solving alcoholism. This has normally ensured maximum efficiency. (Vaillant, 2002) supports this Singleness of purpose by saying that it streamlines the focus of members towards recovery and is very effective in edging out denial.

In addition, there are normally counseling sessions that are held during the second (weekly) meeting. The main reason for this is to ensure that the new members are mentally strong to deal with the challenges of recovering from alcoholism. Counseling is mostly done by seasoned members of the group. However, there are times when expert counselors are invited to the group to offer their expertise to the members.

This whole process occurs in a systemized way. Just like in many other alcoholics anonymous groups, the process occurs in a 12-step module where the steps are inculcated within the weekly and special meetings. Completion of these steps is viewed as a positive step in the right direction but is not necessarily an end to the recovery process. Much more has to be done in order to ensure full soberness as well as help the members not to drift back into alcoholism (A.A. Information, 2008).
The leadership style exhibited by this group is almost synonymous to that seen in most alcoholic anonymous groups. Top leadership is composed of the chairman, organizing secretary and other group leaders. All these leaders are overseen by the founder of the organization who is mostly concerned with the managerial aspects of the organization.

These leaders are democratically elected once in six months by the members. Other than that, there is free interaction between all members since equality is key pillar of the organization. Members are also free to hold their independent opinions on various issues like religion, political affiliations among other issues. They are therefore not constrained to ascribe to the opinions by their leaders unless it is in relations to the guidelines instituted for members of this group.

Different leaders utilized variant theoretical approaches in dealing with the members. However, the most used approach was the person-centered approach. This proved quite effective since it ensured that members were free enough to open up on the various issues affecting them (Corey, 2008). For example since this group is mainly for gayslesbians, some of the members (mostly new ones) had difficulty in being opening up about the bad experiences they had as alcoholics. At such time, the leader would tactfully ease in into the members by stating anonymous examples of such situations and how they were solved. By doing this, the member eventually feels comfortable and less anxious thus easily talking of hisher situation.

In the same way leaders have roles to play, so does members of the group. Fundamentally, members are charged with the responsibility of supporting one another. They should also ensure smooth running of the group by being disciplined, promptly attending meetings and cooperating with their fellow members as well as the leaders. Another role is to assist researches being conducted in the group by being cooperative with the researchers.

There was good interaction between the members. In effect, this made them highly cohesive. However, there were a few disagreements that were sometimes witnessed between members and the leaders. This conflict was majorly based on the difference in opinions which were tabled from both ends. But on a positive note, the conflicts were easily resolved through consensus and this left a win-win situation for both parties.

As a personal observation, the group was quite effective in-terms of helping the members recover from alcoholism. In fact, most members attested of feeling at home when together with other members. However, more programs should be incorporated to help the staunch addicts of alcoholism. The two-time weekly meetings might not adequately monitor and help such people. The leaders should also be keener on attendance. This is because most members either arrived late or alternatively missed the meetings without giving prior notice and this greatly affected the smooth and ardent running of the group.

In conclusion, more groups should be incepted not just to deal with alcohol, but also other harmful forms of addictions and as much as alcoholism causes a variety of medical complications, alcoholism in itself is not a disease with the right mindset, right associations and a positive attitude, recovery from alcoholism is more than just possible (Vaillant, 2002).

Psychological disorders is defined as a group of symptoms which create major disturbance in different areas of occupation such as in activities of daily living, work, school, family, and social relationships (Psychological disorders, n.d.). Due to its broad scope, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), as cited by Sadock and Sadock (2003), provided a classificationcriteria for evaluation of psychological disorders. As of 2000, DSM-IV-TR is used as the official classification of the U.S. for psychological disorders in order to delineate the symptoms from the actual diagnosis of psychological condition.

Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia
Panic disorder is a subclass of anxiety disorder under Axis I of DSM-IV-TR characterized by spontaneous, sudden episode of panic attacks (Psychological Disorders, n.d.). It often comes with agoraphobia or the fear of being alone in places where it would be hard to escape during a panic attack (Ballas, 2008). According to Sadock and Sadock (2003), panic disorder usually develops in young adulthood, in an average of 25 years old but both panic disorder and agoraphobia can develop at any age.

Symptoms of panic attacks occur in short periods and peak within 10 minutes after they start. These include chest pain, choking, dizziness, hot flushes, nausea, numbness, palpitations, and shortness of breath. On the other hand, symptoms of agoraphobia include uneasiness about being in places where escape may be difficult, fear of being alone or being separated from others, fear of losing control in a public place, feeling helpless and dependent on others (Ballas, 2008).

Major Depressive Disorder
Also termed as unipolar depression, major depressive disorder (MDD) is a subtype of mood disorder under Axis I of DSM-IV-TR.  To date, there is no known cause of this disorder. However, hypothesized bases of this disorder are discussed in Psychological Disorders (n.d.), such as low activity in the frontal lobe area that controls the emotional centers of the brain, abnormal levels in serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain, and other social and environmental causes.
MDD is described as having one or more of the following symptoms changes in weight, appetite, and sleep activity, lack of energy, feeling of guilt, problems in thinking and decision-making, and recurring ideas of death and suicide (Sadock  Sadock, 2003). Therefore, given these symptoms, it is said that this type of disorder prevails more in women than in men. In addition, the mean age of onset of MDD is about 40 years, but it can also begin in childhood or in old age.

Bipolar Type I Disorder
Bipolar Type I disorder also refers to the former term, bipolar disorder which means a condition in which a complete set of mania symptoms occurs during the course of the disorder aside from the depressive episode (Sadock  Sadock, 2003). Similar with the previously discussed disorder, this type of mood disorder also has almost the same hypothesized physiological and environmental causes (Psychological Disorders, n.d.). The only difference is that there are additional symptoms of mania for bipolar I disorder.

Unlike MDD, bipolar I disorder happens equally in both sexes. However, as much as depressive episodes occur more in women, manic episodes is prevalent in men. Also, the beginning of this type of disorder is earlier  from childhood to 50 years with a mean age of 30.

Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a subset of Axis I in the DSM-IV-TR which affects about 1 percent of the worldwide population (Psychologic Disorders, n.d.). It occurs equally among male and female but its onset is earlier in men. Though it may seem as a single disease, schizophrenia is actually a group of diseases probably with different causes but with similar behavioral symptoms (Sadock  Sadock, 2003).

The symptoms of this disorder, according to the DSM-IV-TR classification, as cited by Sadock and Sadock (2003) include the following delusions or false belief of reality not constant with the persons own life, hallucinations or false awareness of a non-realistic thought, disorganized speech and behavior, and negative symptoms such as having a flat affect, lack of interest in life, and isolation from other people.

Dissociative Identity Disorder
Dissociative Identity Disorder, commonly known as multiple personality disorder, is a chronic dissociative disorder characterized by the occurrence of two or more specific personalities within a single person. Regarded as the most serious of the dissociative disorders, it is most common in late adolescence and young adulthood and happens usually with other mental disorders (Sadock  Sadock, 2003). Sadock and Sadock (2003) claimed that there is no known cause of this type of disorder however, it generally involves a traumatic event, environmental factors, and the lack of social support.

The aforementioned are only a few examples of psychological disorders. As said earlier, this topic has a very broad scope thus it is divided into different categories. The DSM-IV-TR is the international nomenclature used which provides a systematic classification of the different diagnostic criteria of psychological disorders. In contrast with the identified physiological symptoms, diagnostic criteria is termed as such because it is a collection of symptoms which must occur in a specific period of time for the condition to be considered as a psychological disorder.

