Psychology

Human aggression and violence are unfortunately very common encounters in our contemporary society and leads to serious costs to the society. Aggression is described as hostile, injurious or destructive behavior which usually results from frustrations which can either be collective or individual. Affiliation on the other hand is the act of becoming formally connected or joined to something.
Studies have indicated that aggression is as a result of stimulation of hypothalamus which is the attack center in the brain. Stimulation of the attack center also results in high levels of stress hormones in the blood. It is therefore evident that aggression is directly related to stress. Below are studies which have been conducted to demonstrate the relationship between the neural structures and hormonal involvement in aggression and affiliation (Adelson, 2004).

Neural structures involved in aggression and affiliation
There are about three different types of aggression which have been explicitly differentiated by the techniques of the lesions and electrical stimulation of the brain. They include offense, defense, and predation. Offensive aggression is further divided into two sub-systems which include competitive and territorial fighting. Defense and offense are brought about by the lesions found in the hypothalamus according to the research which was done in rats. Lesions found on the lateral hypothalamus eliminate offense with no effect on the defense boxing in reaction to foot shock (Carter, Lederhendler  Kirkpatrick, 1999). Lesion found on the medial hypothalamus augments defensive boxing but no effect on the offense. Complete destruction of hypothalamus results in abolition of offense and enhancement of defense (Martin, 2003).

Brainstem lesions are used to differentiate between offense from both defense and predation. Lesions found in vetromedial tegmentum eliminate offense while not affecting predation and defense. Lesions of the midbrain central grey can be used to differentiate defense from offense and predation. In conditions where the lesion involves both the grey central and adjacent tegmentum, all aspects of defense are eliminated completely (Martin, 2003).

A study on male prairie voles displaying mating induced pair bonding showed that they have social affiliation with their female partners and aggression towards unfamiliar voles. The study showed that voles which were pair bonded for two weeks displayed extreme levels of social aggression towards any strange vole but maintained high degree of social affiliation with their bonded female partner (Adelson, 2004). The social interactions results in elevated neural activation in most parts of the brain including bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, medial pre optic area, paraventricular nucleus, anterior cortical, and medial nuclei of the amygdala. From the studies above, we can conclude that dopamine and vasopressin in the anterior hypothalamus may be involved in the regulation of lasting aggression associated with pair bonding in animals. 

Hormones involved in aggression and affiliation
Studies conducted on male rats were done to reveal the association between aggression control centers of the brain and blood levels of stress hormones. It was also aimed at investigating whether high levels of stress hormones in the blood were linked with aggressive behavior provoked by that center (Nelson,  Trainor, 2007). The results of the experiment demonstrated that raising one variable like electrical stimulation of the aggressive centre results in high levels of blood stress hormones. From this study, it has become apparent that stress and aggression work in a positive feedback mechanism. It was also realized that aggression center operates by altering social perceptions, for example, whenever the rats were threatened, they would attack (Gobrogge, Liu, Jia  Wang, 2007).

Conclusion
Aggressive behavior results from the stimulation of the hypothalamus and this in turn raises the levels of stress hormones in the blood. Affiliation is also controlled by hypothalamus. Various studies have been carried out indicating what the major causes of stress are. Aggressive behaviors resulting from stress can be directed more to unfamiliar members than can be done to the known members. 

There has been a big controversy on whether deviant behaviors in individuals should be blamed on the brain. This is as a result of discovery of hormones and other neurochemicals that are associated with antisocial behaviors. The big controversy has resulted from the claims that adoption of these theories could give an excuse to criminals for their deviant behaviors. Some criminals may claim that their deviant behaviors are beyond their control and it is their nature to exhibit antisocial behaviors. Some of these theories disqualify the ability of human persons to use their cognitive abilities to determine what is right and what is wrong (Erickson, 2010). 

Hormones and Behavior
Recent neuroscience studies indicates that the brain play a major role in criminal behaviors. Neuroscience maintains that the brain is the agent of all behavior. However, the brain can not be blamed for criminal behaviors. The neurochemicals such as hormones can therefore not be blamed for antisocial behaviors. This is because many criminologists and sociologists are for the argument that human behaviors and personality should not be blamed on innumerable causes such as hormones (Deborah, 2002).

There are evidences that some individuals are criminals because of the concentration of hormones in their systems. A linkage between criminal acts and hormones such as testosterone and cortisol has been established. Testosterone is a male sex hormone which is responsible for the development of male physical traits while cortisol regulates the digestion of food. Studies indicate that high concentration of these hormones result into aggressive and violent behaviors. Many inmates in the federal prisons have been found to have higher concentration of these hormones (Henry, 2008).

