Psychology

Lifespan, simply defined, is the utmost period of time that a living being can survive. Lifespan can also be applied to a material or object. For a human, the period between his birth and death is a process that is identified as the lifespan development. According to Rebecca Heron (2010), lifespan development encompasses all of the developments or changes that occur from birth throughout life.

Others termed lifespan development as a series of events that took place in a persons life that made him more knowledgeable or wise. Others call it journey. Everyone has their own stories to tell. No matter how sad or colorful ones story is, it is still something that we can call journey.

Let me start mine by letting you know something about me. I am a Latin-American (Cuban) male. I was raised in Newark, NJ and I am in my late thirties now. When I got married last 2004, I moved down to south Jersey. People say that I am a good listener and that I give a good piece of advise.
Like every other teenagers, I can say that I gained experiences from my teenage years. Thanks for my best friend Denniz she was always there especially during my rough times in relationships. She was my shoulder to cry on when I needed one.

D. Boyd and H. Bee (2009) tell that there is a Learning Theory that can be applied in a persons life. According to this theory, ones development results from an accumulation of experiences. I agree to this concept because I can say that people goes through a lot of experiences in life. Love is a great experience. I can still remember being in love and being out of love but still moved on.
With a friend like Denniz, who says life can be so tough We used to hang out most o the time as I can remember but then she has to move to California during our late teens. We continue to talk over the phone, share each others stories until fate has to take her away. A terrible car accident took the life out of my friend and until now, there is never a day that I do not think of her. I know that whatever I am right now, she is a part of it.

Living on the darkest point of my life, somehow, I manage to move on. In fact, I acknowledge the need for higher education that is why I pursue studying. I can say that despite the hardships I had, I also gained success. I manage to buy a home, getting married, being asked to speak at my GED graduation on TV, and simply being there to help my parents when they needed me most. I also value simple things like my dog licking my face, the warmth smile of wife, and sometimes, being very child like.

I got hurt a lot of times. First, when my best friend died. Then, when I found out that my aunt died in a cold hospital room instead of spending her time with her family. I also got hurt when I was laid-off from my job of 14 years which made me feel that I failed my wife. Because of this, I make sure that I do not disappoint someone, especially my loved ones. I developed the hatred for failure.

However, I believe that life is a form of trial and error. Whenever my actions did not produce the outcome that I wanted, I re-think and plan again. Until I am very sure that I will be successful. Intelligence and sensitivity are imparted to me by my parents. There are times that I am emotional rather than logical. But with a bundle of experiences that I have in my life, I learned to balance both of them when I wanted to be successful in the things I do or the decisions I made.

I can say that I am in the middle of my journey now. I believe that there are more experiences for me to face and I am ready for it. I had become a better person because of the experiences in my life because it taught me how to be tough and move forward.

Twenty or thirty years from now, I want to see myself obtaining a degree in nursing. It feels good that your parents and wife are proud of you. They had been there when I started this task and I want them to be there when I am successful. Of course, I also want to have children of my own where I can be a proud parent someday. I want to teach them what my parents taught me and am able to know that I and my wife have influenced them in a fine way.

Now, I can say that my goal as of the moment is to change the relationship between me and my two older brothers. We did not develop expressing our feelings towards each other on our younger years even though we spend a lot of time together. As I age, I feel the need to open up more with them because our relationship as siblings becomes deeper.

Id also like to see my friend Denniz someday. I like to tell her what I went through and how she had become part of it. Id like to tell her that she is never forgotten and that she is the best friend I ever had. Id also like to see my aunt. I wanted to say sorry for not being there when she needed us. Id tell her that we cared for her and ask for her forgiveness.

Trials come at times when you do not expect it but with a strong bond with family and friends, it is easy to overcome. With all the influences I have in this journey of mine, I owe most of it to my family. From the hobby of watching movies, to being charismatic and even being open-minded about things, I got it from my family and some from my friends. They are most important to me. That is why disappointing them is the least that I want to do. Id rather use my ability to make them laugh and see smiles on their faces rather than inflict pain on their hearts.

