Psychology

In everyday life, we have to cope with situations that require extremely hard work. Although this is crucial for success and financial benefits, employees may suffer from severe health problems. This is due to the fact that occupational demands can exert a negative effect on the individuals well-being. Societies during the industrial and post-industrial era, have been nurtured with the belief that pressure on workforce is necessary for organizations and companies to achieve their goals. However, there is a growing awareness that this view should be challenged and employers and policy makers should focus on protecting workers health and well-being. To do so, it is crucial to obtain an in depth analysis and understanding of the causal mechanisms that lead to work-related stress. In this regard, the present paper will attempt to investigate the impact of work-related stress on employees health.

Introduction
Nowadays, most workers face great challenges due to occupational demands. The majority of organizations and companies invest a lot on labor. Under this perspective, workers are considered assets and companies profit and financial prosperity is analogous to employees efforts (Tennant, 2001). In a similar vein, employers tend to blame their staff, when their business does not gain enough profit. In these cases, employees experience strict work conditions, unnecessary pressure and even face the possibility of losing their jobs. The present study seeks to reveal some of the health hazards posed to workers due to increased pressure at work.

Stress at work
It is true that we all need some motive to appreciate our work and even obtain pleasure from it. This is why people rush to meet deadlines. If our work environment was devoid of deadlines, workers would probably not have much to do and may even find themselves bored. This is a waste of workforce, given that productivity and profits largely depend on workers ability to complete their tasks within certain time lines (Tennant, 2001). In addition, modern life is full of struggles, satisfactions, frustrations and endless demands.

For most individuals, stress is the rule and an inevitable aspect of life. Although it is generally considered harmful and counter-productive, there is also the view that it may carry beneficial effects. Stress can motivate people to be more productive and to cope more effectively with pressuring situations, maximizing their potential (Bambra, 2007). However, it can have a negative impact when it exceeds peoples coping ability. At such an instance, stress may even compromise peoples physical and mental health. Financial activities are constantly changing and employers are struggling to produce products that meet consumers needs (Bambra, 2007). In this respect, workers are placed under a great amount of pressure to meet the challenges of a constantly evolving labor market. As consumers demands change, so do workers expertise and required qualifications. For example, a company dealing with phones may discover that mobile phones without internet services are no longer in demand. The company will maximize its efforts to ensure that enough stock is available for sale (Tennant, 2001). These increased demands may generate additional stress.

Work-related stress poses a great danger to physical, mental and social well-being. Working involves the use of physical, emotional and cognitive resources. For example, if an individual strains in manual work, like carrying a heavy load, he or she may experience bodily pains. The same applies for people who do demanding brainwork, which may lead to mental fatigue and compromise their psychological well-being. In light of these observations, we can assume that work-related stress not only adversely influences workers physical health, but its effects extend to psychological functioning. Stress at work is a reality and may have a positive component, namely it can motivate workers and increase their productivity- maybe this sentence is not necessary and should be erased.

As mentioned earlier, most organizations are constantly facing time and environment changes hence pressure at work urges workers to cope with the novel circumstances.  Most governments have recognized the fact that work settings pose a great danger to health. Policies to ensure workers safety have been implemented. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has established categories of prevention and has developed a summary of intervention levels. Primary prevention refers to any action to protect the health of people who have not yet become sick.
Secondary prevention involves early detection and prompt and effective efforts to manage illness at an early stage, before major complications arise (for example, reversing high blood pressure and preventing arterial plague formation before a heart attack occurs). Tertiary prevention consists of measures to reduce or eliminate long-term impairments and disabilities and minimize suffering due to an existing illness (for example, rehabilitation and return to work after a heart attack) (Landsbergis, 2009).
Impact of work-related stress on health

Rapid economic growth and sharp rise in consumer needs may create occupational demands intolerable for workers, leading to inadequate coping. Through this pathway, pressure arises among employees. Stress escalates and the majority of workers become vulnerable to depression or insomnia. There are also occupational consequences such as job dissatisfaction, decreased commitment to the organizations agenda (Bambra, 2007), decreased performance and failing to report to duty or non attendance. Ellis argues that in early stages, work-related stress can stimulate the body and enhance occupational performance, hence the phrase I perform better while under pressure. However, if this condition continues unmanaged and the body is further stimulated, productivity will eventually decline and the persons health will degenerate (Allis, 2005).

There is a wide variation on how people react to work-related stress and these reactions depend on the amount and the duration of stress. Typical symptoms include insomnia, loss of mental concentration, anxiety, depression, sexual problems, alcohol and drug use, diabetes, heart disease, migraine, headaches, high blood pressure, digestive problems, skin rushes, sweating, blurred vision, tiredness and sleep problems, muscular tension, stomach and back problems. Work-related stress may interfere with family life. There are cases where spouses fail to fulfill their conjugal obligations.- this I think should be erased- Employees emotional and sexual life can be adversely affected, due to mood swings, poor appetite and demoralization.

In a study conducted by Greiner et al., (1998), in a random sample of over 300 German medical doctors and consultants, several job-related variables and sociodemographic data were assessed, including time-related parameters work, and specific categories of accidents (moving vehicle and work-related). Occupational stress was found to be related to weekly working hours, lunch-break duration and age. The number of moving vehicle accidents was significantly correlated with the incidence of work-related accidents during the last year. There was no evidence that medical doctors working longer weekly hours were more likely to be involved in a driving or work-related accident per se, but they did tend to report more accidents during house visits. Moving vehicle accidents were best predicted by the onset of working day, as well as the number of dependent children (more children were associated with fewer accidents). Furthermore, work-related accidents were significantly more frequent in larger communities and when surgeries lasted longer (Tennant, 2001).

There has been an ongoing observation on the impact stress has on peoples general health. One out of ten people we meet in everyday life is over stressed at any given moment. Scientists agree that stress causes detectable chemical changes in the brain, and these changes can influence health status (Cornforth, 2007). Stress has been associated with numerous somatic complaints, cancer and chronic fatigue syndrome. Women are vulnerable to menstrual disorders. Hormonal imbalances as a result of stress may trigger the symptoms of fibroid tumors and endometriosis, leading to infertility and sexual dysfunction (Greiner et al., 1998). High blood pressure, heart attacks and stroke are also serious stress-related cardiovascular conditions.

Stress may interfere with female sexuality and cause sexual difficulties such as decreased desire and vaginal dryness. As outlined earlier, emotional problems may also arise including depression, anxiety and sleep deprivation. Gastrointestinal disorders, for example, ulcers and lower abdominal cramps constitute frequent manifestations of stress. In most cases, people suffering from work-related stress are more vulnerable to infections due to dysfunction of the immune system (Greiner et al., 1998). As noted earlier, work-related stress not only affects physical functioning, but also disturbs psychological well-being. It may have major psychological consequences. Busy schedules, arguments between colleagues or line managers with their junior staffs, accountants under pressure to settle bills or inconveniences due to traffic jam are all paradigms of typical situations where work-related stress may emerge.

