Psychology

The different theories that concern human psychology try to explain the logic behind human behavior in relation to what goes on in his mind and what influences him to do so. Most of the time, our thoughts and behavior are highly connected to the activities that go on around us be it in the environment or within our physiological systems. Therefore, it is good to observe human nature as one that is highly influenced by its surroundings. The human mind is complex and the explanations as to how it reacts are highly given by the perspectives of psychology. The perspectives assess, analyze and give an explanation as to why we react the way we do. Different perspectives explain the different reactions to different situations. We examine the different perspectives. There are seven critical perspectives of psychology. They are as follows the evolutionary perspective, behavioral perspective, neuroscience or the humanistic perspective, the socio-cultural perspective, the psychodynamic or psychoanalytic perspective, the cognitive perspective and the biological or behavior genetics perspective (Nemec, 2010).

The evolutionary perspective is largely based on Charles Darwins theory of Survival for the fittest. This perspective tries to explain how nature influences ones genes. It further suggests that behavior and the thought process are inherited from a lineage. The traits that one inherits are as such contained in the DNA of his or her parents. They are then passed on at birth to the child. The behavioral perspective suggests that our behavior is molded around what we see in our environment. The experiences one undergoes also serve to influence his behavior. For instance, a baby would normally observe how the people around it behave. It would then copy what it has seen or simply emulate the adults around it. The humanistic or neuroscience perspective features the way the human mind responds to happenings in the world around it. This would most likely be happenings like ones that solicit emotions o sympathy and empathy. A person would always feel the need to help others who are in certain situations. Therefore, this perspective tries to show how our brain comes up with emotions. It shows that to a big degree, we are all capable of being good.

The socio-cultural perspective is a perspective that looks at how the different cultures, social classes, our gender, ethnicity and other factors influence us. The way we carry ourselves out varies in all the cultures. People in the high class are bound to be of different thought and behavior. Suffice to say that we behave according to the dictates of our cultural and ethnic background. The psychodynamic or psychoanalytic perspective largely looks into how behavior is rooted in conflicts within the mind. Sigmund Freud explained that we unconsciously suppress our feelings and release the emotions that build up within through other means. For instance, when we are tense, we normally find something to do so that we can release the tension. Some of us listen to music or even go and engage in sports. We do this instead of venting our anger on other people or objects. The cognitive perspective deals with how we receive and process information and later react. Our thinking influences our behavior.

Therefore, it goes a long way in influencing us to choose what we think is the best way to react to a situation. For instance, when a person finds that playing basketball is more fun than listening to music, he will always choose basketball over music. Lastly, the behavior genetics perspectives, also referred to as the biological perspective, generally emphasizes that our genes and the environment have a large influence on individual differences. We respond differently to different stimuli. Most people like music but it seems to elicit different emotions in us. For instance, whereas some would always respond to good music by dancing and being happy, others would be happy to the point of shedding tears. Another aspect of this perspective is that different parts of the brain are responsible for different reactions. The part of the brain that responds to pain is different to the one that responds to happiness. Therefore, different parts of the brain process how we feel about pleasant and unpleasant stimuli (Oak, 2008).

Human beings are social in nature and as such they are bound to interact or engage in activities that bring them closer to each other. The reasons for such interactions are vast and varied and can only be determined when we consider an exact situation. Some of the reasons why most people interact are sharing of ideas, finding companionship, understanding other peoples perspectives, among very many other reasons. Each one of us has his own peculiar habits. Everybody engages in some antisocial behavior that tends to make them happy in their private lives. While these behaviors make them happy, they would not be happy to be identified with such kind of behavior because of the manner in which their societies perceive such acts (Westen  Kowalski, 2006).