First year students who are making a transition into University culture sometimes encounter stress when trying to adapt to the environment. The first year may appear stressful as a result of the students attempt to understand the unfamiliar surroundings and fitting in. Palmer and Puri (2006) define stress as a situation that occurs when one recognizes that they cannot handle the demands being made on them or hazards to their welfare (p.8). This paper will evaluate and discuss the reasons stress has become an issue at this stage and methods of dealing with it will be identified. Later, recommendations to the school of psychology will be presented according to the nature of the findings.

Reasons why Stress becomes an issue
Palmer and Puri (2006) find that when one faces threatening or challenging circumstances, the body tends to go through logical mechanisms that prepare it for action. It experiences a high state of alert thus consuming more energy and other natural resources. This response was therefore considered very valuable when dealing with types of stress triggers especially during the early period. Today however, it is seldom considered an efficient way of dealing with the troubles being faced today and therefore it has become a prominent matter over the decades.

While the body returns to its normal state of equilibrium when the stressful situation is over, it is however likely that the situation will not just pass and therefore if not dealt with accordingly, it will accumulate over time and become a health hazard (Palmer and Puri, 2006, p.9).

Nist-Olejnik and Holschuh (2007) find that when one is at a new college stress may arise when one faces new responsibilities or happens to be away from home. In addition, the professors may have decided to schedule exams on the same week or even the same day. Thus a new student may be stressed as a result of experiencing difficulty in dealing with various changes in a short period of time (p.101).

Another occurrence of stress as described by Nist-Olejnik and Holschuh may be due to the fact that a student may not know even one person in campus (p.101). It is further explored that meeting new people can be a stressful situation for some students. The types of students who encounter social stress are divided into two categories

There are those who are not comfortable with interacting with various types of students in campus and therefore try to make themselves invisible so that they are not noticed easily.

There is a category that encounters social stress because they know too many people around campus and therefore are faced with so many social obligations that they must fulfill if they are going to survive in the university society. (p.103).

Blerkom (2008) observes that numerous students attending college experience stress due to anxiety as a result of their academic performance. They come to realize later that the courses offered are much more challenging and fast paced compared to the high school ones. This matter prompts them to become stressed when contemplating on how to achieve what their families expect of them (p.24).
Changes in lifestyle are a common cause that contributes to stress for college students. The concept of balancing school responsibilities and home life, whereby students find themselves unable to find enough time for social activities with friends and family. Additionally, stress may arise due to living on their own, a situation in which they are required to manage various responsibilities and priorities for the first time.

Dealing with Stress
Blerkom (2008) suggests that one of the most effective ways of dealing with stress is to get rid of it by taking control of how individuals use their time through developing a To Do list, if one is concerned about completing all the work on time. This proves to be effective when important due dates recorded help people organize their time properly thus relieving anxiety.

Another solution provided by Blerkom is trying to find social support. Talking about the stressful situation one is facing is a good method of getting rid of the stress because the other person may be able to recommend a way in which someone can deal with the problem. They may be able to give some insight that one had not come across initially (Blerkom, 2008, p.25).

Nist-Olejnik and Holschuh (2007) suggest several ways in which one can relieve stress. Some of them are

Doing something for fun with the aim of rediscovering one self. One can go trying various activities advertised in flyers around campus.

Paying attention to ones strengths when one feels that they cannot make it at a certain activity. This is because everyone is talented at something.

Relaxation or meditation is also suggested. One is advised to take a few minutes daily to relax excluding cell phones, computers, television and conversations. Meditation techniques such as yoga for those who prefer it are also proposed.

Excessive commitment which leads to stress should be avoided. It is advised that one should choose commitments cautiously.  Those activities that get in the way of one achieving a goal are to be turned down.

Recommendations
Blerkom (2008) emphasizes that students should ask for help and stresses that it is the right decision. She observes that numerous students are reluctant to ask for help since they assume the problem can be solved individually. Therefore students should seek help from professors and lecturers since they are the professionals. Doing this will save students the trouble of stressing themselves wondering how they can take care of a particular problem.