Under pressure, the body exhibits intense physiological reactions, similar to those when the individual is threatened and has to make a choice between life and death. This is an unpleasant situation and can produce a large amount of bodily tension. Workers with lots of duties, responsibilities and worries due to deadlines, respond to stress in a hyper-vigilant way. In fact, there are workers who have to deal with similar situations throughout their working lifespan. Such long-term exposure to stress may be translated to serious health problems and long-term complications. This is what is referred to as chronic stress, which actually disorganizes almost every bodily system. It may contribute to the emergence of hypertension, myocardial infraction, impotence and even premature aging.

It would be of paramount importance not only to examine the impact of work- related stress on health but also to delineate its causes and devise proper management strategies. In most cases, employees generally agree that work is a major source of stress in everyday life. This is vividly outlined in comments like I had a very busy day or had a stressful day with my client or my boss does never understand. As noted in an earlier article published by Bupas Health Information Team in the context of Health and Safety Executive Survey (Greiner et al., 1998), one out of six working individuals in the UK report that their job is very or extremely stressful. Work-related stress is also one of the commonest reasons for sick leave (Bupa, 2008).

Some of the causes associated with stress include vulnerable and miserable working conditions, prolonged working periods, disturbed colleagues relationships, diminished job security, transport and commute difficulties, company management and low salaries and wages (Greiner et al., 1998). There are employees who feel under worked or overworked or feel that their job description does not match their qualifications, for example, when one is supposed to serve as an accountant but assigned as the front office manager or receptionist. In these cases, work does not provide satisfaction to the employee. In rare cases, people report a particular cause of work-related stress. Work-related stress may arise due to sudden, unexpected pressure or in the context of a set of stressful factors that progressively develop.

As mentioned earlier, pressure is inevitable at the work place. In strict sense, no work without pressure is feasible, therefore employees need to develop appropriate coping skills, to deal with stress successfully. The negative aspects of work-related stress need to be pruned in a number of ways. For example, every employer should display interest on how employees function at work, thus boosting their self-esteem and increasing their productivity. Good management of time is necessary, for example, when one is caught up in traffic and cannot get to work in time, an effective strategy would be to leave home earlier. If one is faced with many deadlines and tasks to perform, it would be extremely useful to prioritize them according to importance and urgency (Cornforth, 2007). Through team work, one can delegate some of the work to other colleagues. Break and relaxation is also highly recommended. There are employees who want to do many tasks in parallel, instead of doing one task at a time. Managers should create a good working environment, where each employee can feel comfortable and accepted (Foss, 1998). Organizations should at least, have a health and safety officer who can ensure that proper mechanisms have been implemented to safeguard workers from manageable causes of work-related stress.

Conclusion
Work-related stress is a phenomenon that will continue to affecting employees lives. We have emphasized the associations between working conditions and stress. It is clear that we cannot eradicate it from our reality as workers, and for this reason I strongly underline the need to develop effective coping skills. Government and state authorities should implement measures that address basic workers needs and rights, to protect them from health risks due to work-related stress. Any employer or organization who deliberately fails to provide a comfortable working environment should be considered to commit an offense. In addition, a specific policy should be established to compensate working personnel for physical and psychological suffering due to work-related stress.

The relationship between the psychological state of being of a person and that persons behavior is a subject that has been studied for a long time and whose insights have been critical in not only understanding human behavior but also how this behavior can be or is responsible for the various disorders that people suffer from. Human beings, unlike animals, have an innate ability to exhibit behavior that is representative of the persons state of mind, past events, and nature of relationships one has been able to have in the past. It is almost as if mankind will never let go of any of the issues one experiences in life (Freud, 2005). Therefore, there comes a time when some unspoken truths or undisclosed secrets seemingly turns against their keeper and forces one to disclose them not by way of speech but through actions. These and many other closely interrelated aspects constitute the wide field of psychoanalysis. Apart from seeking to offer insight into the relationship between human behavior and hisher psychological state of being, psychoanalysis, as it was developed by Sigmund Freud - a renown physician from Austria, is also widely applicable as a method that is used in the investigative study of the working of the human mind and a method applicable in the treatment of ailments which have an emotional or psychological basis (Freud, 2005). In other cases, psychoanalysis has been used to give a generalized description of the many theories that have been formulated and fronted to explain the behavior of human beings. This paper endeavors to offer a concise and succinct description of the psychoanalytic treatment situation, method, and attitude and then to provide a thorough discussion of how psychoanalysis relates to the goals of interpreting transference and resistance.

Psychoanalytic Treatment
Freud, who is undoubtedly the father of psychoanalytic treatment and theory, proposed a set of ways which he believed played a critical role in determining the final state of a client who was suffering from a certain psychological or mental condition (Freud, 2005). A typical aspect in his approach to psychoanalysis is the case where he presumes that a given analytical patient, whom he gave the name of an analysand, is put or finds oneself in a position where one is able to change ones feelings and behavioral pattern into verbal words or statements (Freud, 1989). This is important because only what is put into words or verbalized is able to be communicated to the analyst so that the appropriate methods of treatment can be sought and used on the client. This ability of the analysand to verbalize ones thoughts is in essence the only way through which there can be an uncovering of the underlying state of mind or psychological climate in order to be addressed appropriately.

Human Suffering and the Subconscious Mind
According to Freud, many people who suffer from psychological and mental conditions are not fully able to understand what they are going through on their own (Freud, 2005). Therefore, there is always a need for the analyst to ensure that the client is brought to the point where heshe is able to be made to understand that one is sick or suffering from some condition as proved by ones behavioral patterns or the other symptoms that are either as a result of exhibiting the given behavior or directly attributable to a certain psychological condition that has been studied and documented in the past. This state of suffering by such clients is usually an unconscious one which they can live with andor fail to admit that is indeed a threatening condition in need of being addressed medically (Freud, 1989).

Such clients experience internal conflicts unconsciously and, therefore, require the analyst to uncover the possible causes of these conflicts through a process which allows the client to verbalize ones thoughts. These thoughts can be dreams, fantasies, or free associations which the client might have kept deep within ones heart without necessarily desiring to do so. The analyst, using the training and skills derived from psychoanalysis and the relationship between behavior and mental state, is able to get the client to a point where one is able to actually understand the problem with one or to have an idea of what might be the key contributing factors (Freud, 1989). The most critical factor in psychoanalytic treatment is for the client to cooperate with the analyst throughout the process. Otherwise there is the risk of absolute failure to help the client  this is in spite of the client sometimes claiming to have no problem whatsoever. Over time, it has come to be established and widely accepted in the field of psychoanalysis that clients are in more ways than they think their own worst enemies, often having to bottle up emotions andor feelings that eat them up, causing mental and psychological distress whose symptoms are exhibited by the client (Freud, 2005). 