Some hormonal states that lead to deviant behaviors have been associated with other antisocial behaviors. This includes anabolic steroid abuse which results in hormonal imbalance. High doses of anabolic steroids have been associated with aggressive and violent criminal acts such as robbery, vandalism, fighting and irritability. It has also been reported that secondary changes in the hormone balance have been observed in anabolic steroids abusers. The antisocial behaviors in these individuals should not be blamed on the hormones but on the individual (Bahrke, 2000).

In some cases, it may be reasonable to consider the influence of hormones on the behavior of individuals. Some people suffer from personality disorders which affects their relationships with other people, perceptions and how they react to different situations (Zanarini et al, 1998). This condition has been observed in some individual who continue exhibiting certain behaviors despite the negative consequences of their actions. It is not reasonable to blame such people for their antisocial behaviors rather psychotherapy should be recommended. The most common personality disorder is called the borderline personality disorder (Koerner  Linehan, 2000).

Although in some cases, the hormones can be blamed for antisocial behaviors, it should be noted that other factors such as the environment contributes to deviant behaviors. The family or the neighborhood in which an individual is brought up or lives can influence him or her to commit crimes. The hormones and the brain both play a role in the development of antisocial behaviors (Plomin et al, 1997).

Conclusion
What is to be blamed, the hormones, the nurture or the individual, for antisocial behaviors is a controversial issue. There is no doubt that many factors are responsible for antisocial behaviors. Though there are some exceptions, deviant behaviors should not be blamed on hormones since it can be used as an excuse to criminal acts.

Modern research has challenged the traditional view of hormones as strictly acting in peripheral tissues. Several studies have shown that, apart from their peripheral effects, hormones bind on specific receptors in the CNS and exhibit significant effects both on the mature brains functioning (Moult, 2008) and the developing brains sexual differentiation (Schwarz, 2008).

Leptin, insulin and sex steroids are hormones with established neuromodulatory effects. Leptin is mainly associated with bone formation, reproduction and regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, however it also influences other brain areas, including the hippocampus (Moult, 2008). Insulin, apart from its role in glucose metabolism, it has been linked to feeding, synaptic regulation and neuronal survival. In addition, insulins central effects have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease (Craft, 1998). Sex steroids regulate sexual behavior and affect cognitive functioning, namely memory and learning (Schwartz, 2008).

The hippocampus has attracted a large amount of scientific attention due to his key position in the neurophysiology of memory and learning. There seems to be a sexual dimorphism in brain development, mostly affecting the hippocampus, the amygdala and the basal ganglia (Lenroot, 2010). Studies in animal models have shown that the female hippocampus contains larger amount of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and it exhibits more active cell proliferation due to the effect of estrogens. In contrast, the male hippocampus appears larger in volume and has a larger granule cell layer and more synapses (Hajszan, 2007). Given the hippocampal role in several functions, including memory, learning, mood and stress response, these discrepancies may explain the presence of between gender differences in cognition and psychopathology.

The hippocampus is the centre of declarative, contextual and spatial memory (Neves, 2008). Neuroscientists agree that memory is probably mediated by neuronal plasticity, a term that describes neurons ability to proliferate (neurogenesis) and change the strength of synapses (synaptic remodeling).

Research currently suggests that the molecular mechanism underlying neuroplasticity is a phenomenon called Long-Term Potentiation (LTP), which refers to the long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission between two neurons, when they are stimulated simultaneously. LTP is attributed to several mechanisms, including calcium-dependent intracellular pathways, in other words, it increases the efficacy of synaptic transmission thus modifying synaptic strength (Cooke, 2006).

Memory refers to the encoding and retrieval of information, while learning is a cognitive function demonstrated by the individuals ability to modify hisher behavior according to prior experience. Memory and learning are thus interconnected and constitute the foundations of our ability to adapt to environmental changes. The limbic system is considered to have a central role in the neurobiology of memory and learning (Pennartz, 2009). However, other neuronal structures are also implicated, including the prefrontal cortex and the striatum. Brain circuits connecting prefrontal areas with the basal ganglia and the hippocampus seem to mediate several aspects of memory formation and learning, such as contextual conditioning and spatial information processing (Pennartz, 2009).

Research has revealed significant gender differences in memory and learning tasks. Males predominate at tasks involving spatial memory, while females show an advantage at verbal memory. In addition, the capacity of storing information regarding emotionally stressful events largely depends on circulating sex hormone levels (Andreano, 2009).