Conclusion
In the early days, the body would react to a stressful situation by performing logical mechanisms in preparation for a reaction. However, these days those mechanisms are rarely efficient. This has led to the conclusion that stress could become a health hazard if not dealt with accordingly. Therefore various techniques such as meditation are used to relieve stress. Additionally, one is to avoid stress by choosing engagements carefully while avoiding those that will get in the way of achieving an objective.

Habits which are either good or bad make one who he or she is. A habit may be an unconscious behavior which one does repeatedly even when aware of the bad consequences (Carr 2004). A bad habit in the short or long run results to bad consequence and thus on identifying that one has the bad habit, it is always good to work towards avoiding it. Everybody in one way or another has a bad habit and should first identify it and then work towards avoiding it.

Smoking is a bad habit and starts from a person taking a puff and finally becoming an addict. A person addicted to smoking has to smoke one cigarette after another and ends up becoming a chain smoker. Cigarette smoking causes some body changes due to addiction of nicotine. When one has a smoking habit, many other things may go along with having a cigarette like having a cup of coffee, driving, talking on phone and socializing with friends. Smoking habit results to bad consequences because it can lead to lung cancer and other types of cancers, it can also cause heart disease, wrinkles, stomach ulcers due to acid and gum diseases (Cross  Hopwood 2006). It may also affect the people around the smoker because it leads to the risk of second hand smoke to people around, cost of smoking may also be transferred to the family members, smoking sets a bad example to the children and also if a pregnant woman smokes, she poses the risk of damaging the unborn baby.

Therapists can help a person avoid smoking permanently. One of the most used techniques is hypnosis which works by instilling triggers which inhabit the hidden triggers that encourage one to smoke. Hypnosis makes a person relax while focusing on a desired result or problem. There are several ways in which one can use hypnosis to stop smoking. Self hypnosis is one of the methods and involves one relaxing himself and guiding oneself through the images that can make one stop smoking. This method requires some practice to master (Carr 2005). The other alternative is hypnotherapy by a hypnotherapist. A hypnotherapist is an expert who helps one to relax and also guides a person using words and images to stop smoking. One session program or multiple sessions can be used to help one succeed. The third alternative is a combination of self hypnosis and use of a hypnotherapist. It involves a person listening to a recorded program either at home or in an office which is produced by a professional. This method allows flexibility and repeatability.

Cognitive therapy can also be applied to stop smoking. It involves discovering ideas and thoughts that are in ones control and understanding them. When they are examined they can be influenced by reference to logic and fact. One requires to list down the times he reaches for a cigarette, events related to the decision to smoke and what promoted smoking. The aim is to bring the triggers of smoking from unconscious state to conscious awareness where they are subject to conscious control.

Nicotine replacement therapy is another method used to help one stop smoking. It uses quit smoking products like nicotine gums, patches, inhalers and electronic cigarette to satisfy the bodys urge of nicotine (Cross  Hopwood 2006). The therapeutic approach is the best way to stop smoking because it provides quick results compared to other methods which require a lot time. Nicotine substitutes used in this method also makes it a quick way. Experts are involved in this method which thus makes it to be the best method.

Conclusion
In conclusion, a bad habit changes a persons way of living. This article has featured smoking as a bad habit, the consequences of smoking and the therapeutic ways of stopping smoking. It has also given the benefits of using this therapeutic method.

For many centuries, people from diverse cultures debated on the origin of humanity. Many scientists around the world point to Africa as the place where humanity originated. Others claim that human beings simultaneously appeared in different parts of the world at the same time when human beings appeared in Africa. Whatever has been proven as true, it is indisputable that the human race was born of nature and was supported by their natural environment.

With the advent of the industrial revolution brought about by technological innovations, human beings have gradually alienated themselves with the environment. Advancement in technology has caused gradual degradation of nature that sustains all forms of life. The adverse effects of development became a threat to the lives that created it. These threats include drastic environmental changes brought about by climate change, new breeds of viruses that impinge on humanitys health and safety, depleting fossil fuels, polluted air and water, and growing population, among others. In their pursuit to endless desires, human beings forgot the intrinsic and deep connections of human lives to that of the environment.