From Childhood to Adulthood
A key aspect of the theories put forth by Feud was that the past has a great role it plays in the present lives of many people  and that this is the leading cause of many psychological and mental disorders (Freud, 1989). Psychoanalytical treatment, therefore, is committed to uncovering the past encounters of clients as a key part in the process of helping them get over their symptoms and to a normal life. Without planning it, people have tended to bring the past with them into the present. And, surprisingly, there is no selection between good and bad aspects of the past which people bring to the present (Freud, 1989). Instead, any issues that had a particularly significant effect or impact on a person somewhere in the days gone will tend to replay in the present depending on the frequency with which the present aspect related to or resembling a past event is able to appear in ones life and on the nature of the particular situation or phenomenon as far as its impacts on the client then were (Bettleheim, 1984).

In essence, an issue which happened to a client in the past and had a great impact  for instance caused some severe suffering, pain, anger, or even joy  will likely cause the client to respond more vividly to events in the present life which remind one of the past encounters. All issues, both negative and positive, have an equal level of interplay in the later life of the one affected (Freud, 1989).  A good example is a case of a person who was abused or molested by a father while in ones childhood. While one is an adult, this person will tend to be bothered a lot by any acts of violence in society and the symptoms will be likelihood that such a person will resent any man who appears to have the looks or mannerisms of ones father. Therefore, without any warning, such a person will react negatively, even violently to a person of this nature. Given an opportunity, such people can always cause harm to the people who resemble the figures in their earlier lives who hurt them (Freud, 2005). On the positive side, a client will tend to love ladies in adulthood who look like their mother who was all but very caring and loving toward them while they were young. They will seek to defend them, keep them from danger, and literally go the extra mile just to make sure the person is pleased.

Serial killers are typical examples of people who can be helped only when their past is clearly investigated and they are able to verbalize their thoughts (Bettleheim, 1984). It has been established that most serial killers are acting out of anger from the past, where their victims are people who exhibit characteristics that are similar with people in their past lives who did something horrible or detestable. In the present, therefore, these killers are usually reminded of something so bad that if they did not pay back for the atrocities committed against them at that time, then they have a chance to do it now. A typical example is of a serial killer whose mother used to have multiple extramarital affairs when his father was away from home. The mother would threaten him if he dared reveal her illicit affairs with other men. In the present life, this serial killer seemed to have a deep-seated hatred for what he termed as loose women. He daily went ahead and killed any that he came across (Freud, 1989).

Psychoanalytical Treatment Methods
The treatment for any psychoanalytical problem finds its roots in the ability of the client to have an understanding of the problem one has as well to be in a position to at least express verbally what one thinks is the cause of the symptoms. The analyst will never be in a position to fully underpin the possible cause of the symptoms if a client will show a tendency to fail to cooperate with the analyst. Therefore, the treatment is commensurate with the willingness of the client to cooperate fully and to let go of resistances and transference that one may try to exhibit. a key stage is preparation when the analyst prepares a model to be used or followed by the client (Freud, 1989). The analyst also utilizes this time to assess the ability of the client to respond to the treatment. Although the actual procedures followed to treat clients using psychoanalysis differ from client to client depending on their personalities and state of being as far as the conditions are concerned, the main procedure entails first of all identifying the symptoms. These are usually to be found in the behavior of the client andor ones confessions.

Quite often than not, though, it is the clients behavior that drives the analyst to inquire from one about events in childhood or in the past that could have a direct or indirect link to the current observable signs (Fonagy, 2001). Once this has been done and the analyst and the client have come to a consensus regarding the possible cause, a prescription is made depending on the severity of the problem. For instance, clients who are suicidal may require a lot more sessions with the analyst, preferably with several breaks in between the sessions in order for the client to be allowed time to rest and for the analyst to assess the progress and determine the next course of action or approach. Commonly handled or treated conditions using psychoanalysis are hysteria and psychosis, although there has been treatment of other ailments like conversions, phobias, obsessions, compulsions, anxiety, sexual dysfunctions, relationship problems, depression, and  character problems like workaholism, hyperemotionality, hyperseductiveness, meanness, shyness, and obnoxiousness (Freud, 1989). As can be deduced from the wide array of the conditions, treatment can include therapy or even medication for certain conditions. What is paramount and unique about the treatment is that it is based not on medical tests because most, if not all, of the conditions diagnosed using psychoanalytical approaches cannot be medically diagnosed.

There are special models and procedures that have been adopted by various analytical organizations such as the American Psychological Association (APA) to be followed by analysts when treating clients of different problems. As earlier mentioned, the client must first of all express a willingness to know the cause of ones problem (Freud, 2005). This will then be taken by the analyst as the first indication that the client is fit and worthy an analysis. This is an important aspect because unless an analyst is able to recommend one for analysis, nothing can be done (Bettleheim, 1984). Therefore, there relationship between an analyst and the client is key to ensuring that treatment is successful. In all the cases of psychoanalytic treatment, the main approach is the so-called conflict theory, where the analyst tries to figure out what is the cause of the clients internal conflicts leading directly to the observed symptoms. Usually, the analyst would vary conditions in which the client is left. For instance, the analyst would do something that will normally cause anger or irritability on the part of the patient and then watch keenly how the client reacts. Likewise, the analyst can allow the client to lie on a couch or seat in the room, all alone, and then after some time come back to assess any new developments or patterns in behavior (Bettleheim, 1984).

In some cases, play therapy has been used as have been story therapy and art therapy depending on the particular condition of the client and sometimes the age and gender. For instance, psychoanalytical play therapy has been known to greatly assist children who have problems like depression and poor memory (Freud, 1989). Story telling also helps children to replace their negative attitudes about certain people or things with positive ones. For instance, children who are exceedingly mean because they were brought up under deprived situations will tend to recover significantly when they are told stories about fellow children who benefitted or got rewarded for being kind and generous to other people in the society (Freud, 1989). Playing also has the effect of dispelling negative thoughts by occupying the mind and if repeated over time alongside other group therapies, even adult clients have been known to recover from problems like depression and different phobias (Freud, 1989).

Resistance and Transference
Freud never stopped emphasizing that the relationship between the analyst and the client is the most important factor in psychoanalysis. This, said he, was because the analyst is in most cases the only person that will be patient and close enough to the client to allow the client to open up and so assist in pointing out the potential root causes of the problem. There is a direct or indirect relationship between the problem and the behavior of the client and this ought to be uncovered by the client (Bettleheim, 1984). That is why any exhibition of resistance tendencies by the client and the entire process is put into a state of jeopardy. The aim of psychoanalysis has been, among other things, to ensure that there is neither transference nor resistance by the client because this hampers the process. The two are different but closely related.

