Psychology

There are many scientific ideas associated with pain and its origin.  Injury is the most common predictor of pain, but it has been discussed that pain can linger long after the physical injury is healed.  Pain can indicate a psychological or mental injury and assert its existence through pain in a vulnerable area.  While pain is linked to a physical injury, the description of the pain changes as the injury heals.  Pain is a sensation warning the individual that something is wrong.  Since pain is invisible, doctors must rely on the patient to describe the pain, but some doctors do not believe their patients because they physically do not appear to be in pain.  It was disturbing to learn that doctors question their patients honesty due to the rise in prescription drug crimes.  This leaves the patients who are truly in pain without relief due to a doctors suspicions or the doctors own paranoia.
   
Pain is a physical response to an injury.  The Behavioral Theory of abnormal psychology describes classic conditioning and modeling as reasons to how an individual learns to process certain information.  As a child, one learns that when there is a boo-boo, mommy or daddy will offer a band-aid, an analgesic for pain, or support through hugs and kisses to make it all better.  As adults, the pain may truly have a physical origin, but maybe the individual is looking for something more than an ace bandage and a pain pill.  Maybe the adult is searching for someone who will mimic the caring and nurturing once received as a child.
   
A friend just recently went through advanced shoulder joint replacement surgery.  The recovery period has been quite extensive.  Pain medication was prescribed post-surgery, but 3 months later, the friend still claims to need it for pain.  It has been observed that the friend will not take the medicine if friends are around to keep his mind off of his shoulder.  The pain now appears to be psychological.

The increase in population in the modern world has its benefits as well as disadvantages. One of the disadvantages associated with it is the increase in adverse medical conditions. This paper looks at anxiety disorder as a menace to the human beings which adversely affects the way they live and interact with each other.

Abnormal Psychology - Anxiety Disorder
The National Institute of Mental Health (2009), clearly states that anxiety disorder is a condition characterized by extreme and abnormal worry about life, yet there is no concrete reason for worry. People suffering from this condition always expect some disaster to happen in their life. Their worry as asserted by Tuma  Maser (1985) is unrealistic and beyond proportion for a particular situation. This disorder can also be referred to as pathological worry which differs from non-pathological worry depending on the frequency, extent and intensity of worry an individuals capability to control the worry and whether the worry interferes with the functioning of a person to a significant extent.

Anxiety disorder affects over forty million people aged above 18 years in the United States (Stinson, 2006). According to Bakker, et al., (2009) the disorder affects both children and adults though manifestation of the symptoms may be different. Belmonte, (2009), states that those suffering from this condition are full of fear and uncertainties. Anxiety disorders last for a very long period of time and can get worse if left untreated. They mostly occur in conjunction with other physical and mental disorders. Nutt, et al. (2001), argues that other disorders may mask the symptoms of the disorder or aggravate them. Some diseases require to be treated if a patient is to recuperate effectively from anxiety disorder. Though the exact cause of the disease is not known it is believed to be a result of a number of factors including genetics, imbalance of chemicals in the brain, and environmental stress (The National Institute of Mental Health, 2009). Members of a family that has a history of the disorder are at a high risk of developing the disorder. Abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain are also associated with the development of the disorder. Environmental stress, such as death of a close family member, may also culminate to anxiety disorder. Adverse medical conditions such as hypoglycemia have also been associated with development of the disorder (Melledo and Baker, 2002). The following are some of the symptoms that people suffering from anxiety disorder experience excessive continuous worry and tension, impractical view of problems, aggressiveness, headaches, muscle tension, excessive sweating, nausea, loss of concentration, fatigue, trembling and being easily startled (Nutt, 2002). Increased heart beat, sleep disturbance, shortness of breath and gastrointestinal disorders are other symptoms of anxiety disorder. There are various types of anxiety disorder which include panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias.