With the generally ill-effects of environmental destruction to all forms of life, people nowadays are gradually awakened to their responsibility in protecting the health of the planet. Human beings have realized that the quality of life is always linked to the quality of the environment and its natural resources. With this growing concern for the holistic wellness of the Earth, people are no longer contented with mere rhetoric and baseless speculations about the real state of the Earth. This growing concern for the person-and-environment relationship gave rise to the emergence of the Environmental Psychology.

Environmental Psychology as defined by Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) is
... a multidisciplinary behavioural science, both basic and applied in orientation,
whose foci are the systematic interrelationships between the physical and social
environment and individual human behavior and experiences (p. 4).

Environmental Psychology concerns itself with the scientific inquiry into the reciprocal relationship of all life forms to their natural environment. It is a discipline whose roots are closely intertwined with other fields of study that tackles the complexities of life and environment such as, biology, chemistry, geology, geography, physics, economics, philosophy, sociology and even history and engineering. Environmental Psychology gives emphasis on the interrelatedness of the physical environment that influences peoples behavior, as well as peoples behaviours that affects the environment, on both passive and active ways.

The development of the Environmental Psychology as a discipline has been influenced by historical events as well as theories outside the sphere of psychology. According to Veitch and Arkkelin (1995), some of these theories are very broad in scope whereas others are more focused some are lacking in empirical basis and others are more data-based (p. 16). Therefore, there is no such thing as a grand theory that would explain the environment-human behaviour relationship. Aside from the current perspective on environmental psychology, such as geographical determinism, ecological biology, behaviourism, and Gestalt psychology, there are also these so called mini-theories that have been successful in conceptualizing the relationship between organisms or life forms and their environment.  These mini-theories include arousal theory, the stimulus load theory, the behavioural constraint theory, the adaptation level theory, the environmental stress theory, and the ecological theory. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) noted that

Each of the theory is able to handle specific circumstances. The ecological theory is more useful in dealing with group behaviour, whereas the stimulus load theory focus on the individual level of analysis. The stress theory finds its greatest utility at the psycho  physiological level, and the adaptation level theory is useful for accounting for individual differences (p. 17-18).

In a more detail, the arousal theory, the stimulus load theory, the behavioural constraint theory, the adaptation level theory, the environmental stress theory, and the ecological theory have their own focus that offers different perspectives in explaining phenomenon occurring between organisms and the environment. Arousal theory focuses on the influence of arousal from the external environment on behaviour or performance of an organism. The stimulus load theory gives emphasis on the limited capacity of human beings to process information. When people receive too many inputs that are beyond their capacity, people tend to ignore excess inputs. These would explain the responses of organisms to environmental stimulations. The behaviour constraint theory emphasizes the influence of the environment to the behaviour of its inhabitants. This theory states that the environment in which all forms of life thrive can impose limits on their behaviour. The adaptation-level theory takes up the idea that emotions and behaviours are affected by the amount of stimulations from the environment. The environmental-Stress theory on the other hand, emphasizes that organism-environment interactions are being influenced by the mediating functions of physiology, emotion and cognition. It explains that the environmental features causes stress on organisms when they impinge on the organisms optimal level of resistance. Finally, the ecological theory emphasizes the notion of fitness between the organism and its environment. This theory explains that the environment is designed to accommodate certain behaviours of organisms. These behaviours are the result of the compatibility to the setting.

As one of the fields of sciences, the environmental psychology is highly dependent on researches to guarantee the disciplines acceptability and reliability. Research is vital in this field as this gives validity to the human-environment relationship that environmental psychology is focusing into. Research enables practitioners to discover and prove facts, build theories and promote scientific understanding of the phenomenon that occurs between life forms and their environment. Therefore, research is an important component of this field.