They gave me a reward when I killed two men and gave me a suspension when I loved one. These are the words of Leonard Matlovich (1943-1988) who was a Vietnam War veteran and one of the best known gay men in America in the 1970s. A journey through the history makes it clear that Homosexuality has always been an issue which has had the highest amount of discussions, disagreements and clashes over the time in every culture and society. It always generates interest people, who are seeking a better understanding of the deferent cultural values and social behaviors in various times of the history, to know why different societies in different times of the history reacted to different sexual activities in typical ways. This study would comprehensively look into the facts that might have affected the societies in understanding and accepting the homosexual behavior within the communities. What were the social, economical, ecological and political dynamics that drove the societies to respond to homosexuality in a rather hostile way   

Ancient concepts
The ancient times that had smaller kingdoms and more of the cult practices gave way to larger empires and syncretism of different monotheistic religions spreading new outlook on man having sex with man. This transformation process was in fact differed in various parts of the world. Till the advent of asceticism, which was against all forms of sexual pleasures, homosexuality was accepted broadly as rather positive human sexual activity except in the pharaonic Egypt (Greenburg 1988). This exception itself is an evidence of the changing values in a society under an organized administrative and religious concept. The vast empires meant long distance trade and imperial expansion which in turn helped the followers of different cult religions in contact with one another causing the diffusion of religious practices that involved homosexuality (Greenburg 1988). In that context there prevailed an atmosphere conducive for a monotheistic religion which uprooted the polytheism which to a great extend accepted the sexual magic of homosexuality (Greenburg 1988).
   
The changing economical, political and national scenario had caused people to look more seriously into competitive survival accomplishments than bodily pleasures and desires. The gap between rich and the have-nots increased due to the changing business opportunities and slave trade (Greenburg 1988). Thus the poor men who had to devote their life more into physical labor and combat for the rich to maintain their life style became critical of the rich men who devote their body and life to seeking pleasure from hedonistic pleasure. Moreover, the politics in the larger kingdoms were not mainly in the hands of the public, which kept the common man aloof from the public affaires. This helplessness in fact ended up resulting in a repudiation of desires and pleasures(Greenburg 1988). The small societies were, further, shaken by the conquest happened during the expansion of empires. The troubled social and political situations due to wars have left the people without any sense of security Davis 1982). The implications of these aspects can be further discussed when looking at different communities in detail.

Various Outlooks of Various Communities
In many ways the connotation of homosexual behavior for Greeks is slipping between the effeminate behavior and mans tendency to have sex with another man (Greenburg 1988). One of the Platos observations goes as an older lover will plainly court a beloved who is effeminate. There is also a mention of an Egyptian letter dating back to 145 BC which Malakos almost certainly refers to male homosexuality. Where as Boswell (1980) had strongly stated that malakos is never used in Greek to designate gay people as a group or even in reference to homosexual acts generically. Dio Crisostom who was a Greek scholar in AD 115 mentioned that someone who loved learning might be called malakoteran (Davis 1982). These uncertain commends on homosexuality in the Greek community for a great extend reveal that though, homosexuality was not accepted among Greeks, it was not abominated. It could be because the Greeks had a strong and unthreatened sense of cultural superiority. But they lacked altogether the Jewish sense of being a holy people set apart by God (Davis 1982). The Greek never believed that the divine power had reviled to man kind a code of laws for the regulation of sexual behavior.
     
Hebrews always upheld the biblical prohibition of male prostitution as the weapon against homosexuality. A few passages in the Leviticus seem to prohibit male homosexuality precisely. They are Levi. 822 Thou shalt not lie with mankind as with womankind it is abomination and Levi. 2013 If a man lies with mankind as with woman kind both of them have committed an abomination they shall surly be put to death their blood shall be upon them. At this point it looks like the homosexuality of man is the only thing to abominate, it may not be so but the lesbianism at this stage might have been more of a personal issue handled by the elder male members of the family than a public issue handled by the authorities (Davis 1982). However Later on lesbianism became more of a public issue when the early church took to counter it. St. Paul has clearly mentioned it and strongly condemned it when he said Rom. 1 26-27 that their women have exchanged natural intercourse for unnatural relationships with women burn with lust for one another. 
     