Resistance in psychoanalysis is no different from that in medicine  the client refusing to cooperate with the analyst for reasons that have been described by Freud as being either primary or secondary (Malcom, 1981). In essence, the client thinks or believes that there is no use or value to be derived from the entire process and so either refuses to answer questions, or to change the behavioral patterns. They can even totally refuse to discuss anything with the analyst, never make an effort to remember any detail, or even refuse to think. Such clients believe that by doing this they gain from their illness. According to Freud, the primary gains from resistance are internal and are having more suffering in exchange for the symptoms being exhibited. Secondary or external gains are those physical, financial, and social benefits the client thinks will get by continuing to be ill. They believe that if they cooperate with the analyst then the illness will somehow be treated and so they will lose these benefits.

On the other hand, transference entails the passing on from the past into the present of feeling that were exhibited then. It is more like having certain nerves excited whenever a certain event or person that reminds one of the past is sensed. Past events play a great role in the lives of people. As earlier mentioned, these things can have a leading role in the determination of the current behaviors. According to Freud, transference is responsible for a lot of problems dealt with in psychoanalysis. This explains the importance of seeking to dig into the clients past and present events. Unless this is done, no worthwhile intervention can be made in their problems, especially when they are resistant. The most serious impediment to psychoanalytic treatment is transference resistance, where the client will not admit that one ever had certain childhood emotions, feelings, desires, and general experiences which could be having a significant impact on the present situation and state of the client (Malcom, 1981).

Conclusion
Owing to the realization by psychologists of the effects the past has on the present (transference) and how clients tend to resist treatment for primary and secondary gains, psychoanalysis was fronted as the tool and approach to treatment of such conditions that cannot be effectively treated without there being an insightful understanding of the underlying causes of these problems. Psychoanalysis has come in handy to deal with cases which medical procedures could not effectively address. The client is left with the analyst who uses all possible approaches  including tricks and other seemingly unethical approaches  to have the client open up or behave in manner that can help find a possible cause of the symptoms. Only then can any form of meaningful intervention psychoanalytically can be applied. All psychoanalytical approaches aim to treat psychological as well as emotional causes of suffering, and Freuds theory on the subject have directed most of them. The underlying factor in the entire process is for there to be cooperation on the part of the client.

There are many types of eating disorders. Examples of such are anorexia nervosa, binge eating and bulimia nervosa, to name a few (Learn basic terms and information on a variety of eating disorder topics, 2010). There was such a surprise to learn about the consequences of eating disorders. This is a disease that can affect everyone. It is a life-threatening, serious problem (Learn basic terms and information on a variety of eating disorder topics, 2010)that involves the perception of beauty in our time today. Many models have died because of the pressure of our society to be thin. These kinds of disorders affect the person, physiologically, cognitively and most importantly psychologically. Surprisingly, a large number of deaths have been caused by the mental illness provided by the disorder.

The section about eating disorders has been very accurate in terms of providing information about the disease. Statistics and tables were also provided that gives real life examples of the dangers of the eating disorder. One example was also given on the death of a young model because of complications due to anorexia. Treatments were also provided on the textbook, which was largely helpful in understanding the disorder.

I believe that the first approach to a potential victim of the disorder is information. Accurate information and statistics with tables and pictures should be provided to create a picture of the disorder. It is important that I give my friend the information needed and make him understand the disease. Once I get his interest, I would confront him that he may be a victim of an eating disorder. Victims need to feel that life is precious and everyone loves him the way he is. He must feel loved by closest to him. We will not know for sure if someone is a victim, they tend to hide the disease. It is better that we spread information about the disease because prevention is better than cure.

Research Questions
The research attempted to answer four main questions What kind of information concerning the patients state and treatment do family members and older patients ask nurses and physicians in the emergency department To what extent do older patients and families comprehend the information provided by the emergency department Do older patients and members families get satisfied with the information they receive from the staff in emergency department What is the difference between older patients and family members preferences for, understanding of, and satisfaction with, the information supplied to them by the emergency departments staff (Majerovitz, 1997)

Method of Study
The study used descriptive research method to examine the two samples which comprised of 71 older patients and 32 family members using semi structured interviews as the basic research instruments. The two samples were drawn from the emergency department of a suburban teaching hospital which is associated to a school of medicine. The research measured four different kinds of variables. The variables included communication between older patients and their family members with the staff in the emergency department, type of information provided by the emergency department staff, patients and family members understanding of information provided, the level of satisfaction of information and the difference between the patients and family members preferences to, understanding of and satisfaction with the information provided by the emergency department staff (Majerovitz, 1997). In assessing whether the samples understood the information provided by the emergency department, the research used two coders which were rated according to the samples responses to open-ended questions, using defined coding criteria. The system of coding yielded inter-rater reliability Inter reliability refers to the degree to which coders or raters agree. It is used to address stability of the rating system. In this study it was applied in measuring the consistency of the raters in the coding criteria. The following raters were utilized in the coding criteria

Complete understanding For complete understanding, responses were supposed to comprise of two elements coded as being complete. The first element referred to accurate knowledge of diagnosis, treatment or test expressed in technical or lay terms. The second element was the presence of at least one piece of extra information demonstrating an understanding of the information.

Partial understanding Responses were coded as partial understanding when they included names of the tests, treatments or conditionsin technical or lay termswithout explanatory information.

Little understanding The coding system considered a response as little understanding when information provided lacked specific details in relation to the treatment, test, condition or diagnosis (Majerovitz, 1997).

Findings of the research
Most of the family members desired to have more access and information regarding the patients. However, they do not satisfactorily understand the information offered from the emergency department. Patients wanted to be actively involved in their medical care and desired to be always informed about their condition while being attended in the emergency department. Despite this fact, most of the older patients chosen for this study indicated very little understanding of their treatment or condition. This was evident because majority of the older patients did not complain about the inadequacy of the information provided by the staff that attended them in the emergency department and were quite reluctant to give the specific complaints regarding the kind of information they were given because they did not understand what it meant. It was also found out that even though in most cases the older patients understanding of their medical condition was vague, they believed that they knew and understood what was happening to them (Majerovitz, 1997).

Just like the older patients, family members also were also found to have been unsatisfied with the information they received concerning their patients. However, unlike the older patients, family members were expressed their dissatisfaction more willingly and explain their complaints more specifically. The older patients assertiveness could not be attributed to age difference between them and their families because the average age of the interviewed family members was 61 years therefore, there was negligible age difference between the two (Majerovitz, 1997).