In conclusion, there seems to be a bidirectional conversation between the endocrine and the nervous system. The hippocampus, which holds a vital role in the neurobiology of memory and learning, receives hormonal signals that modify its function. The observed sexual dimorphism of the hippocampus and other brain areas which is due to the effect of sex steroids, is probably related to significant differences in memory and learning skills between men and women.

Stress in the prenatal stage has been considered to be closely related to the neonatal behaviors and irritability in humans as well as in other lower animals as documented by researches done in the last thirty years. Most recent researches suggest that prenatal stress would feminize or demasculinize the male sexual behaviors while it could reduce fertility or fecundity in women. It would cause such disorders as problematic estrous cycle, vaginal bleeding, spontaneous abortion or increase in neonatal mortality. A mechanism under which stress is passed on to the offspring by the mother is an ongoing research. The studies are concentrated on the blood exchange between the mother and the fetus, as well as on the alterations of hormones in the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonads, adrenals as well as in the brains catecholamine (Emack, Kostaki, Walker,  Matthews, 2008).

Recent documented studies have suggested expectant mothers with high levels of stress and anxiety would be at highest risk of experiencing spontaneous abortions. They further risk experiencing preterm labor as well as delivering malformed or dwarf babies. The babies born of such mothers may have reduced brain circumference as well. Henry and Witt (2006) contend that although there is no conclusive study relating these long-term disorders in offspring to the prenatal stress exposures, retrospective researches have claimed that there could be a possibility. The long-term functional defects may later affect the reproductive behaviors of the offspring.

Contemporary human studies have illustrated a linkage between the negative reproductive attitudes and the increase in levels of congenital disorders as well as infant mortalities. Severe cases of psychological stress would lead to most neonatal deaths and may further cause neurological impairments of the baby. Anxieties during pregnancies would further be linked to most adulthood psychiatric problems (Herrenkohl, 1986).

There are studies testing the maternal exposures to resveratrol during lactation period and subsequent effects on the behavior, reproductive development as well as brain morphology in adult offspring. During adulthood, those females who are exposed to resveratrol during nursing showed a reduced body size and increased ovarian size, but had a normal estrous cycle as well as sociosexual behavior. There were no changes in the sexual dimorphic nucleus volume as found in the preoptic area nor the volume of anteroventral periventricular nucleus as found in the hypothalamus. On the other hand, when adult males are exposed to the resverotral, there was a great loss of weight and testosterone concentration but increased in testicles weight and reduced sociosexual patterns (Emack, Kostaki, Walker,  Matthews, 2008). The finding from this study demonstrated that postnatal exposure to resverotral may influence the estrogenic activities of some peripheral tissues like the gonads while causing antiestrogenic effects in the hypothalamus (Herrenkohl, 1986).

Maternal anxiety during pregnancies may cause an impaired behavioral and psychological development as well as affective disorders in offspring. This is further worsened when the mother has a poor socioeconomic status. Chronic stress during pregnancies may as well have great effects on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal performance and behavior (Herrenkohl 1983).

There is also a linkage between early developmental stress and future sexual behavior of the offspring. Environment may sometimes cause stress to the new born which may greatly impact on hisher development resulting into poor reproductive success in future. It is therefore suggested that environmental conditions especially experienced in early development, may cause trans-generational failures in reproductive behaviors of humans (Mulder et al, 2002).

Conclusion
More research is needed to unearth the linkage between stress and reproductive behaviors of humans. Perhaps data from both human and animals studies may shed more light on the etiology and mechanisms relating to the prenatal-stress causing reproductive malfunctions as well as to explain other types of human psychopathology.

Most of the youths who become sexually active do so without the necessary information which would guide them in the same. This kind of inadequate information can expose such youths to risks like teen pregnancies and contracting sexually transmitted diseases. These can have major negative repercussions on their education and lives in general. However, sex education can be one way to prevent such from happening. They can also contribute to improved reproductive heath. The purpose of this paper is to explain how the current sex education programs in America are structured. It will also discuss whether they are effective and how they can be improved.

Structure of the current sex education programs in America
There are several sex education programs in America. These include abstinence based programs whose aim is to educate the youth that abstinence from sex until one gets married is the best approach towards making sure that they do not get infected with sexually transmitted diseases and HIV as well as getting teen pregnancies (Halstead  Reiss, 2003). They also work at ensuring the youth see sex abstinence as the best approach to maintain sexual health. Most proponents of this program believe that sex before marriage is morally wrong. Approaches used by abstinence programs include True Love Waits and Aspire which aim at making the youth to choose to delay sexual intercourse until they get married. There are differences in the various abstinence programs but they all have a fundamental role to teach health, psychological and social gains which are realized when one abstains from sexual intercourse. Abstinence education programs have objectives like a) Significance of achieving self sufficiency before one engages in sexual activities, b) rejecting sexual advances and the facts that the use of drugs and alcohol leads to increased vulnerability to sexual advances, c) getting kids before getting married has potential harmful effects to the society, childs parents and the child, d) sexual activity before marriage has potential physical and psychological problems, e) a mutually monogamous and faithful relationship in marriage context is the right and expected standard when engaging in sexual activity, f) Sex abstinence is the only sure way through which the youth can keep way from sexually transmitted diseases, teen pregnancy and other health problems, and g) sex abstinence is the expected standard for children going to school (Brown, 2009).