The hostility towards homosexuality as a prohibited sexual behavior is accounted to be much ferocious in Christian community in many times of the history (Davis 1982). At this juncture, such sexual variation is found to be breaking the boundaries of natural intercourse and thus tend to become the special subject of persecution (Boswell 1980). This strong hostility of Christians towards such sexual variation is to be understood in terms of the Latin Christians who ruled the crusader kingdom of Jerusalem. They were group in exile and fighting against formidable Muslims to protect the farthest strong hold of Christendom. They lost Jerusalem finally in the 1187, and their leaders fought their heart out, to prevent the secular leaders from making a pact with the Muslims, only to maintain the Latin Christians discriminating and rigid monopoly. Under the influence of the Latin Church the Frankish Knights and warriors who controlled the kingdom of Jerusalem strangely apart from their Muslim subjects. Thus the normally open knights community kept themselves aloof and the sexual variation which was perceived as a transgression was severely suppressed (Davis 1982).

The Modern Outlook
In the heartland of Christian Europe hostility towards homosexuality became marked only toward the end of the 12th century. The emphasize n the clear definition and rigorous defense of religious and legal boundaries inevitably led to the increased intolerance of forms of sexual behavior involving a breakdown of the boundaries between natural categories(Davis 1982). however, the leaders of religious and military organizations would consider the maintenance of their status depends heavily on strict boundaries between the insiders and outsiders. If the insiders are male alone, then, the boundaries between them. The maintenance of strict boundaries between the different levels of a military or ecclesiastical hierarchy requires that people of different levels would not have sexual relations (Ruben 1984). In all the male organizations it would mean prohibiting homosexuality.
     
To wrap up, now such time has come, when the humanity realized that sexuality should be treated with special respect (Ruben 1984). 1873 has seen the first federal anti obscenity law was being passed in the United States. From the late 1940s to 1960s the homosexuals were targeted and persecuted severely in America. In the late 60s, the extreme right came out accusing Sex Information and Education Council of the United States as a communist plot that destroys the family values and eventually killing the patriotism in the coming generation (Ruben 1984). The recent past have seen AIDS being considers as a homosexual disease even in the United States. It was a fact that the gay community had to deal with misfortune of being known as community in which a deadly disease spread out and became visible. One must look back into the history of epidemic and their victims in the beginning, before one begins to think about an anti-gay initiative on the basis of Aids (Ruben 1984). 

The hippocampus is a curve shaped part of the limbic system situated in the temporal lobe. This structure is involved in sexual and emotional functions of the brain. The hippocampus has got numerous neurons that enable it to carry out various functions effectively. This structure also has a role in learning and memory. It also aids in the development of a three dimensional mental map of the environment. Damage to the hippocampus has got very deteriorating effects to an individual. People with damaged hippocampus have problems in forming new short-term memories. This paper is going to highlight the functions of the hippocampus, the cause and effects of damage to the hippocampus by looking at some peer reviewed journals and published work.

Introduction
The brain is a very important part of the human body. It is one of the most complicated parts of the body whose major role is to control all the functions that a human being undertakes. The brain is subdivided into various sections and parts. Each part of the brain is attributed with different roles. The hippocampus is one of the numerous parts of the brain. The hippocampus, which is part of the limbic system, is situated in the temporal lobe adjacent to the amygdala in the brain (Kalat, 2007). The limbic system is group of structures that surround the brain. The main function of the limbic system is controlling experience of certain emotions such as anger, fear, memory, and motivation (Duvernoy, 2005). There are two hippocampi in human brain each located in each side of the brain (Fortin, Agster  Ichenbaum, 2002). The hippocampus, as stated by Fortin, Agster and Ichenbaum (2002), plays a major role of enabling easy storage and retrieval of stored information. It acts as the path through which memory pass while entering permanent storage. Damage to the hippocampus therefore has got very adverse effects to an individual concerning the ability to store and retrieve information (Taupin, 2007). The hippocampus has been extensively studied to gain insight on the development of various psychological disorders (Hyman, 2001).