Internal and external validity of the study
The study concludes that there are explicit communication problems among older patients, their families and the physicians. This research lacks both internal and external validity. First, the sample may not have been exactly representative and adequate for making conclusions because it excluded the non-English speakers as well as patients with dementia (Majerovitz, 1997). These are the groups that were likely to offer the more responses regarding the communication problems they encountered which would have made the inferences of the study more externally valid. Again, interviews alone were not sufficient research instruments. Other instruments such as observations would have improved the internal validity of inferences. This is because, by using observation, the researcher would have eliminated the threads to validity such as the accurateness of data collected from the sample. On external validity, the inferences of this study cannot be relied upon because the study was conducted in a sub- urban region, with only one emergency department (Majerovitz, 1997). However, different communication issues exist in different geographical locations.

The selected sample was also not valid because it comprised of middle case and white respondents from a sub- urban region. This implies that the findings from this sample cannot be generalized beyond the chosen population. However, the research design improved the validity of the research inferences in that the study utilized descriptive design which best aids in explaining given conditions using large many interviews and subjects.

Validity and reliability measures
Validity is the degree to which the research instruments, samples and design are able to accurately measure what they were aimed at measuring. Reliability on the other hand, refers to the consistency and accuracy of the results of a study. This implies that if the same question is asked to a respondent, heshe should give the same answer In the case of this study, reliability is measured in terms of inter-rater reliability. The raters applied in the study were able to rate the interviewee in the same way, thus giving credit to the reliability of the study. The authors of this study have specified on the validity of their study in terms of the lack of enough instruments on the study (us of interviews only), the geographical limitations of the study and the lack of proper timing for data collection.

Problems with reliability and validity
The major problem with the validity of the inferences made on this study basically lies on the fact that for the findings of a study to be valid, they must be universally applicable. This implies that even if the research is conducted in a different place, the same findings would be made. However, due to the fact that the sample of the study was not valid because it involved only white and middle class respondents from only one a sub urban hospital, then the findings are not valid.

There are a number of methods that can be used to conduct researches in psychology. These methods have been discussed in detail hereafter. The method adopted in research depend the field of psychology and the problem in question.

We will assume a case of depression and show how research methods can be used to come up with conclusions.

Naturalistic Observation  This method involves observation of the behavior in its natural settings. Operational definition of depression in this state will be a state a state of low mood and aversion to activity.

Naturalistic observation will in this case involve observing individuals who are suspected of being depressed and evaluate how their behavior is different from a conventionally agreed normal state.
 
b) Co-relational  This study finds involves comparing two traits and in this case one trait would be the temperament of the individual suspected of being depressed before and after the diagnosis. It can also be a comparison between an individual thought to be depressed and one who is normal.
A positive correlation would indicate similarity and logic in the temperaments of the two individuals while a negative correlation would indicate disparity in the temperaments of the two individuals.

c) Experimental  involves having an independent variable and treating two or more groups of subjects differently with respect to the independent variable.

The independent variables (IV) are the individuals thought to be normal, while the dependent variable (DV) is the individual suspected of depression.

is the duration taken to identify colours. The operational definition of breastfed  babies aged one who have been breast fed for one year. Operational definition of formula fed - babies aged one who have been formula fed for one year. The operational definition of identifying colours- would be to pick the correct coloured toy when shown the colour wanted. The experiment can be conducted in a laboratory. We have to seek permission of parents in a hospital and select newborn babies who can be breastfed and those who can be formula fed and from this the babies required for the experiment will be chosen. There will be two different groups, one with twenty mothers who will be only breastfeeding their babies for one year and another group with twenty mothers who will be only formula feeding their babies for one year. The mothers who are breastfeeding will be having a same diet plan and the mothers who are formula feeding will use the same formula powder. After one year, the breastfed babies and formula fed babies will be placed in two different rooms and will be shown a colour on a screen, for example blue, then the baby will be urged to pick up a toy that is blue in colour. The duration taken for each baby to identify the correct coloured toy will be recorded. The possible results of the experiment may show that babies who have been breastfed may have taken a shorter time to identify the wanted colour when compared to babies who have been formula fed. The results could also be vice versa or having not much difference in the comparison.

d) Case Study  This involves a thorough and in depth study of the level of intelligence of a particular subject , as in this case the subjects would be a sibling  who has been breastfed for one year and a sibling who has been formula fed year. Thus, the mother should have at least two children, one being breastfed and another being formula fed. One important thing to keep in mind is the siblings should have a similar diet plan as they are growing. The study may involve observing the siblings intelligence level at each stage of their lives. For example at age two, how many alphabets can the siblings identify The intelligences tested can also be based on multiple intelligences and each task assigned to the siblings must be the same. The study may be conducted till they reach the age of seven and a final written test comprising of mathematical and language based questions  can be done to complete the study and compare the results. Possible results the sibling who was breastfed might be stronger in terms of kinestatic intelligence as compared to the sibling who was formula fed.

e) Survey method  A method used to pose questions to a large population in order to get results based on the hypothesis. For this case, it may be possible to conduct a survey of mothers who have breastfed and mothers who have formula fed and seek their responses to questions in relation to the duration they have breastfedformula fed and their childs intelligence level. The questions could be based on multiple intelligences, for example At which age did your child manage to say all the alphabets in the alphabet  When did your child first tried to read  When did you child first cycled The survey could also be done in an interview format with parents to know in depth about the differences between a breastfed child and a formula fed child. The survey may take into consideration of the age of the mothers, the children and the mothers health habits and other factors that may affect breastfeeding and formula feeding.

My Stand
It was interesting to come up with different research strategies based on the five methods asked in this TMA. Lets look at the five different methods in depth, the first being naturalistic observation, for the hypothesis mentioned, this method has a strong point of being able to observe the childrenbabies in their natural setting let it be home or school, somewhere the childrenbabies are familiar of but it would not be an ideal one simply because no interference is allowed thus little or no control is allowed. All we have to do is to just observe the behaviour of the children and there may be no chance of altering their diet plan. The children may also behave more appropriately assuming that someone is observing them. The results may also be based on personal judgement and biasness hence the results that come out of this method may not be accurate. The correlational method has its advantage of being able to control the duration of the babies being breastfed but the biggest disadvantage would be the other variable where only one testactivity can be done to see the relationship between the two variables. This is where defining intelligence would be hard as we can categorize intelligence into multiple intelligences. And it is difficult to distinguish the cause and effect of a correlational study. It may not be necessarily true that a child who may be breastfed may achieve more correct answers as the element of multiple intelligence is missing and the test maybe only using onetwo of the multiple intelligences.