Comprehensive sex education programs on the other hand explain the benefits associated with delayed initiation to sexual intercourse. They also teach the youth on the ways to protect themselves from pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases if they are already sexually active. There are many programs under comprehensive sex education program and they all aim at reducing risky sexual behavior among the youth, increasing sex knowledge and promoting responsible behavior among young people. Some school districts have made it compulsory to have these programs in schools from a certain grade (Dyson  Mitchell, 2005).

Effectiveness of the sex education programs
Studies indicate that the comprehensive HIV prevention and sex education programs which tend to affect a variety of behaviors mostly result into positive impacts. Behavioral results show that these programs are able to achieve more use of contraceptives and condoms, reduced incidences of engaging in unprotected sex, reduced acquisition of number of sex partners among the sexually active members.

They also show that the participants who have not yet engaged in sex intercourse usually have delayed initiation. The long term effects of these programs have been decreased rate of getting sexually transmitted diseases and lower pregnancy rates (Sprecher, Harris  Meyers, 2008). From 1994 to 2004, teen birth rate in America dropped by 21. 25 of this decline is attributed to the delayed sex initiation and 75 to the increase in the use of contraceptives. Other analysts are of the opinion that delayed sex initiation and use of contraceptives have equal credit to the same. Irrespective of which takes the higher percentage, it is clear that the use of contraceptives has helped to reduce the rates of teen pregnancy in America (Brown, 2009).

However, some commentators are of the opinion that some of the programs like abstinence only programs are inaccurate, ineffective and dangerous. They continue to argue that such programs threaten the basic human rights to life, information and health. Researchers at Columbia University claim that programs which pledge virginity increase the rate of pregnancy and STIs among the pledge takers. Among them, 88 started having sexual intercourse before getting married. The members also have fewer chances of using contraception and going for STI testing. Programs like abstinence- only until- marriage were found to be ineffective since they have not managed to delay initiation to sex (Sprecher, Harris  Meyers, 2008). Evaluations indicated that the participants only had change of behavior which was short term. Others found that the participants increase their rate of having sex and others showed no effects among the participants. Among the evaluations, it was also found out that there was no long term effect in decreased sexual activities among the youths (Bowden, Lanning, Pippin  Tanner, 2003).

Risk behavior surveys showed that between 1991 and 1997, there was a decline in sexual activity in high schools which is before abstinence only-until-marriage programs started being funded in large scale. However, when the federal government started funding such programs, there were reversed results. Analysis has showed that more than 80 of the curricula which is supported by the Health and Human services department of U.S. has distorted, misleading and false information regarding reproductive health. The misleading information included scientific and medical errors of fact, stereotypes between girls and boys as scientific facts religious beliefs which were taken to be scientific facts, misleading information about the risks associated with abortion and false information concerning the contraceptives effectiveness (Dyson  Mitchell, 2005).

Improving upon the sex education programs
To many, sex education is a very emotional subject. It is however argued that for it to be effective, it should be multi-faceted. The approaches which support the just say no may not apply to the youths who are already sexually active. Since teens are different and they behave differently, sex education programs should aim at providing enough information regarding the subject. Such comprehensive programs should give accurate information about the anatomy of human beings. They should also review contraception and reproduction and the protection against infections (Sprecher, Harris  Meyers, 2008).

Proponents of sex education argue that providing the children and teenagers with information about sex and related issues is not enough. These programs should be aimed at developing and improving strong character needs among the youth. Sociologists are opinionated that the programs should strongly urge teenagers to keep away from sexual activities and should also provide enough information for the youth who are sexually active without necessarily making these two sides to cancel each other out. Generally, effective sex education programs should have the following elements a) should be given by people who believe in the information they are passing on in addition to having access to the necessary support in form of consultation and training with other relevant sex educators, b) should make use of learning and teaching which are appropriate and relevant to the cultural background, experience and age of the young people, c) Should use various approaches to learning and teaching which should engage and involve teenagers and children and should have the capacity to make them to personalize the information given so that they can act on it, d) should deal with social pressures affecting the youth like peer pressure and should provide opportunities to practice assertion skills, negotiation and communication, e) should provide accurate and proper information regarding the methods of differing or avoiding sexual intercourse, birth control methods and contraception and the risks which are associated with sexual activities, f) should reinforce the message on sexual activities and behavior and reducing risks associated with the same, g) should be a basis in theories which give explanations to the factors which influence peoples sexual behavior and choices, and h) are focused on reducing risky behavior which are risky (Brown, 2009).