Nobody likes to be thought of as an outcast. Nobody likes being left out by their peers. People are able to sacrifice what they like, or engage in what they do not enjoy just to have the perception of being together with the people. Human beings are able to acquire the nature of chameleon this is in the sense that they are able to change some of their behaviors to adapt in a given kind of environment. They want to have a feeling of belonging to the crowd. Their behaviors are always geared towards fitting into their social situations and as such their real behaviors can be known only with time (Merton, 1957).

When men go out with their male friends during night outs, they are able to engage in certain activities that they would not contemplate engaging in if they are in the company of their wives. Very polite men who are otherwise polite and always respectful are able to engage in disrespectful acts when he is with some of his friends. A gentleman who is associated with polite gestures towards women is able to take a completely different turn of being particularly arrogant to women. Men are always trying to show their might in such occasions and are such more likely to do anything that portray the same. They want to show that they know more than their peers in the course of their conversations. They want to drink more than their friends to show that they are able to withstand alcohol than most of their friends. They want to outdo each other in terms of tuning women. They raise their voices in the course of their talking. The situation would be completely different when they are in the company of their spouses. They would lower their voices they would be particularly gentle and would not engage in any disrespectful act. A frequenter of the stripping club would act as if he does not know any of these clubs when they are in the company of their wives (Westen  Kowalski, 2006).

The driving force behind such actions by men may be the cheer and being highly regarded in these groups. When they compete in drinking alcohol, their friends cheer as if they were in a kind of competition. They have to demonstrate that they are manly in such company. The influence of the group is demonstrated on the individual members. The individuals would do many things including those that they do not really enjoy in order to conform. They would also change the types of clothes they wear to reflect fashion even when they do not like some of those items (Gray, 2006).
Many people enjoy ghost hunting and ghost tours in the Halloween spirit. The members of such expeditions always adjust their behavior to fit their company. They visit haunted places under the instruction of a guide who gives them all the details pertaining to the place in question. Individuals in such kind of tours supposedly experience supernatural occurrences. They can claim to be seeing a shadow which may not be present in real sense. When a person says this to members of the group, some may genuinely see this non-existent shadow. However, some or even all the people in the group may just pretend to be seeing these things to ensure that they are part of the group. They then feel that they have had a ghost experience while some of their members did not even catch a glimpse of this experience. Others may just base their experience on what the tour guide told them about the ghosts at that site. The impression is able to make some of these people have a real experience of seeing some of these things. People in a cemetery can just point in a given direction and claim they are seeing something (Merton, 1957).

Bibb Latane developed a theory, The Social Impact Theory, which tries to explain such social pressures. He argued that if more people are pushing you towards a given direction or action, then you are more likely to conform. If the source of a given opinion is a source you value so much then you are more like to follow that direction. A source you see more often can easily influence you than distant sources. A source of information particular to you is more likely to influence you than that which is aimed to advice many people. These men are normally pushed to engage in some of these activities because of their audience and they would most likely not do these things alone. It is thought that audience arouses an individual. These men are out to impress (Gray, 2006).

The concept of group polarization also comes into play. This concept is based on the idea and belief that each member of a given group is always in a competition with the rest of the members to achieve the support of the majority. The way in which a group is divided on a given opinion matters a lot to the common stand or state of compromise the group is like to settle for. Individuals are usually in a dilemma on whether to compete with each other or to cooperate. When one member gives an opinion that differs from the other, it is a bit difficult to settle for a solution without a compromise on the side of one or both the individuals. A person may feel shortchanged when his ideas are not taken into serious consideration. Nobody likes to be the inferior member of his group (Gray, 2006).

The examples we have considered are never permanent and only occur in certain occasions. These behavioral changes are inconsistent and do not appear to happen to these individuals out of the necessary settings. They are able to control them and hence no therapeutic intervention may be required. The people are to adjust to their normal behaviors. Medical intervention would be recommended in the event that these people did the same thing with both the men and the women. Since human beings are social, they have to be together. Each and every one of us is unique and hence we are bound to be different from each other and as such some behavioral adjustments may be necessary to fit into different groups.