The process of language acquisition is marred by hot debates, as to what role does nature (innate, inherent genetic ability) play in influencing or determining an individuals ability to acquire and learn language, and what role does nurture(the experience and environment one is exposed to) play in determining an individuals ability to learn and acquire a language. The proponents of the nature school of thought argue that human beings are born with the ability to acquire a language, and attribute the differences in acquisition of language to our different genetic make ups. On the other hand, proponents of the nurture school of thought attribute the differences to the fact that we are exposed to different experiences and cultural environments.

Cognition is the process of organizing and making new meaning of experiences that individuals encounter in their day to day lives while language is a medium through which human being express the knowledge acquired by individuals through experience within their socio-cultural environments. Cognition is mostly seen as an innate ability, which differs from an individual to another Gardner, H, (1983). It is this innateness of cognition, which is a prerequisite to the learning or acquisition of a language, which makes some children acquire a language faster than others. This ability is found in the genes of the individuals. However, it has been argued that the ability to acquire a language does not depend entirely on the individuals inborn ability, but rather, on the socio-cultural environment in which the individual is exposed to Clark, A. (1997), who likens language development as the development of things like computers, to be used by human beings for their conveniences. Another example is that of cooking food, in which we did not have a cooking gene in human beings, yet cooking was invented by human beings for their own good, and the procedure varies from society to another, just like languages vary from a society to another. This argument appears to be based on John Lockes idea of Tabula rasa, in which, he argues that the brain of an infant is like a blank slate, which is open to sensory experiences and other aspects of culture. In this sense, language cannot be entirely genetic, simply because, for example, a child can be born and is taken to another racial setting different from that of the mother, that child will still learn the language its exposed to. This shows that exposure to a language and culture is actually a determinant of the language and culture which a child acquires. Similarly, a child cannot learn a language which its not exposed to even if its the mothers tongue.

Cognition and language interact to make sense of something, through perception. This means that a community A may perceive something as good or positive while community B perceive it as bad or negative, either through the names given to that thing or a particular symbol. For example, the odor of dried fish was described as excrement by the Germans, while among the Japanese, it was described as something edible Ayabe-Kanamura et al., (1998) Herz  von Clef,( 2001) Richardson  Zucco, (1989).The difference may be attributed to the fact that among the Japanese, fish was usually consumed on a daily basis, while in German, it was not the case. This can create some problems among the two groups, due to the different perceptions they have towards fish and could intensify the differences and reduce the similarities between the two cultural groups, thus affecting their perceptions towards each other. It is thus reasonable for one to argue that the cognitive processes which underlie the perception of odor may be regulated by cultural experience through the association of language to odors in a given culture. The ability to name a particular odor therefore influences how it is perceived (Distel  Hudson, 2001 Herz  von Clef, 2001)

This can lead to a barrier or an error in communication between the two cultural groups because, when they are interacting, the Japanese may be mentioning the term dry fish with ease, while the Germans may shy off, thus creating a missing link in communication and interaction between the two cultural groups. One strategy to be used to minimize these kind of errors is through the emphasis of the diversity of cultures when teaching languages, and de-emphasizing the aspect of ethnocentrism, which makes individuals view their culture as superior to other peoples culture and make them to see the culture of other people as retrogressive, primitive or poor, and instead, acknowledge ,through language learning and acquisition process, that other people are unique in their own way, and we ought to respect them the way they are.
                                                         
Language and cognition therefore interact with each other, to bring cultures together or apart, depending on the nature of the whole process of language acquisition, cognition and perceptions attached to different languages and symbols.

Language serves to convey information from one individual to another. Language acquisition in children is achieved through learning from others, observation, mimicking, or via the natural process of sound production from the voice box. Whether nature or nurture plays a role in language acquisition is debatable.

It is undeniable that nature plays a role in language acquisition especially in children.  .  Nature plays several roles in language acquisition and development. Nature allows better perception of speech than various other sounds. In addition, the nature of human vocal cavity where the larynx is placed in the respiratory tract makes it easy to manipulate the tongue thus enhancing speech processing. It is unsurprising that children that are congruently deaf learn to communicate effectively by use of signals language at a steady rate taken by normal children to make it through speech learning process.
Human brain is designed for easy language acquisition in children. According to Chomskyi, human brain is said to posses an inbuilt feature known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), that enables children to acquire native language speeches faster than other languages. In relation to Chomskyis research, the LAD has interconnected speech signals related to indigenous language switches (Klein, 1986). 