 Having met all these elements, the youths sex knowledge is likely to be increased and this would promote their making the right choices regarding the same. Policy makers can also improve sex education programs by making sure that such programs respond to the needs of the children and adolescents and it should not ignore what they already know about this topic from friends and the media. The programs should aim at correcting the information they have and clearing the misconceptions as this would give clarity between facts and fiction (Sprecher, Harris  Meyers, 2008).

Conclusion
Providing sex education which is effective is not an easy task because it means dealing with sensitive issues and involving various groups of people i.e. health service providers, community groups, schools and parents. It also involves a lot of funding. However, it can lead to more responsible sexual behavior among young people and reduced rates of making mistakes regarding sexual activities. It is an investment worth making because it promotes a more health nation.

Science covers the wide field of knowledge by using systematic methods of study. Scientific theories consist of general principles or laws that attempt to explain how something happens. However, religion is a system of beliefs on human nature and the meaning of life which cannot be scientifically verified. There is no experiment that tells whether a religious belief is right. With these definitions of science and religion, one can say that science and religion is contrary. But there are also scientists who believe in religion despite their strict dedication to science.

Science provides us with the procedural part of reality, based on what we have observed. Theories explain how something has been created and how it evolved to what we see as the present form. But why do we need these how part That is when religion comes into the picture, when we now ask why this should be created, why were there gas and dust in the beginning of times. All of these are because there is a divine being that planned all of these, as the religious faith explained. Take for example the theory of evolution of man by Charles Darwin. The present form of mankind has gone through several stages in the theory. If God created mankind according to His image, it can be accepted that man was created in His image and the theory is just there to explain the process, not to fully disregard the Bible text.

We can prove that science and religion are two very different things, but they can still get along in some aspects.

NEO-PI-R is a popular psychometric self-test that is easy to administer and score, though it is a proprietary product and is not in the public domain. The test can be used to assess various personal attributes of individuals from all kinds of backgrounds. Speaking in relative terms, the test has proven remarkably effective in counseling, educational and organizational settings, but its efficacy in the clinical setting rests on shaky grounds. In this paper, we will describe the various facets of the Five Factor Model on which this test is based, trace the evolution of the model and the test, discuss the various considerations relevant to the tests applicability in a clinical setting and conclude by suggesting some possibilities for the future evolution of the Five Factor Model.

Psychologists have for a long time sought to better classify and explain the various traits of human nature or personality. After decades of empirical research, a classification system emerged in which a vast number of human traits, though by no means all, were categorized under five broad heads, known as the Big Five factors of personality Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. The Big Five factors are derived from statistical analyses and are incorporated into a purely descriptive model of human personality, called the Five Factor Model (Srivastava 2010). A descriptive model is an empirically derived model, it only tries to make coherent and comprehensive observations but cannot by itself give an explanation of the internal dynamics involved, as, for example, Freudian or Jungian theories of psychoanalysis do. The NEO Personality Inventory is a simple 240-item questionnaire designed to measure the various traits of personality that are clustered under each of the Big Five factors in the Five Factor Model. 

The Big Five
The Big Five structure captures, at a broad level of abstraction, the commonalities among the existing systems of personality description and thus provides an integrative descriptive taxonomy for personality research. (John et al., 2008)

The NEO-PI-R is a measure of the Big Five factors of personality. The five factors of NEO-PI-R comprise six aspects each. Therefore the test measures 30 traits of an individual personality in all, using 8 itemsquestions for each trait. The following is the terminology used to identify the thirty components of the five factors
Openness to experience
Imagination
Artistic Interests
Emotionality
Adventurousness
Intellect
Liberalism
  Conscientiousness
Self-Efficacy
Orderliness
Dutifulness
Achievement-Striving
Self-Discipline
Cautiousness
Extraversion
Friendliness
Gregariousness
Assertiveness
Activity Level
Excitement-Seeking
Cheerfulness
Agreeableness
Trust
Morality
Altruism
Cooperation
Modesty
Sympathy
  Neuroticism
Anxiety
Anger
Depression
Self-consciousness
Immoderation
Vulnerability

We will now see what each of these facets means specifically.
In Openness
O1Imagination  Fantasy refers to the tendency to find ways to move away from the humdrum world of everyday life (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007).