There is no doubt that leadership qualities are mostly inborn rather than learned where as, management qualities are learned. We have read about many leaders who  through their immense leadership qualities  emerged as a source of change or revolution in their times. Some great leaders of the past include Napoleon, Gandhi, and Quaid-e-Azam, who at their times brought about significant changes in their circumstances, led the people or followers, and influenced them in such a way that their actions became inline with the desired purpose. Of course, the role of time and place played a significant role in their leading and influencing the people.

In this paper, we would talk about a great iconic personality who  with some vision, hope, and rigidness  changed the course of his life and emerged from nowhere as a leader and a great influencer, who is acknowledged as a great cyclist and leader. And that great personality is of Lance Armstrong, who was at the peak of his success and achievement when he was just 25 during the period of 1995. Then he had testicular cancer which is the most common cancer in men who age from 15 to 35 years (Rodriguez, 2002). Though he got late in diagnosing the disease due to which he had little chances to live nevertheless, he kept his spirits on and affirmed himself as a cancer survivor, not a cancer victim.

As far as the influences of heredity and environment are concerned over Armstrongs life and his psychological development, both played equal role. The area that was most influenced in his psychological development was the moral part. Since the leadership qualities and sheer determination to achieve something was inborn in him, hence his morality and dignity was even more influenced and developed. Heredity also played a great role in his psychological development, building up his morality, determination, leadership qualities, and the sheer quality of not giving up because the qualities were inborn.

Answer  2 - He was a great cyclist before, he never thought of founding such an organization that would be very fruitful for the cancer patients. After his successful treatment, he decided to come back in action (cycling) with full confidence and hope, and therefore won three consecutive Tour de France titles. What made him hopeful and confident, was the crucial time and situation when he became a cancer patient. He never gave in and decisively kept on believing more in God, hope, and optimism. He  by his courage, bravery, and hopefulness  motivated and influenced many people including his cycling competitors, who gained the lesson of not to give up and continue on with the hard work and full concentration.

He believed in God, surgery, and doctors, and was hopeful that one he would be fine and would return to compete and win more cycling titles, and thats what he did. Before having a complete and successful surgery, he founded Lance Armstrong Foundation with a vision that he had in his mind and that vision most probably was the result of the time and circumstances that he was facing.

He used to communicate to others and always asked others to be hopeful, brave, and optimistic in addition, he used to model that vision and advice so that others get inspired from him and strive for the same strategy or vision. By forming the organization, he really changed the patients mentality, the way of thinking, and filled them with the hope to be cured and all right in the future. Therefore, we can say that there were the social support systems that played somewhat role in shaping the developmental growth and adjustment of Armstrong.

Answer  3  two different theories of personality are Type a personality, and Type B personality. People who possess type a personality normally possess the following qualities and traits. First, high sense of time urgency impatience. They normally get frustrated and are very conscious of time that whether it is being utilized properly or not. Secondly, these people are aggressive in nature and become hostile and rude at times. In other words, they are competitive possess strong need for achievement and certain traits that result from stress.

Type B personality people are a bit relaxed and calm by nature and have low sense of urgency for time. They can sit without doing anything with any guilt or shame whatsoever. Third, they have the tendency to prolong or delay their work that they have to perform in a given amount of time and they dont get stressed out easily.

Applying these theories over Lance Armstrong would not be an easier task. It is because he possesses the mixture of both types of personality traits. From type a personality, he is competitive, has high need for achievement whereas from type B personality traits, he is calm, cool, determined, and dont get stressed out or demotivated easily.

Answer  4  As far as other leadership theories are concerned, leadership perspective that can be applied to him is the Charismatic leadership that is having interpersonal attraction, whereby followers develop a respect for, and trust in, the charismatic individual (McShane and Travaglione, 2003). His cycling competitors learned a lot from him and tried to adapt to his leadership, constant improvement skills, and his personal traits. Some of his skills include, the nurturing of his nature, improving the way of performing tasks, and overcoming the weaknesses second, focus similar to a laser and keeping the vision or aim in mind abreast third, commemorating the individual or a team on success and fourth, maintaining of lucid and elastic roles without any ambiguity or confusion (Jensen, 2005).