On the other hand, nurture plays a vital role in the acquisition of language in children. Language exposure that is offered to children helps them to learn language faster than if they were enclosed. In fact, imitation of what children hear hastens their ability to learn the language. The parents insisting on certain word pronunciation while they teach children how to speak enhances childrens language acquisition skills. 

Interaction between nature and nurture in language acquisition results to very complex development in language structure. Children hear speeches they try imitating, uttering one word, then two words, and afterwards strings of words through assistance by parents and other children who make their environment. More so, brain interaction with universal grammar causes maturity of language in humans. Nature initiates language acquisition while nurture perfects it.

Lexicon is defined as the systematic signal content of a certain language in which language vocabulary and syntax is stored. Lexicon is important in language acquisition and development because it contains lexemes of the language and plays a major role in the organization of mental vocabulary of a certain language speaker. For example, lexicon for English is different from French lexicon.

Lexical Decision experiments, age and frequency of language acquisition in children was tested in six different experiments to show the relationships of word naming pace and the ability to recognize written words. In the first experiment, it was realized that speed of naming words is affected by the acquisition age, holding frequency constant. In the second experiment which controlled acquisition age while testing frequency of word naming, no effect was found. Immediate word naming speed was affected by acquisition age and not frequency, as found out in experiments 3 and 4. The fifth and sixth experiments however tested independent effects of frequency and acquisition age on word naming (Marsley-Wilson, 1991). 

Language acquisition is quicker in children and becomes limited at the onset of puberty.  Most language signals can be learnt easily in young brains than in grown ups. It is thus difficult for adults to learn new language with its specific accent.

In conclusion, language acquisition is affected by the interaction of nature and nurture.  Nature however plays a greater role than nurture. 

The purpose of this paper is to be able to define the Abnormal Psychology as well as to be able to show the depth of understanding its various areas and symptoms. The paper will focus on anxiety and its branches. Also, the paper aims to discuss the purpose and importance of assessing and classifying the different disorders of anxiety. There are many cases of incorrect diagnosis of a patient or person. Because of the lack of proper assessment, classifying and diagnosing, patients are given incorrect treatment.

Introduction
People are faced and go through life experiencing an amount of stress and pressure one way or the other. A certain amount of anxiety is acceptable or considered normal especially when the contributor of these stressors are from real life situations that an individual can clearly identify.  Losing a job or anything that is work related, death in the family or someone close to that individual, preparing for a competition, or as simple as studying for an exam are examples that can contribute or make a person feel pressured. However, the period of feeling pressured or anxious is only momentary. On the other hand, Abnormal psychology deals with how it feels to be different, the meanings that get attached to being different, and how society deals with people whom it considers to be different (Sarason, 11th ed.). Individuals who suffer from abnormal psychology or mental illness experience the same stress and anxiety that of a regular person, only their stress level is much more heightened and prolonged.  In most cases these individuals cannot even pinpoint or identify the cause of their anxiety. According to Sarason, this field of psychology covers two related problems. First, the ability to think rationally and logically and second, is to cope effectively with stress and the challenges that arise in situations and throughout the life course, and third, demonstrate emotional stability and growth.

Understanding the person who is experiencing this kind of mental disability and illness is vital in his mental development and improvement.  Making them feel that you care and respect them and their feelings and emotions will help build their self-esteem, confidence and trust towards their clinicians. Proper classification and assessment of the persons state of mind is requisite for medical professionals and clinicians to formulate or conclude the right diagnosis so that proper treatment may be recommended and met.