The National Institute of Mental Health (2009) agrees that anxiety disorder can be prevented by controlling worries, regular exercise, plenty of sleep, cutting down on caffeine, confronting things that made a person anxious in the past, and talking about the disorder with a physician. Betterhealth (2008) notes that anxiety disorder is treatable. Medications and psychotherapy are the treatments employed for this disorder. Thorough diagnosis is carried out by a psychiatrist before treatment options are prescribed. Cautious evaluation of an anxious person helps in characterizing the cause of the disorder as either psychological or organic. Behavioral therapy is one of the treatment methods that exist. It mainly focuses on controlling unwanted behaviors. Patients are taught to cope with difficult and unpredictable situations. Through relaxation techniques, patients are taught to alter their response to particular situations. The other treatment method is cognitive therapy, which focuses on modifying uncreative thought patterns. Patients are taught how to identify and modify thought pattern as well as behaviors that may develop worrying feelings (Craske, 1999). Cognitive behavioral therapy is the other treatment method employed for anxiety disorder. Patients are taught recovery skills that help them throughout their life. Cognitive behavioral therapy has been effective for treatment of anxiety disorder for a long time (Nutt, 2001). Medications are also used in combination with psychotherapies. Antidepressants and anti-anxiety drugs are used to treat anxiety disorder. Clonazepam, alprazolam, and diazepam are the most prescribed anti anxiety drugs (Blier  Abbott, 2001). Medications however may take a long time before they achieve their intended effect and therefore doctors need to keep an eye on patients progress in order to make a decision to change dosage or try another drug (Hamilton, Sacks  Hamilton, 1994).

In an interview conducted by Rodriguez, Charles Goodstein said that anxiety is present in some form in all people at some time (Rodriguez, 2010). The fact that each and every person has at one time or another experienced anxiety, though it may not have been severe to cause an alarm, increases the urge to learn everything about anxiety disorder. Anxiety is a very significant feature of the signaling system in our bodies. It acts as an alert or a danger signal. The physiological excitement people experience is directly linked to fear of injury as Root (2000) states. When individuals are faced with a risk to their physical well being that can lead to serious bodily harm, they react physically as well as psychologically. This reaction, also known as fight or flight response is therefore crucial in our lives as it activates an individual to either defend himself or run away to avoid being harmed. This response is therefore important as it helps people save their lives in life threatening situations.

Understanding anxiety disorder would therefore aid in learning more about the defects of the normal signaling system in the body (Foa  Andrews, 2006). Proper understanding of different types of the disorder is the first step in adequately tackling anxiety conditions as indicated by Rodriguez, (2010).
Though in the modern world people are not faced by physical threatening situations, every day they are faced by situations that complicate their lives, for example loss of job, marriage break up, and academic failure. These threats have deteriorating impacts on the psychological well being of a person. Development of severe anxiety due to these threats leads to anxiety disorder. There was a time a good friend of mine suffered from this disorder after he was divorced by his wife. The symptoms were so severe that most of the time he was socially withdrawn. This became one of the driving factors for understanding the disorder. This study is focused at discovering more concerning anxiety disorder so as to acquire knowledge that might be beneficial in the process of managing the disorder. Learning everything about anxiety disorder is essential for recovery (Deacon  Abramowitz, 2004).

Education concerning anxiety disorder incorporates examination of the psychology of the fright-flight response which is the bodys way of detecting and dealing with looming danger. Education would therefore be an important way of promoting control over the adverse symptoms that might be associated with the disorder. Understanding the disorder would greatly assist in learning various ways of releasing tension, which is an important technique for anxiety treatment (Viswesvaran, Silverman, and Pina, 2008). I believe that learning more on anxiety disorder would help in understanding the mystery of why symptoms appear and their association with the events that have just happened or are just about to happen. I am also interested in unearthing more about anxiety disorder as it greatly impairs social functioning of an individual. Interpersonal relationships as well as ability to function best in academics are also affected by anxiety disorders and therefore learning how to manage the symptoms according to Root (2000), would greatly improve academic performance. As stated by Deacon  Abramowitz (2004), understanding how anxiety disorders affect social relationship would greatly help in managing the disorder and improving on social interactions. I hope to learn about various anxiety disorders and how they affect the psychological well being of a person and how its effects can be managed. I hope to increase my knowledge on the disorder as it is vital in preventing development of other disorders.