Lance Armstrong possessed many leadership and achievement related skills, capabilities, attitude, motivation, abilities, and values. Or in other words, he had all vibrant qualities that a competent leader possesses  qualities that come under the leadership contingency. First, he owned the quality of Drive, which is the inner motivation to pursue goals. As we discussed earlier, he never thought of giving up even when he was entangled by testicular cancer in fact, he became more eager, willing, and excited to compete and win the titles after the recovery. Second, he had self-confidence in himself, and was quite determined and focused to put great effort towards his objectives (Cordair, 2004) he kept himself focused and on the path to success and always worked hard and differently from others.

Another theory that shows this need for achievement is Maslows hierarchy of needs. This theory consists of five stages psychological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Armstrongs need for self-actualization seemed to be pretty high as compared to other needs the need to prosper, flourishes, and achieve. His aim was to be the best among the other cyclists, win more titles, and even to support other team members to win (Jensen, 2005). The act of supporting and helping out his partners and competitors is one of the key leadership qualities that must be there in order to reconcile the differences among people with himself and to guide and lead others in the way we want and what others think is suitable for them.

After all the discussion, we come to know that whether the person is short in size, weight, or have any other flaw, he or she can become an outstanding leader by appropriately using the skills and abilities, learning from the time, place, and situation, and creating vision, communicating it, and modeling it then. Lance Armstrong was just a cyclist, but due to his immense hard work, focus, determinacy, courage, optimism, hopefulness, and the firm belief in success and achievement, he became the best cyclist of his time. Later, he also managed to fight with the disease that was severe and spread to his brain too. He continued the hope to be cured, and even he opened his own organization, along with the development of thoughts regarding to the future cycling career.

In our lives, we go through various developments which involve an obvious element which is change. This development involves the change or movement from one state to another. A development interest results to ones concern for transitions. With the development change, there is permanent or a lasting impact on the person who undergoes the transition. This is why it is referred to us the growth to a progression through certain stages.

In efforts to compare the early adulthood and Middle adulthood, the first thing about the two is that they occur at different intervals of the human life. The early adulthood take place form the age of eighteen after the adolescent stage to the age of thirty-five. While on the other hand, the middle adulthood falls under the age of 35-65 years of age. The two development stages are characterized by various elements that are unique in both. In the early adulthood, the ego development outcome in this stage is intimacy and solidarity while at some point if these two elements do not occur, a person may develop isolation. As this is the initial stage of one being an adult, human tend to seek one or even more companions and even Love. In this stage, people tend to look for satisfying relationship. The basic strengths that are found at this development stage are affiliation and love.

On the other hand, the middle adulthood is characterized by generativity but if this fails, one may experience self absorption or stagnation. At this stage, the important task the people take on is to perpetuate culture while at this level transmitting values of that particular culture t the family. Establishing a stable environment for the family is also part of the development changes. The basic strengths in this development is found in the production and care.

Healthy People 2010 postulates that social determinants are critical to understanding and eliminating health disparities and inequities. Social determinants include differential access to and distribution of resources, services, and structures. As noted previously, when access and distribution to resources, services, and structures is limited health inequities ensue.

The resources, services and structures that comprise the social determinants are not solely medical or behavioral, therefore Healthy People 2010 suggests that the traditional focus of health education as practiced in the United States is too narrow. Instead, they call for more equitable access to and distribution of factors including education, housing, labor, justice, transportation, agriculture and the environment, a few of the factors categorized in the literature as social determinants of health (Baker et al, 2005 Marmot  Wilkinson, 1999 Schulz  Northridge, 2004). To some this shift of focus may seem novel. However, since the early 19 century people have understood that ones social position and living conditions influence their health (Kelly, Bonnefoy,Morgan,  Florenzano, 2006). Many of the strategies employed to eliminate the spread of infectious disease had little to do with medicine and more to do with changing the environments in which people lived and worked and increasing access to nutritious food (Kelly et al., 2006).