O2 Artistic Interests suggests a love for beauty both in art and nature. It means aesthetic sensitivity. High scorers need not be artists, but they have the potential.

O3Emotionality is the capacity to feel and experience as well as the capacity to be aware of these feelings and be able to express them. O4Adventurousness means proclivity for new things, the desire to experience different things. People high on adventurousness are averse to boring routines.

O5Intellect suggests being open-minded for new ideas, relishing the habit of exercising the mind with puzzles etc., or pondering over intricate problems, or discussing and debating philosophical and intellectual issues etc. People low on this score have little capacity for abstraction. Just in the way artistic interests does not exactly indicate the level of artistic skills of a person, a higher degree of intellect does not necessarily suggest high intelligence, though there is usually a good degree of correlation. Intellect and artistic interests are the two core components of the Openness factor. 

O6Liberalism suggests a tendency to challenge authority and established values. Those very high on liberalism tend to be iconoclasts and even anarchists. The conservatives, on the other hand, prefer security and stability.

In Conscientiousness
C1Self-efficacy suggests having confidence in ones own intelligence and abilities. Low-scorers do not feel being in control of their lives.
C2Orderliness means being well organized, living and working according to plans and schedules.
C3Dutifulness corresponds to an individuals sense of moral obligation, and also to the tendency to abide by rules and regulations.  Low scorers can be unreliable and irresponsible.

C4Achievement-Striving signifies the drive to be successful. It means ambitiousness as well as pursuit of excellence. High scorers have a strong sense of direction in life.

C5Self-discipline can have a broad meaning which can encompass all the traits of this domain, but used in the narrow sense as an individual trait, it means some kind of will power  the ability to persist and complete tasks by overcoming obstacles and distractions.

C6Cautiousness reflects the adage think before you leap. High scorers are wont to explore alternatives and contemplate consequences.

In Extraversion
E1Friendliness implies the ability to reach out to others, instead of being distant and reserved. Low scorers need not be cold and hostile, they could be just neutral.

E2Gregariousness means to like and enjoy the company of others. High scorers enjoy large crowds, low scorers do not. The latter have a greater need for privacy and time for themselves.
E3Assertiveness is the leadership quotient. 

E4Activity Level. High scorers lead fast-paced lives and enjoy it. Low scorers tend to move about at a leisurely and relaxed pace.

E5Excitement-seeking implies the need for constantly high levels of stimulation. High scorers are willing to take risks to get their thrills. Low scorers, on the other hand, prefer to be away from hustle and bustle and may even feel overwhelmed by the commotion.E6Cheerfulness makes people bubbly. Cheerful people have a natural tendency to brim with happiness, enthusiasm, and optimism. 

In Agreeableness
A1Trust refers to the tendency of a person to assume that most people tend to be fair and honest. Low scorers have an innate distrust of other people, and believe that people are generally selfish and devious by nature.

A2Morality suggests beings frank and honest without a tendency to engage in cheating and deception. Low-scorers are not necessarily immoral, but they are less straightforward, and are most of the time on their guard.

A3Altruism is exactly what it means in the English language, a tendency to help others. However, in the context of the Big Five, people high on altruism do not feel they are being too much self-sacrificing when they are helping others, and may even feel positively rewarded in doing so. Low-scorers may also come forward when there is a need for their help, but they would think of it as a necessary burden. Altruism therefore suggests a tendency to share.

A4Cooperation suggests compliance and the willingness to compromise. Low scorers can get things done even by resorting to intimidation.

A5Modesty may suggest low self-esteem or low self-confidence, though even persons with high self-esteem may tend to be modest. Low scorers can be individuals generally perceived as being egoistic or arrogant by other people.A6Sympathy means being tenderhearted and compassionate. High scorers have high degree of empathy, low scorers can be callous, or simply rational and objective, i.e., impartial.

In Neuroticism
N1Anxiety refers to a tendency to often feel threatened, as if something dangerous is likely to happen very soon. Low in anxiety implies a tendency to be calm and unflappable.

N2Anger is sensitivity about being treated fairly, either by other people or by fate  circumstances. High scorers would get angry when things do not go their way, but they may or may not express it, depending on their Agreeableness scores.

N3Depression is the tendency to feel sad, and discouraged. High scorers lack energy to take initiative.
N4Self-Consciousness is a persons sensitivity about what others may think about him or her. Self-conscious individuals are excessively concerned about others comments. They may feel nervous or uncomfortable in social gatherings.

N5Immoderateness is a marker for impulsiveness. Impulsive individuals have difficulty in resisting their cravings and urges. Low scorers do not experience these irresistible cravings, neither are they tempted to indulge inappropriately.