The survey method is a good method to get a mass response from many mothers and a lot of data can be collected to compare the results but the results may not be very accurate as parents may not choose to answer the questions truthfully as they may not want to condemn their own children. Lacking truth itself may cause the results to be inaccurate. The case study method has the strength of allowing the subject to be studied in depth, in this way the subject may be clearly studied for all the different type of intelligences as they grow up and then be compared. Since the subjects are siblings, it makes it more accurate as intelligence can also be inherited. The weakness would be to find the appropriate subject and the duration taken to complete the study. The final method which is the experimental method allows us to take control of the whole study, the strength is that we can have two controlled groups, one breast fed and one formula fed and the duration can be fixed. The diet, health habits and other factors can be totally controlled which may give a more accurate result. One weakness would be the setting of the experiment, it is no longer natural and this may hinder the behaviour or thinking skills of the subject involved. But the cause and effect of the experiment can be clearly seen as the variables are controlled. In my opinion, the experiment method would be most appropriate as the weaknesses can be corrected such as creating a more natural environment is possible. The strength of being able to clearly focus on two groups of equal sample and control the mothers and childrens intake of food and their health habits allows for powerful observations to be done when the experiment is being conducted. The duration taken for the baby to identify the colour is crucial as well as the babys behaviour can also be observed. The results on whether breastfed babies are more intelligent than formula fed babies can be closely derived from an experimental method.

Cognitive Psychology

Question 1
Perhaps the three most influential tenets in my field of specialization in psychology would be an integrative combination of structuralism, functionalism and associativism. From these major tenets emerged various theories of psychology, most notably the behaviorism movement which ultimately led to the birth of cognitive psychology as a science. They have encompassing influences not only in my field but also in various specializations in psychology.

Structuralism, functionalism and associativism are still the underlying schools of thought of many theories.  These are both still widely used in neuroscience which is of significance to clinicians nowadays due to findings that implicate malfunctions or damage in parts of the brain that cause psychopathologies  that is, for organic disorders. Functionalism also plays a big role especially in cognitive neuroscience as it attempts to explain the processes by which all functions of the central nervous system are done. Theories or findings in cognitive neuroscience are primarily developed around structuralism and functionalism in identifying parts of the brain and their respective functions.

In cognitive neuroscience, for instance, where we get information about organic psychological or mental conditions and functionality, structuralism still has its influences especially in checking for pathologies and what areas of the brain are adversely damaged. This in turn would guide what treatment or intervention to use, depending on which areas of the brain are damaged. Structuralism is still apparent in theories that attempt to simplify things by explaining it according to its significant partitions  be it real or conceptual ones. Functionalism complements it especially in examining the physiological or conceptual processes of the different parts of the central nervous system.

Focusing on my field, it is imperative that I be guided in my practice with various studies, findings, new theories or principles that would point or suggest a fitting intervention or treatment to use. Updates from where I take useful information include research or results of studies in neuroscience, cognitive psychology, developmental or child psychology among others. Even in assessing clients, the various theories we use like theories of personality and psychological theories that explain psychological conditions are largely cushioned by structuralism, functionalism and associativism. Freuds theory of personality for instance, speaks of different structures of personality, each one having a distinct function for maintaining homeostasis. More recent theories like attachment theories have at its seat, an associativist view of a psychological phenomenon, attachment problem.

To achieve my ultimate goal as a practitioner  which is to maximize the benefit of interventions to be used to the best interest of the client, I have to approach clients issues using a holistic view. This means that I need to be updated with recent findings in areas like cognitive psychology, social or cultural psychology, biopsychology, developmental or child psychology as well as various other fields which may be significant for helping a particular client.

With cognitive psychology as one of the best contributor to the clinical practice, its theories have helped the practice achieve great lengths, especially in psychological assessment and interventions. Keys to this are perception, memory, attention and consciousness, cognitive neuroscience and mental representation and data manipulation. For cognitive neuroscience as key to the three tenets I have already mentioned why.

Out of the seven underlying themes in cognitive psychology, I believe cognitive neuroscience, memory, and mental representation or data manipulation evolved from either from the structuralism, functionalism or associativism schools of thought.

In theories of memory, cognitive psychologists propose various models. One traditional model suggests that the structure of memory is composed of three stores, namely the sensory store which holds small amounts of information for a short period, the short  term store which contains limited amounts of data, also for brief periods but longer than that of the sensory store while the long term store contains huge knowledge and keeps it indefinitely. The other theories do not quite differ significantly in that it also proposes that memory is composed of recent, short  term as well as long  term memory. However, one that is commonly adhered to by psychologists today is the alternative model, that there is a working memory which is composed of the three stores sensory, short  term and long  term. However, it is so called working memory because it contains data from all stores that has recently been activated (Sternberg 2006).

Considerable amounts of theories have sprung up from research or studies aimed at examining various hypothesis or to come up with an answer to what seems to be just a body of theories most of which have not actually been accepted or verified as guiding principles or truths.
In order to be able to assess if such theories adhered to are sound, practitioners must therefore keep abreast with results of studies or research and other forms of examination.

In clinical practice, the best tool for verifying whether indeed the theories adhered to are sound, are the clients themselves. It can be gathered by self  reports, interviews, therapy sessions, behavioral observations, even the progression of symptoms during the course of treatment is a source of information to validate theory  grounded inferences. A good source for this (practice  based evidence) is also the research papers of other practitioners in the field.

For instance, taking the associativists templates theory of memory as an example, it suggests that the mind processes scene or visual information faster once a template has already been there  or if traces of the same scene appear in ones memory, especially so if it is associated with a particular affect. Thus, that there occurs automaticity in recall of the affect associated with the similar template or with the present scene that has reached a subjects senses. A study however, conducted by Nummenmaa et. al. (2010) reveals otherwise. It was found that semantic processing of visual scenes is faster than their affective processing and that semantic categorization precedes affective evaluation.

Although affective valence can be extracted from minimal visual input, its encoding does not hold primacy over semantic recognition. The biases that emotional content exerts over cognitive processes (for example, on selective visual attention) would occur after semantic recognition of scene objects. Thus, affective analysis is contingent on attentive object identification. Nevertheless, the present results do not undermine the claims that affective information is prioritized over nonemotional information by the cognitive system. Rather, the present study qualifies this claim by suggesting that the prioritization of affective information must occur after semantic processing of visual information, which can lead to a perceptual and attentional bias toward affective scenes (Nummenmaa, et. al. 2010).

In another area, cognitive neuroscience, practitioners handling cases of post  traumatic stress disorder, other anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, and psychosis frequently report of clients repeated visual intrusions corresponding to a small number of real or imaginary events, usually extremely vivid, detailed, and with highly distressing content (Brewin et. al. 2010). The same phenomenon was often labeled as hallucinations, memory intrusions, flashbacks and often patients ended up with a variety of possible reasons for it, and forms of treatment.

In a recent study however, it was found that both memory and imagery appear to rely on common networks involving medial prefrontal regions, posterior regions in the medial and lateral parietal cortices, the lateral temporal cortex, and the medial temporal lobe (Brewin et. al. 2010). Thus previous theoretical model was replaced after evidence from cognitive psychology and neuroscience implies distinct neural bases to abstract, flexible, contextualized representations and to inflexible, sensory-bound representations. We revise our previous dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder to place it within a neural systems model of healthy memory and imagery. The revised model is used to explain how the different types of distressing visual intrusions associated with clinical disorders arise, in terms of the need for correct interaction between the neural systems supporting S-reps and C-reps via visuospatial working memory (Brewin et. al. 2010).