Conclusion
Due to the fact that every person undergoes an anxious moment at some time during life, it is important to understand conditions that might adversely affect peoples life in relation to anxiety for example anxiety disorder. The symptoms of anxiety disorder, which includes excessive worry for no obvious reason, are so severe that they leave a person so depressed. This disorder can be prevented if a person avoids factors that may have aggravated anxiety in the past. Medications as well as psychotherapies are available for treatment of anxiety disorder. Research on anxiety disorder is very important as it will help people understand the disorder and therefore effectively manage it.

It was very interesting and equally disturbing to learn that there might be a scientific link between a pregnant woman, the flu, and schizophrenia.  Pregnant women in their second trimester of pregnancy who contracted a respiratory infection showed that between three and seven of the babies born would likely develop schizophrenia (Mitchell, 2007).  This is most likely due to elevated levels of a chemical called cidacaine.  Scientific studies have been conducted by many universities internationally.  Brown University estimates that 14-20 of babies born to women, who contracted the flu during the second trimester of pregnancy, will likely develop schizophrenia later in their adult lives (Mitchell, 2007).
   
The program is indicative that schizophrenia may be caused by an environmental condition, the flu.  Biological theories could easily explain the existence of schizophrenia, but the psychological theories related to socioculture and behavior both offer explanations as well.  The sociocultural theory of psychology focuses on the influence that society has on ones mental health.  If the pregnancy and flu ideologies are in fact true, then a pregnant woman may have been influenced by family or friends during her pregnancy to place herself in situations that may have made it easier to contract the flu.  The behavior theory of psychology states that an individuals mental health is conditioned through learning and environmental experiences.  The pregnant woman may have learned that it was okay to behave in certain ways when she was not pregnant.  These behaviors may prove to have a detrimental effect on her unborn child.
   
Schizophrenia has always been thought to have a biological link through genetics.  After viewing the program, it brings to light the question of a simple flu or upper respiratory infection with regard to my own family.  While there is no history of major mental illness, there are many young children in the family.  These children will certainly be watched closer.

For years there is a constant debate going over to find the factors that motivates an individual or influence their behavior. After this the question which comes to the mind is that either there is a single tool which can be used for everyone, an instrument which always proves out to be successful as far as motivation is concerned (Leshner, 2007).

The most important thing in this in this regard is to identify that individuals personality, believes and attitudes. There are different types of people around us all with different set of skills, different aspirations and different things motivates them. Everyone have different fondness in life, different set of goals, so everyone have different priorities when it comes to motivational factors. Some may be motivated by monetary incentives but on the other hand other may not. One thing which is certain till now is that there is no single formula by which everyone can be motivated. The single common thing in every human being is that they all are different so there must be different things from which they get motivated (Dennis, 2007).  

In modern psychology the most important thing on which the researchers are focusing are the motivating factors that entice one to do what one does. If we further narrow down this then it lead us towards the study of addiction, social interactivity, thought process and motivation.    

Now there can be number of factors which influence the brain structures and functions that are associated with motivation in abstaining the usage of drug. These include the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors, the environment in which that individual is moving, and the heredity.  

Influencing a persons behavior is a very demanding job and in order to successfully go through this exercise the most important thing which is required is a comprehensive knowledge of that individuals values, beliefs, attitude, their preference, and those forces that molds them in following a particular action. Research has shown that although the environment in which the person is moving plays a vital role but the persons functions of brain is the most crucial part, as brain is controlling all the activities of the body (DiClemente, 1999).

Brain Structures and Functions
The physical changes are mainly caused by the chronic substance abuse, which have a large impact on the functioning of the brain. Studies have shown that the structure of the brain changes radically with the usage of drug which eventually results in carvings, tolerance, withdrawal, abstinence etc.  
Apart from that the use of drug also results in an increase of dopamine, which causes the sensitivity of euphoria, which is the compelling force of drug use.