Anxiety
There are many symptoms of anxiety and the most common responses or signs that denote a person is anxious are nervousness, fear and worry according to Sarason.  In abnormal psychology these three normal responses become abnormal when the reaction or manifestation of the emotions are heightened or intensified, that is because of these strong feelings, a person suffering from anxiety disorder turn out to be ineffective in almost all aspects of life. the five major types of anxiety disorders generalized anxiety disorder, in which tenseness and worry can almost incapacitate an individual panic disorder, in which there are recurring panic or anxiety attacks phobias, in which there is excessive and inappropriate fear obsessive-compulsive disorder, in which there are recurrent obsessions andor compulsions often accompanied by anxiety and depression and posttraumatic stress disorder, in which there are extreme psychological, behavioral, and physical continuing reactions to traumatic events long after the events occurrence (Sarason, 11th ed).

According to Sarason, anxiety is defined as a diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. Symptoms of this disorder are rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, diarrhea, loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination, and tremors. These feelings or symptoms are associated with fear and those who suffer from this are not even aware or could not point a finger to what they fear of.

Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder is described to be prolonged and unexplainable fear with no particular object, unlike normal individuals experiencing fear or worry because of a certain event or situation that has occurred or experienced. Individuals suffering from anxiety disorders worry about minor things that have happened they also feel worried and tense even when nothing mildly alarming has occurred. They seem to spend a lot of time anticipating alarms that probably will not sound (Sarason, 11th ed). Symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder are Worry and apprehensive feelings about the future, these are people who think and worry about their future. Hypervigilance  people, who cannot identify why they feel danger to them and are always on their feet on potential threats making them excessively scan their surroundings for peril causing them to deviate themselves from things or tasks that they have to do or accomplish. Motor tension most individuals who have this symptom find it hard or unable to relax and at most times shaky and tensed. Autonomic reactivity  people suffering from this symptom often have high pulse and respiratory rates among others.

Panic Disorder may come with no warning, and is a chronic and debilitating condition. The indicators of panic disorder are similar to those of generalized anxiety disorder, except that they are greatly magnified and usually have a sudden onset (Sarason, 11th ed).

Panic attacks are unexpected rush of feeling anxiety that can be caused by thoughts about something that is of importance to a person, or a stimulus that is brought about, or sometimes that just comes out spontaneously without any warning.

Features of panic disorder are similar to generalized anxiety disorder, only panic disorder is almost always hereditary and could be passed on to the next generation. Panic attacks may occur in just a matter of seconds and could extend to hours or days.

Phobias were derived from a Greek god named Phobos, that means fear, panic, fright or dread.  Phobic disorders, contrasting to generalized anxiety and panic disorders have an exact or specific object, situations or people. Phobic individuals may not manifest clinical features as individuals suffering from panic and generalized anxiety disorders their fears are out of proportion with reality, seem inexplicable, and are beyond their voluntary control (Sarason).  Examples of what phobic individuals fear of are aquaphobia, when the one is afraid of water aracnaphobia, when the one is afraid of spiders, or arcophoobia, when the one is afraid of heights.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder shows the driven quality of the thoughts and rituals seen in people with this condition (Sarason).  People who have this kind of disorder are those who spend an excessive amount of energy, attention and time on little things. Individuals who are considered obsessive are preoccupied with a particular thought.  Compulsive people have the tendency to perform a specific action repeatedly.

A person suffering from this disorder has the compulsion to do things in a certain way. This can be in a form of a routine or ritual. Just like the example given in the book Abnormal Psychology The Problem of Maladaptive Behavior, a young lady would have special routines before starting to take a shower. Little things such as the shower curtains need to be fixed or hanged in a certain way. The faucets and tub had to be excessively clean and had to organize each and everything in the bathroom before proceeding to taking her bath or shower.  Because of this kind of behaviour, she is most likely to miss a lot in life, like missing the bus to school, therefore having to go and find an alternate way to get there.

People who are experiencing this kind of affliction are hindered from opportunities in life because they focus too much on a specific thing, event or thought. They never notice that there could have been a great occasion that just passed them by.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is based on a trauma or traumatic experience that the person was involved in.  Examples of posttraumatic experience are participating or going to war, natural calamities such as earthquakes and super typhoons or being threatened.