Social determinants of health are the social, political and economic resources, services and structures that shape our living and working circumstances and ultimately influence the health of communities and individuals alike (Baker et al., 2005 Graham, 2004 Marmot  Wilkinson, 1999 Picket  Pearl, 2001 Smith, Hart, Watt, Hole,  Hawthorne, 1998). Typically, policies and practices are the mechanism through which this influence is exerted because they regulate access to and distribution of resources like money, power and social support (i.e., social determinants) across individuals and communities (Graham Schulz et al., 2005). Characteristically, the inequality in access to and distribution of these resources creates health inequities. For example, an economic policy that creates tax incentives for the creation of grocery stores in underserved areas provides access to nutritious foods. In the absence of a grocery store, many communities lack access to nutritious food options completely. Therefore, individuals living in communities with limited access are more likely to develop certain diseases (e.g., cardiovascular disease) than those that have access.

The demographic makeup of the Canada like that of the U.S. has changed dramatically in recent decades families are shrinking, highlighted by decreasing birth rates in the past generation. Death rates have also declined for quite some time (Preston 1977), creating a large cohort of individuals who live well into retirement and old age (Waite 2004). In fact, people aged 65 and older in the U.S. make up approximately 13 of the population, and this proportion is growing (Waite 2004). With a growing older population come implications of a changing demographic makeup. The increase in life expectancy may add to the number of years in which people live with illnesses and disabilities (House, Kessler and Herzog 1990 Manton 1982). Other elderly people will live better quality lives in accordance with their increased life expectancy as a resulteither way, the government is burdened with increasing medical expenses from the fastest growing segment of the countrys population, the elderly (Waite 2004).

In recent decades, the Canadian government has instituted social policies with the intent of increasing the quality of life among the elderly from an economic and health standpoint. While this intended effect has been successful in many cases, these policies have the latent effect of decreasing the amount of inequality experienced by this growing segment of the Canadian population. Specifically, Social Security and Medicare are designed to help the elderly. Social Security is structured such that the current working populations income benefits the current 65 population. Similarly, Medicare is the health insurance coverage issued by the federal government to all individuals aged 65 and above in Canada. Additionally, Medicaid provides long-term care coverage, which is an increasing proportion of states budgets (Waite 2004).

These programs specifically provide benefits to the elderly, enabling the convergence of health inequalities in old age. Using social policies to explain converging health inequalities over the life course is a macro-level explanation of the SES-health gradient. Typically, explanations of the gradient are micro-level in nature, associated with personal factors such as education, income, job status, stress, and lifestyle behaviors. Ecological explanations are less common, but not less important. Blane (1999) argues that social policies take account of life course influences. For instance, critical social transitionssuch as entering the age group of 65 and aboveidentify at-risk individuals who are likely to require frequent welfare, health, and social support. Effective policy interventions are able to prevent the accumulation of further disadvantage from past damage, and set people on a more advantaged life trajectory (Blane 1999 77). So, disadvantaged people may finally gain some advantages in old age through social policy, which has the potential to affect the trajectory of health advantages and disadvantages.

Blane (1999) also indicates that the most crucial stages of life in which social policies effect people are late middle and early old age, simply because of their impact on health and welfare expenditures. In sum, social policies serve an important role in the convergence-divergence debate over SES and health inequalities. Most likely policies, such as Social Security, Medicaid, and Medicare, have important life course effects on the health-education relationship more so in the U.S. than in Europe, where health insurance is available throughout the life course. Low socioeconomic groups have higher mortality (Hummer, Rogers, and Eberstein 1998), morbidity (Link and Phelan 1995), and disability (Molla, Madans, and Wagener 2004) than high socioeconomic groups (House, Kessler, and Herzog 1990 Kitagawa and Hauser 1973) due to unhealthy lifestyle choices such as alcohol use and smoking, unstable working conditions characterized by high stress levels and job insecurity, low levels of social support and networks, little sense of control, and exposure to physical and environmental hazards (Mirowsky and Ross 1989 Mirowsky 1999 Rogers, Hummer and Nam 2000 Mirowsky and Ross 2003).