These major updates and changes in models warn clinical practitioners to approach every treatment plan or intervention with caution because apparently, as is evident by the study earlier presented, some theories are as good as the last study that developed it. Thus, it is wiser for the profession and beneficial to the clients well  being that constant update and validation be taken to allow immediate reversals of prior inferences or diagnoses and keep or manage the damage at the least possible level.

Though I adhere to the structuralism, functionalism and associativism as influential tenets underlying theories in cognitive psychology, it would not be wise to be espoused to a particular inference as it would cause more harm than good to the clients welfare.

Question 2
There are common ethical concerns in the clinical psychology practice namely exploitative relationships, beneficence and nonmaleficence as well as informed consent. Practitioners may consciously or unconsciously exploit relationships with clients in the arrangements fees, sexual relationships or intimacies with patients, patients relatives or friends of the clients whom the therapist met in the course of the therapeutic treatment  even after the therapeutic treatment is concluded. There is a window period for this though however, any relationships outside the therapeutic relationship with the client, supervisees, trainees and their friends or relatives are generally unethical.

To avoid this, practitioners must not allow multiple relationships to exist in her therapeutic relationships with clients. It is not only disruptive to the program, it may also add to the distress or cause it during the course of the therapy. Thus, a psychologist should consider it an imperative to discuss issues about creating boundaries even from the start of the process.

On the issue of informed consent, a clients right to confidentiality is foregone where his  her as well as other peoples lives or persons are under threat of being hurt. For instance, when there is a threat of suicide (client) or assault (other people), the therapist is duty bound to disclose the matter in the interest of everyones safety. The clients right here is violated in cases when his  records or case notes are used for research purposes without consent and may therefore file a complaint to correct the offense.
Another form of violating this is when the therapist fails to protect or prevent access to files about the clients case. The advent of technology has made note  taking and recording very convenient of therapists but it is not without disadvantages. For instance, when record  keeping of the therapist is done via electronic data processing and another person was able to access a clients file (virtually or physically), the incidence of failure to prevent access to the file and taking extra steps like implementing controls (physical and technological) to disallow unauthorized viewing of a clients records constitutes an offense.

For beneficence and nonmaleficence, it is the therapists duty to ensure that the client receives utmost care and protection of his  her well  being with the therapist taking initiatives to ensure the clients utmost interest is protected. In assessing a client for instance, the therapist does not just rely on available data to complete the assessment on time. It is not so much as getting the job done but more for arriving at an accurate diagnosis to guide treatment and therefore prevent the client from harmful effects interventions that were guided by incorrect inferences, he  she can prevent the adverse effects of possible reversal of diagnosis by collaborating with other professionals in the field to validate or get inter  rater reliability of her assessment. When in doubt therefore, the decision factor to choose must be that which is most beneficial to the client in the present and the long  run.

The interest of beneficence and nonmaleficence is also not honored when a therapist does not disclose to the client other alternative courses of treatment which may be applicable to the clients case. There is a good number of alternative treatment for psychological disorders and nowadays, disclosure of such seem to be low. Others attribute it to the fact that there are no economic incentives involved in the disclosure of treatment options to the patient. Unlike when the prescribe, practitioners get incentives for extending prescriptions.

The same should be observed by researchers in the field of psychology particularly in studies involving experiments using human subjects. There are pharmaceutical companies, who, through doctors or practitioners, offer medications or treatment courses via charity. With this, they are actually conducting research to measure efficacy of a medical product.  The clients consent is gathered but for those who are in the less developed countries, clients in the lower socio  economic status often do not fully understand the extent of the consent for which they are signing. Details about possible side  effects and if the medication will on them or not are not fully disclosed to them.

In other methods of research like social immersion or naturalistic observation, psychologists conducting such studies sometimes do not realize the effect they have on the clients in the course of the study. Often this is done without the clients consent to eliminate Hawthorne effect. However, there is an impact left behind when psychologists finish and withdraw from the clients immediate or social environment so that it becomes a necessity to debrief.

There may be more cases of violations of this primary client protection in their therapeutic relationships with psychologists. But whatever the complications and when faced with a novel situation where choice is a difficulty, the breaking factor that psychologists must consider is this would it be beneficial to the client

Over the past several decades, a change has been seen in the field of psychology as interest in community psychology continues to grow internationally. This is due to the growing dissatisfaction of clinical psychologists toward traditional psychology as they observe that it focuses more on the individual and fails to consider the surrounding factors affecting the mental health of an individual.

In this paper, the concept and application of community psychology is discussed. This essay will also address other psychological and sociological concepts that affect the community psychological approach.

Part I
According to Orford (2008), community psychology can be described as a psychological approach that deals with the social context of peoples lives. In order to have a better understanding of the concept of community psychology, it is first necessary to differentiate it from traditional and mainstream psychology.

Some of the similarities between community and traditional psychology include its aim to promote human welfare, the orientation toward preventive measures, and taking a group or systems approach to understanding human behavior. One glaring difference is that community psychology is more concerned with the relationship between social systems and individual well-being in the community context.

Furthermore, Orford (2008) states in his book that community psychology is marginally different from traditional psychological approaches because of the questions it is interested in asking and finding answers to. One of the key aspects of community psychology that was mentioned in the book is its aim of finding ways to help people combat inequality and injustice. Unlike other psychological and sociological studies, it is not focused on simply analyzing power and the way it is exercised, rather it is oriented toward helping people resist oppression and the struggle to create a better world.

Another notable aspect of community psychology is its emphasis on prevention, intervention and policy change at a non-individual level, rather than focusing on personal treatment. Orford (2008) explains it further by stating that

In order to promote individual and collective health and well-being and to reduce distress and difficulties, it is necessary to promote change in the social, economic and environmental arrangements that give rise to such problems (xiii).

The field of psychology as a whole has been receiving a lot of criticism for the past several years, mostly from psychologists themselves, as they find that psychology has taken a highly individualistic route and neglecting whole domains of its legitimate subject matter. Duncan et al. (2007) posits that what gave rise to the emergence of community psychology is the dissatisfaction found in mainstream psychology, particularly its inability, neglect or disregard to adequately address the growing psychosocial needs of marginalized communities and groups. In the case of traditional psychology, it has been observed that it is geared more towards mainstream, individual-oriented models of conceptualizing and understanding human behavior.