People experience trauma once in awhile. However, posttraumatic stress is the prolonged emotion of being traumatized by a specific event, situation or person. Though being traumatized or have the feeling of that is natural when one has experienced something that is severe, posttraumatic stress disorder is the inability to snap or get out of that trauma and move on. Individuals with this disorder have the tendency to relive or reenact a particular event that happened in their life. This can be an accident, a bad experience during ones school years or death of a loved one. Preoccupation with the traumatic event may also lead to decreased interest in social relationships, intimacy, and sexuality (Sarason).

Treating Anxiety Disorders
A number of misdiagnosis has happened in the past. There are a lot of environmental stress that can add up to the feelings and pressure of an ill individual that can cause further damage to the patient.  These individuals go on their everyday lives being branded by most of the people surrounding them. This is the whole reason why proper assessment and classification is needed to be sure of what kind of treatment or help clinicians can recommend and prescribe to ensure the improvement of the person. To be able to classify and assess the person, professionals need to diagnose and understand what the patient is saying. It is in their words and body language that give out the signs for professionals to read and detect and eventually know what treatment to prescribe the patient.

Assessment and Classification
Diagnosis is an important step in the process of identifying and classifying a clinical condition (Sarason). Obtaining accurate and exact diagnosis is not only required and needed but useful as well as not just for clinicians and professionals. This is their foundation and basis to treating individuals with any kind of disorder.

The objective of assessing is to get to information and know the individuals problem and with doing so, they will be able to classify what kind of disorder the person has. Understanding the behavior and the characteristics will clarify which approach and path to take for treatment.

Getting to know the patient is pertinent to a clinician. Finding out things such as their religious beliefs and culture, even their ethnic differences are taken into account and incorporated in their assessment, notes and study. All this information and data gathered are very important. Human beings are unique and this is because of the culture that we are born into, values that our parents has instilled in us and the peers that we have or the influences that the person is exposed to. This is why clinicians must look at every angle and turn every stone just to know and understand the person that they are talking to and will be treating if found to have mental illness.

Basis of Classification
It was mentioned earlier that classification of mental disorder is important, so how do clinicians and professionals do it What are the things that they need to do and prepare in order for them to classify, assess and diagnose a person whether or not he is suffering from mental illness We can do sum up and classify by interviewing the patient.

Interview is the most commonly used tool in assessing the person which have two types assessment and therapeutic. Assessment interview is to gather up information and evaluate behavior. The interviewer aims to understand the reason why the patient is in search for help. Therapeutic interview is done after the assessment interview is made and the interviewer or clinician has already summed up information from the patient and fully understands what bothers and ails the patient. This session is made either one-on-one with a therapist or may also include loved ones and family members. It will be of great help if the family members are interviewed so the therapist may also have a clearer and wider view of what is happening and going on with the patients behavior.  Deciding on what treatment to go with will be based greatly on the assessment part of the interview. 

Interview content
The content of the interview is to be able to identify the problem and know the gravity or extent of maladaptive behavior. Normally, the therapist will start to ask how the patient views the problem, the history of the problem and how vulnerable he or she is at that point.

Interviewers Role
The role of the interviewer is to observe and take behavior samples for them to predict the patients future behavior. The interviewer has to come up with valid relationships with the patients behavior in present and future situations and his behavior during the interview.

During the interview, the interviewer makes actual and mental notes of how the patient behaves and responses. Making a good and objective evaluation of an interview must not be focused on the patient only. The evaluation must be based on the connection and relationship that the interviewer will have with the patient.

Conclusion
Anxiety is a Psychological disorder that is treatable whether hereditary or acquired because of a traumatic event in a persons life. But because anxiety has so many branches and fields, there are different kinds and approaches for treatment. It is really important and a must for a professional or a clinician to understand the different areas of mental disorder.  Properly conducting assessments for them to be able to classify which disorder the patient or client has, correct diagnosis will be given, thus, the right treatment.

Although there are theories that came from many known contributors to this science, it is not enough in order to help individuals suffering from anxiety. Field experience joined with the theories formulated by psychologist will help you be an effective clinician or therapist. As therapists, paying attention to the patient and understanding where they are coming from, the pain that they are going through, the thoughts and past events of their lives will make it easy on helping and treating the individual.