Damage to the hippocampus
Damage to the hippocampus can be brought about by various factors including aging, trauma, and infection such as herpes. Oxygen deprivation, according to Duvernoy (2005) is another major cause of hippocampal damage. The other factors that may result in hippocampal damage include heart attack, respiratory failure, and sleep apnea. Hippocampal damage may also result from encephalitis and medial temporal lobe epilepsy (Hyman, 2001). People who have a history of childhood abuse have a reduced volume of  hippocampus. This reduction in volume is related to stress. McClelland (1996), states that the hippocampus is the first region in the brain to suffer damage in Alzheimers disease. Shrinkage of the hippocampus results in severe diseases such as schizophrenia and severe depression. Damage to the hippocampus impairs memory for the order of a series of spatial locations that have recently been visited (Hyman, 2001). Older memories are however not affected by damage to the hippocampus. A person may therefore have a very good memory of childhood experiences and fail to remember anything in adulthood (Andersen, 2007). This is due to the fact that the hippocampus is very crucial to spatial learning in addition to memory in numerous protocols. Patients of hippocampal damage, as asserted by Taupin (2007), therefore become prisoners of the past. Short term memory cannot be processed into long term memory in patients suffering from hippocampal damage.

Patients suffering from Hippocampal damage show extensive deficit in the capability of acquiring novel memories for the content of definite incidents and events. The ability of retrieving memories stored prior to damage is also impaired (McClelland, 1996). The ability to learn arbitrary word pairs is greatly impaired in patients suffering from Hippocampal damage. A normal person has the ability of learning these word pairs with a few trials such that whenever the first word of the pair is presented ,they are able to recall the second word without problems (Duvernoy, 2005). On the other hand, patients whose hippocampus has been damaged may fail even to learn a single word pair from a list, let alone recalling the second word of a pair after the first word has been presented (Kalat, 2007). People who are suffering from Hippocampal damage also cannot remember the order of events that occur in a series (Taupin, 2007). They therefore cannot remember the sequence of events that compose unique episodes. Andersen (2007), agrees that daily memory ability of a person is also greatly impaired. These people cannot learn new names and also cannot remember important events. Damage to the hippocampus however according to Mumby, Gaskin, Glenn, Schramek and Lehmann (2002), does not affect the ability of learning novel skills. People suffering from Hippocampal damage have fragmented memory, disturbing memories, dissociation and pathological emotions, as well as intrusive flashbacks (McClelland, 1996). A person with damaged hippocampus cannot remember spatial layouts. Patients suffering from damage to the parahippocampus, a region located below the hippocampus, as a result of stroke develop topographical disorientation. Their ability of learning new routes or traveling to familiar routes is adversely impaired (Fortin, Agster and Ichenbaum 2002).

Conclusion
The hippocampus is a curve shaped part of the limbic system situated in the temporal lobe. It has got numerous neurons that enable it to carry out various functions effectively. The hippocampus, which is part of the limbic system, is situated in the temporal lobe adjacent to the amygdala in the brain. The hippocampus plays a major role of enabling easy storage and retrieval of stored information. Damage to the hippocampus can be brought about by various factors including aging, trauma, and infection. Damage to the hippocampus has got very deteriorating effects to an individual. Damage to the hippocampus impairs memory for the order of a series of spatial locations that have recently been visited. Patients suffering from Hippocampal damage show extensive deficit in the capability of acquiring novel memories for the content of definite incidents and events. The ability to learn arbitrary word pairs is greatly impaired in patients suffering from Hippocampal damage. Daily memory ability of a person is also greatly impaired.