N6Vulnerability is the tendency to experience panic and confusion in stressful situations. Low scorers have less susceptibility to stress and feel poised even when facing adverse circumstances.      As we can see, the high and low scales in the Neuroticism and other factors are adjusted for the range seen commonly in normal people. The NEO-PI-R is therefore not particularly useful in differentiating the normal degree and the abnormal degree of neuroticism. While the NEO questionnaire can be useful as a diagnostic tool in clinical settings, its use is limited.

 History of NEO-PI-R
In 1936, Gordon Allport and H.S. Odbert collected thousands of personality-describing words in the English language and reduced the list to over 4,000 adjectives which denoted clearly identifiable personal traits. In the 1940s Raymond Cattell reduced this list to 171 terms, and tested his subjects by making them rate themselves against these adjectives. Cattell further reduced the number of these traits to 35 and devised personality tests based on them. When the data obtained was analyzed by using the statistical method of factor analysis, 16 major personality factors were found. Accordingly, Cattell devised the 16PF questionnaire. Then in the 1960s and 70s multiple groups of researchers, basing their work on Cattells 16 factors, independently found that all the important personality traits fell into five categories. This finding was further corroborated in the early 80s, and the five factor model began to gain wide acceptance (Kaplan, Saccuzzo, 2009).

Meanwhile, in the late 1970s Paul T. Costa and Robert R McCrae discovered three dominant personality traits in the factor analysis studies of personality tests they were conducting and devised a new inventory (questionnaire) based on their findings. These three super-class traits were Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience (N, E, O). And these three factors happened to correspond to three of the five factors in the five factor model. In 1985, Costa and McCrae included the remaining two factors into their inventory and brought out the NEO Personality Inventory based on the Five Factor Model. In this version, the original three factors had six facets each, but the newly added two did not any facets. In 1992, Costa and McCrae released the new, revised NEO-PI-R, which included six facets for all the five factors. Two subsequent developments on this were the shortened version, the NEO-FFI (Five Factor Inventory) which consisted only of 60 items, and secondly the observer rating version of the NEO-PI-R. The NEO-FFI is given preference over the NEO-PI-R only when there are serious time constraints in administration of the test.

Reliability and Validity of NEO-PI-R
Domain-level reliabilities for NEO-PI-R are strong, ranging from .86 to .95, while facet level reliabilities are slightly lagging behind with a range starting from .56 and going up to .90 (Botwin, Juni, 1992). A good degree of reliability has been established for short-term test-retesting of both NEO-PI-R and NEO-FFI, while long-term validity has been established so far only for the original three factors N, E,  O.

A number of studies have been conducted  as described in the NEO-PI-R test manual and elsewhere  which dealt with the validity of NEO-PI and NEO-PI-R. In general, these studies support the validity of the 5 domain scales and 30 facet scales, though the domain scales are better validated in terms of content, criterion, and construct validities (Domino, Domino, 2006). 

In the book, A Guide to Assessments that Work, Widgier (2008)  after issuing a caveat that None of the self-report inventories can be said to be highly recommended within a clinical setting  has listed the ratings of various instruments used for case conceptualization and treatment planning for personality disorders. The ratings range from less than adequate to adequate to good to excellent. NEO-PI-R has consistently scored excellent for all the psychometric properties considered, while the other listed instruments, such as IIP (Inventory of Interpersonal Problems) and TCI (Temperament and Character Inventory), showed fluctuations. The following is the parameter listing for NEO-PI-R
Instrument NEO-PI-R
Norms Excellent
Internal Consistency Excellent
Inter-Rater Reliability Not Applicable
Test-Retest Reliability Excellent
Content Validity Excellent
Construct Validity Excellent
Validity Generalization Excellent
Clinical Utility Unavailable.

Using NEO-PI-R in a clinical setting
The NEO-PI-R is one of the leading measures of human personality available today. However, this test was primarily devised for more or less normal subjects, and not for patients suffering from some form of marked psychological illness. The NEO scales are good at measuring the degree of various personality traits manifested in the human character, but they are based on the assumption that the subject being tested does not have overt psychopathology. Nevertheless, the authors of the test, McCrae and Costa, claim that while the NEO-PI-R accounts for major dimensions of a normal human personality, it can address at least some dimensions of the abnormal personality. In general, NEO-PI-R has been successfully applied in various settings  it has yielded particularly good results that could predict job performance and job satisfaction in organizational settings  but use of the NEO-PI-R to make clinical assessments is tinged with controversy. Therefore, in a clinical setting, the NEO-PI-R may be used only in a supportive mode, to provide the clinician a better picture of his or her patients basic emotional, attitudinal and other characteristics, and not as a major diagnostic tool (Links 1995).