Interestingly, little literature exists on how exposure to these risk factors affects individuals as they age. That is, at what point do health inequalities associated with risk factors between socioeconomic groups peak Do socioeconomic-based health inequalities rooted in health behaviors converge or diverge in old age House, Kessler, and Herzog (1990) investigate the issue of convergencedivergence of socioeconomic-based health inequalities and risk factors, arguing  INCLUDEPICTURE httpsapi.turnitin.comimagesspacer.gif  MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK javascriptvoid(0) that the impact of risk factors on health INCLUDEPICTURE httpsapi.turnitin.comimagesspacer.gif  MERGEFORMATINET  should be the greatest in middle and early ages. These risks are greatest during middle and early old age because smoking, drinking, exposure to harmful conditions, and other factors have had years to take effect on an individual and manifest their harmful consequences at this later stage in life. While this maximum level of inequality is likely to exist between the ages of 35 and 65, it reduces after age 65 due to U.S. government assistance and a reduction of harmful exposures at this stage in life (House, Kessler and Herzog 1990). It is less common for elderly people to drink, smoke, or engage in risky behaviors as younger people do also, harmful work conditions are no longer in effect due to retirement in old age (House, Kessler and Herzog 1990). Eliminating exposures in old age may also have an additive positive effect on health. That is, reducing exposure to risk factors in old age benefits health because the elderly are more susceptible to these things in old age (House et al. 1994). By eliminating dangerous risk factors, the health status of the elderly can potentially get much better.

Education and income are closely related to the amount of exposure one has to social, psychological, and physical risk factors. Less-educated people have a greater propensity to work in an environment characterized by more demanding physical labor, greater stress due to lower job security, unsafe working conditions, longer hours, and a variety of other taxing conditions (Ross and Mirowsky 1999). The accumulation of these factors leads to heightened levels of health inequality between members of different socioeconomic groups (Molla, Madans, and Wagener 2004). Where these levels of inequality are smallest and where they are greatest is yet to be determined, although evidence exists that they do not continue throughout the entire life span (Johnson 2000).

Theories of converging inequality take four different approaches selective survival, social policy, proximity to education, and exposure to risk factors. Each of these four areas has been used as an approach in current literature to explain unique and specific ways in which the socioeconomic gradient in health is minimized in time. The selective survival (Beckett 2000 Johnson 2000 Elo and Preston 1994) and social policy (Waite 2004 Blane 1999 House, Kessler, and Herzog 1990) explanations are more recent explications. The selective survival explanation is also commonly used in literature on the racial mortality crossover in the U.S. (Johnson 2000 Preston et al. 1996 Mutchler and Burr 1991).

Alternatively, at least one theory of diverging inequality has also recently received a great deal of attention in the literature.

Social cognition studies how information is processed by people including storage, retrieval and encoding. It also studies application of the information in various social situations. The study of an individual is done in a cultural or social context. In brief social cognition focuses on interpretation of information generated by an individual and those around (Huitt, 2006). It has been observed most serious personality problems begin in middle childhood. It is here that the child begins to understand self. Children derive pleasure in being productive, getting intellectual stimulation and pursuing success. Failure leads to inferiority complex and later group membership.