To further illustrate how community psychology is different from traditional psychology, a comparison is provided based on several factors. In terms of theory philosophy, clinical health psychology is oriented towards the biopsychosocial model, where health is the product of a combination of factors such as biological, behavioral and social. Meanwhile, community health psychology operates under the social and economic model, which indicates that changes are needed at both individual and systems levels. In terms of values, clinical psychology focuses on the use of ethical intervention to achieve its goal of increasing or maintaining the autonomy of the individual, while community psychology values applies social action to create or increase the autonomy of disadvantaged and oppressed people. Another difference between the two is their focus as clinical psychology deals with physical illness and dysfunction, while community psychology is concerned toward physical and mental health promotion (Orford, 2008).

Another psychological theory that is closely allied with community psychology is critical psychology. Fox et al. (2009) defines it as a psychological theory that focuses on social justice and human wellbeing by advocating not just minor reform but fundamentally different social structures that can lead to it. Basically, it imagines and explores alternatives with the aim of making psychology perform better.

Orford (2008) explains it further by stating that the focus of critical psychology is the need to engage in social action. This is done by observing values such as the promotion of social justice, freedom and emancipation exposing and working to eliminate oppression and placing emphasis on the interests of the poor, oppressed and disenfranchised.

Community psychology and critical psychology are similar in that they challenged traditional and mainstream psychology assumptions and methods toward human wellbeing. Fox et al. (2009) lists several concerns related to traditional and mainstream psychology that are addressed by critical psychology. The first is that mainstream and traditional psychology focuses on the individual rather than the group and larger society, resulting in the overemphasizing of individualistic values. This perspective also hinders the realization of mutuality and community and, at the same time, strengthens unjust institutions. Another concern is that the underlying assumptions and institutional allegiances of mainstream psychology negatively affects the members of powerless and marginalized groups as it causes the facilitation of inequality and oppression. 

In order to further understand the core concepts and values of community psychology and critical psychology, let us consider the scenario below

A young Pakistani woman living in Great Britain in her early twenties is suffering from serious bouts of depression. She may even be suicidal.  She is married and has two children. Her husband, an unskilled laborer is unemployed and she, herself, has just lost her minimal wage job, perhaps due to the depression. Her husband maintains that she was a victim of racism.

Based on the scenario above, I will now discuss how traditional and community psychology practitioners will act in order to help the woman. Traditional psychologists will most likely focus on the self, illustrating the individualistic bias of psychology. Psychoanalytic theories will be applied to treat the depression of the woman, placing emphasis on the individuals personality and failing to consider the social contexts.  Basically, the psychotherapy treatment for the womans ill-health condition will be based on the idea that the individual is suffering from some disorder or defect that lends itself to individual cure or correction (Orford, 2008). Meanwhile, community psychology practitioners will focus on prevention, specifically, the general enhancement or promotion of health or well-being (15).

The community psychology prevention plan would include a wellness enhancement program designed to prevent similar cases from occurring. Community psychology would also look into the social context and implement programs that would address the living and working conditions of immigrant families and how they are coping. Interventions targeting the poor and unemployed in the community will also be the central focus.

Part II
The following is a discussion of some of the key concepts or values integral to a community psychology perspective.

Prevention deals with the identification of ways to minimize or prevent the problem from ever occurring. Rather than relying on reactionary responses, particularly on individual illness, the goal of prevention is to lessen the demand for treatment. This addresses the communitys concern for those who may otherwise not have the resources or access to such treatment.

Social justice is another core value of community psychology. It deals with the rights all persons are entitled. This is applied towards those who may be marginalized. Basically, it allows privileges in order to effect change and aims toward a more equitable allocation of resources.

Indigenous resources deals with focusing on placing value and collaborating with the expertise within a community. Indigenous people are always overlooked even though they have always existed in a community. Using them as a resource to answer the question of why their existence works and what strengths they can impart are important from a community psychology perspective.

Another key concept of community psychology is citizen participation. The idea behind this is that community members themselves are more aware of their own situation. It follows that they should be a part of the design, implementation and evaluation of any community intervention. Their expertise can have an impact on the efforts of community psychologists to effect change in the community.

These key aspects or values of community psychology can be related to the notions of social construction and power. In order to attain an effective community intervention, collaboration is needed. Social construction, which can be described as the ways in which phenomena are socially constructed, can be connected to community psychology values in that it puts into effect the efforts for social change. Society has the power to effect change and in order to bring that into realization, a sharing of power is needed which can be expressed by involving all members of a community to address and act on the concerns of the community.

These values can help community psychology practitioners in relating to the woman mentioned in the scenario earlier. Community psychologists can trace whether this is a common occurrence in the community and thus implement an effective community intervention program that will address the health and wellbeing of powerless and marginalized groups. Community psychologists can also collaborate with community members to improve the living conditions within the community thus preventing the occurrence of ill conditions among members.

The scenario discussed above shows that social factors affect the health and wellbeing of community members. Being a Pakistani woman, gender, race and social class come into play resulting in oppression and injustice. It is a community psychologists task to address these issues that affect the health of the Pakistani woman and prevent it from happening to others who find themselves in a somewhat similar position.

Part III
The aspect of area has a major influence on the health and well being of an individual. Biases on social position, gender, race, social and economic class are present in every community. An individual that is exposed to this kind of community and has experienced prejudice from any of the factors mentioned above will inevitably cause ill health on the individual. The concept of area in this case would include the neighborhood, the workplace and other venues of social interactions.

By living in Great Britain, the Pakistani woman will undoubtedly experience prejudice based on her and her familys race alone. This is due to the political and economic conflict that her homeland is experiencing with other nations. People would associate this conflict with her and her family resulting in racial prejudice and oppression. Her lack of education and skill incompetency is another mark against her. The familys social class and position is also looked upon and found wanting. All these factors takes a heavy toll on the womans health and well being resulting in the feeling of depression and the development of suicidal tendencies. The area in which she circulates has a hand in what she has become. The core values of community psychology are needed at this point in order to make the community intervention effective.

Part IV
According to Field (2008), the central thesis of the theory of social capital is that relationships matter. This means that if people work together, they can accomplish and achieve things with ease. The important factor here is to make connections with one another, and ensure that the connections remain over time. This supports the central idea of social capital which is positioning social networks as a valuable asset.

Social cohesion uses networks as a basis due to the fact that they have the capability to make people cooperate with one another for the purpose of mutual advantage. Social capital can be viewed from various perspectives, namely, sociological, economic and political.

The concept of social capital and social capital theory can be applied to the case of the Pakistani woman in the scenario above. In the scenario, it is evident that, due to the factors that were held against her, there wasnt any social connection that was made. The only connection she has formed is with her family and that is not enough. Social networks have not been formed due to the prejudice against her and her family. The social support that was supposed to have been formed from her interactions at her former workplace and also with her neighborhood is non-existent resulting in the development of ill-health conditions in the Pakistani woman. Community psychologists need to encourage the formation of social capital, particularly in communities that are culturally diverse, as part of their community intervention program.