Applications of NEO-PI-R in a clinical setting
In terms of conceptualization, the NEO-PI-R can support and augment a personality disorder diagnosis. The FFM instrument can provide a more comprehensive description of the patients general personality orientation. An interesting fact here is that much more empirical information is available concerning the developmental antecedents, the course, the outcome and even the genetic basis of the FFM general personality structure than is available for DSM-IV-TR personality disorders. The etiology, course, and life outcomes in various dimensions such as occupational, personal, social, and marital, that have been associated with the domains and the facets of FFM can enhance the clinicians understanding of the personality order being considered.

The information obtained through NEO-PI-R testing as regards both adaptive and maladaptive personality traits can be of some use in treatment as well. High scores on each of the domains can have rather specific implications for treatment and responsivity.

Furthermore, the fact that the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic categories involve considerable overlapping of clusters of maladaptive personality traits can cause some confusion. Since the FFM has a more coherent and clear-cut structure it could function as a good supplement in diagnosis and treatment.
Personally, as a clinician, I would note too high or too low scores in any of the five domains as a possible sign of a personality disorder. Too high scores in Openness might suggest some underlying cognitive perceptual aberrations, while too low scores can suggest a pathological rigidness and closed-minded stubbornness. In Conscientiousness, too high scores can suggest obsessive perfectionism and workaholism, while too low scores can suggest not only a severe lack of self-discipline, but a lack of proper self-concept. Scores in Neuroticism of course can point to various modes of emotional dyscontrol, while Extraversion and Agreeableness scores may facilitate some crucial insights as regards the patient or corroborate the conclusions already drawn regarding his or her pathological tendencies. In my experience, NEO-PI-R has been particularly helpful in PTSD cases, such as a rape victim.

Critical assessment of NEO-PI-R
As a major review pointed out  soon after the emergence of the revised version  the NEO-PI-R manual explicitly states that the instrument is not intended to diagnose psychopathology, and at the same time goes on to present comparative data regarding the instruments applicability in over 100 personality disorders (Botwin, Juni, 1992). This dual stand has confused the reviewers then and continues to confuse many even now. While it is true that, as has been discussed here so far, the FFM instrument has a considerable role to play both in the assessment and treatment of numerous personality disorders, the basic ambivalence of the tests authors and promoters regarding its clinical use can be discouraging and disconcerting to clinical practitioners who might be considering administering NEO-PI-R to their patients. Moreover, even after nearly two decades of existence and extensive research conducted in this area, definitive studies have not been made to ascertain the degree of clinical utility of the FFM instrument.

Interestingly, although the FFM evolved from the 16PF model, the latters originator, Cattell, had been strongly opposed to FFM and NEO-PI-R all his life. Despite its enormous success, the FFM instrument has attracted a good deal of criticism from many quarters. Juni, for example, has persistently attacked the cross-cultural validity of the instrument. The fundamental problem with the test, though, is that it does not have a reliable way of detecting intentional or unintentional falsification of the responses by the subjects. Some methods and criteria have been devised to detect lying, random answers, positive presentation, negative presentation, etc., but these are not adequate. In clinical and forensic settings, particularly, negative presentation is a major problem. Indeed, to expect mentally ill persons to reliably fill in questionnaires that demand a high degree of introspection could be tantamount to folly.

Conclusion
NEO-PI-R is a simple and remarkable tool to map out clusters of major traits that mark an individual personality.  However it is seriously limited by the fact that the Five Factor Model does not have any kind of robust theoretical underpinnings. The Five Factor Theory seeking to explain the Five Factor Model, as has been propounded by Costa and McCrae, is a good attempt at formulating a theory to explain the observations, but it is only an attempt. What is needed is a groundbreaking new theory that is startling in its comprehensiveness and predictive power. Simply ascribing different sets of characteristics in varying degrees to different persons without any rationale or insight associated with it is rather primitive.

Today, after about 120 years of existence, psychology seems to be at a stage where physics was in the 16th century. Empirical observations are only the first step, formulation of a theory to explain the observations is the next. In the 16th century, Tycho Brahe made beautiful and extensive observations of planets and constellations, but it fell upon Kepler and Copernicus to incorporate those observations into an elegant theoretical model of reality and further our fundamental understanding of the world. A full-fledged theory is needed not only to promote our understanding but also to let us develop technologies that will enable us to change things in the way we want them. In the future, NEO-PI-R could and should lead to the development of technologies that would allow us change things for the better, and not just observe and record them passively.