Emotional Understanding and Influence on Self-esteem
Children in middle childhood have slow but steady cognitive development. They are learning how best to form hypothesis and classify information. In this stage practical engagement in learning activities gives the children enthusiasm. As they are motivated to work it builds on their self-esteem and competence. Similarly social and interpersonal relationships are developed at this stage. Peer and family influence become a strong motivating factor. The latter relationship however is stronger. Skills learned at this stage are useful in developing further relationships in adolescence (Education Encyclopedia, 2010). It is important at this stage for children to have best friends as it serves well to build healthy relationships in future.

Self understanding boosts self-esteem and further enhances social skills of the child. He or she will be able to interact well with friends and peers. At the same time the child will be motivated to work and try out various activities in the surrounding. Children will low self-esteem normally have problems with emotional development (Education Encyclopedia, 2010). Such children tend to shy off and avoid commitments. It is only by joining groups that the children tend to develop some identity.

Significance of Peer Groups and Subcultures
Peer groups are strong relationships and help a lot in development of character and identity of children. The group will accept a one member despite his or her weaknesses. For once the child will feel accepted and valued by others. It is therefore true that characteristics of the peers are specific to a group but not individual members. The child gets a way of expression and may in the end be able to find his true identity. The peer groups enable children to have a specific way to view the world. This view is different from the family, school or any other view. In most cases children who have problems at home or experience difficulty coping with school find solace in peer groups. The requirements to join a group such as dressing style, language and clothes are less demanding compared to societal expectations to conform.

A subculture on the other hand is more of a reaction to the dominant culture. The dominant culture may be represented by gender, age or ethnicity (Patterson, 1956). A group perceived as subordinate tries to challenge the dominant group by coming up with a different lifestyle. This lifestyle is unique and original to the members. The members of subcultures would therefore feel equal to those of the dominant culture. This is true in the sphere of community development and self-direction. Aspirations which initially appeared blocked can be realized through membership.

Friendship Circles in School Years
Friendship circles change among adolescents and children over a period of time. Two children become acquaintances and maintain their friendship (Berndt, Hawkins and Hoyle, 1989). For some reasons the friendship wanes or ends. There are various reasons which may lead two friends to contact less and form other friendships. For instance a friend who changes in status such as given responsibility at school or appear to have improved in intellectual stimulation may lose some friends. However, he gains other friends as a result.

The other reason for subculture and group membership is bullying. Both the bullies and their victims are vulnerable to low self-esteem. Children who have are victims of bullying are traumatized and need constant support and care. In most cases they need to be taken to environments that are friendly to help boost their self-esteem. In some cases it is parents to give the much needed approval and love. At this age the child is fast becoming conscious of his mental abilities, appearance, defects and other physical characteristics (Patterson, 1956). Friends and peers are always critical of these traits and a child may easily be disadvantaged in case he or she has a defect or is made to believe so.

Similarly bullies just like their victims have a distorted view or opinion about themselves. For these reason they require proper care and counseling. They need to respect themselves and others. This will not come easily as most bullies want to impose their authority on others. In some cases bullying becomes the only way to prove their worth. Most of them actually perform poorly in school.

Conclusion
The existence of peer groups and subcultures in the society is an indicator of discontent among children. The formation of these groups, more so of the latter, is a rebellion from the dominant group. Children need recognition and a sense of worth without necessarily having to stoop to those who seem privileged. However, there are circumstances which are beyond control of the society. Sometimes parents will unconsciously demoralize their children. A child with low self- esteem has no other alternative but join peer groups. As much as the groups might give the child a sense of belonging and identity he or she might be mislead. It is therefore important for children to be provided with necessary attention and favorable environment to develop fully.

The ages between 2 and 5 are often called the preschool years. During these years, children change from clumsy toddlers into lively explorers of their world. Physically, a child becomes stronger and starts to look longer and leaner. Physical growth is slower than in the first 2 years of life, but the outward changes can be dramatic as American Academy of Pediatrics (2004) documents that by 2 years of age, most children grow at a steady pace, although it has slowed from the phase of rapid growth during the first 18 months of life. Here a child can alternate between feeling excited, confused, and scared about their emerging independence. Temper tantrums may start occurring regularly.

By 3 years of age, most children Look leaner and longer compared to the early toddler years. Most children have gained about 4.4 lb (2 kg) and grown about 3 in (8 cm) since their second birthday. By 4 years of age, most children Have gained about 4.4 lb (2 kg) and grown about 3 in (8 cm) since turning 3.  Can say their name, identify some basic colors, and match things that are the same (such as a pair of socks). By 5 years of age, most children Have gained about 4.4 lb (2 kg) and grown about 3 in (8 cm) since turning 4.  For eating, it is important to note that finicky eating habits are common and normal in preschoolers. Many children have smaller appetites than they had in their younger years because they are growing more slowly therefore parents should ensure they offer nourishing foods from the major food groups.

The human brain is not a finished organ at birth -- in fact, another 10 or 12 years are needed before even a general development is completed, Ginsburg KR, et al. (2007). Structural maturation of individual brain regions and their connecting pathways is required for the successful development of cognitive, motor, and sensory functions. This maturation eventually provides for a smooth flow of neural impulses throughout the brain, which allows for information to be integrated across the many spatially segregated brain regions involved in these functions. T. Paus et al. (2000) reports that the speed of neural transmission is an important factor, and this depends not only on the junctions between nerve cells (synapses), but also on the structural properties of the connecting fibers (axons). Critical axon structural properties include their diameters and the thickness of the special insulation (myelin) around many fibers. Myelination is the insulating process that speeds up the transmission of neural impulses. Large groups of myelinated axons, which connect various regions in the brain, appear visibly as white matter. Axons of the major pathways in the human brain, such as those of the corpus callosum (which connects the two halves of the brain) or the corticospinal tract (which connects the brain to the spinal cord and the rest of the body), continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence, Myelinization is thus a major aspect of the workings of neural circuits. Adult primates with large brains require fast flowing information. Myelin coated axons make this possible. At age 5 there is a growth in the corpus callosum a band of nerve fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain resulting to the communication between the two sides which enables coordination. This refers to lateralization. The left hemisphere is specialized in language and this happens about two years while the right hemisphere specializes in recognition of visual shapes. Therefore, if this portion is removed or severed, plasticity occurs which refers to the changing of neurons, the organization of their networks, and their function via new experiences i.e. lack of coordination.

Gross motor skills include activities such as running, jumping,  throwing. At age 5 most children are skilled and graceful to learn basic motor skills by teaching themselves  learning from other children. However, fine motor skills(artistic expression) involves activities such as small hand movementscutting food with a knife and fork, and children normally experience difficulty  because they have not yet developed the necessary muscle control, patience and judgement. It is the duty of parents and teachers to help children master fine motor skills through encouragement.

Ginsburg KR, et al. (2007), indicates that about two thirds of childhood deaths among preschool children involve nonvehicular causes which include falling, drowning, choking, and poisoning. Studies show that boys suffer more injuries. However the strongest risk factor of all is socioeconomic status (brain immaturity) which is caused by child maltreatment which is any intentional harm or avoidable endangerment to anyone under age 18. This has raised ideas on intervention and prevention policies.

The intervention policies devised include laws requiring any teacher, health professional, police officer, or social worker to report all cases instituting a differential response deciding to respond either one way or another, depending on the particular situation foster care a legally sanctioned, publicly supported arrangement in which children are officially removed from their parents and entrusted to another adult or family which is paid to nurture them permanency planning devising a plan for a childs long-term care that does not remove the child from the parents unless doing so is necessary kinship care a form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child takes over from the abusive or neglectful parents. Prevention measures include primary prevention an approach that is designed to prevent maltreatment from ever occurring secondary prevention preventing serious problems by spotting and treating the early warning signs that indicate maltreatment might develop and tertiary prevention aimed at halting the harm after it occurs and treating the victim.