Extrinsic Motivators
When it comes to refrain drug use extrinsic motivation almost becomes epidemic. It plays a vital role in providing the addict a desire to quit drugs and came back to normal life. A good example of extrinsic motivation can be given of obtaining a job which would not be given to that addict until and unless heshe quit drugs (Dennis, 2007). The external reward in this case would be money. Similarly other actions like coercion, punishment, force can also become extrinsic motivators. Other type of extrinsic motivators can be loss of employment, or loss of a loved one like spouse, then financial disruptions etc.      

Intrinsic Motivators
Intrinsic motivators have proven out to be much more successful when it comes to drug recovery. This was observed with many addicts that the severe the problem was more internal motivation was there for treatment (Leshner, 2007). Apart from that the desire that arises in an individual like taking part in social activities, getting employed somewhere, making friends etc also urges the person to get rid of this habit which is keeping him astray from all this (Fowler, 2003).

Environment
Without a doubt environment plays a key role in the rehabilitation process of a drug addict. It was observed that those patients who were living in an environment which was free from drug users or suppliers were recovering at a rapid pace as compared to those who  were living in conditions where drugs was being used around them. Also if the people in the environment consider drug using as not a good thing then also it can help the patient (DiClemente, 1999).

In short it could be said that the motivational factors to refrain drug use can be intrinsic or extrinsic. However the success rate of the extrinsic motivational factors likes rewards or punishments are comparatively low. Apart from all these factors the persons personal desires and commitment towards getting rid of this bad habit is also very important. Living in an environment that is conducive and health would also put a positive impact on the patient and the urge of leaving this would increase (Fowler, 2003).  

Saint Francis Sleep Disorder Center is the only center that has been accredited by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and is situated in northeastern Oklahoma.

The doctors and professionals of this center diagnose through tests and observations.

Some of the symptoms of sleep disorders that are treated with care by doctors of this center are restless sleep, feeling excessive sleepiness during day time, loud snoring, lack of concentration, morning headache, loss of energy, impotency, mood swings, anxiety, depression, sudden and brief loss of muscle control etc.

It is extremely important to be treated at this center because sleep disorder might cause industrial and road accidents. If left untreated it can cause obesity, high blood pressure and heart diseases.
The most common ways in which sleep disorders are treated in Saint Francis Sleep Disorder Center is through medication, environment management, behavior treatment, continuous positive airway pressure, bi-level positive airway pressure and surgery.

Doctors at the center believe that if one is not able to sleep properly then chances are that his brain is getting slowly prone to mental disorders, head injuries, memory loss, Alzheimers, slow brain development etc.

They advice good sleeping pattern as a preventive measure. They also provide a list of dos and donts to patients in order to make them understand how to prevent sleep disorders.

 It is extremely important to consult a neuro doctor at the center as only he is capable of diagnosing the extent of damage your brain has undergone due to lack of proper sleep. He can treat you by accurately identifying your problem from a list of eighty-four kinds of sleep disorders. If you have nerve problems, poor blood circulation in the leg, kidney problem, vitamin deficiency or if you indulge in excessive alcohol immediately visit Saint Francis Sleep Disorder Center.

Their insurance program is excellent and designed to protect the patients rights and establish financial well being. This is considered an ethical step in providing overall care to the patients.
According to the doctors of the center this disorder is hereditary in nature. This is the most common disease of the modern culture as one has so much to work  party  do virtual networking that there is lesser time for sleep. Some of the sleep disorders like sleep apnea and narcolepsy can be passed from one generation to another.

The Center is located on the first floor of the hospital, and has six large, comfortable rooms in which the tests are performed.

Saint Francis Sleep Disorder Center is the best place to cure your sleep disorders.

My career is developmental psychology. It is important to understand various stages of development from birth to adulthood. This knowledge is important in understanding what children are, their   physical growth throughout the developmental stages, and their use of language as a means of communication. The need to understand and focus on abnormal behavior, especially in children throughout their developmental stages, has increased my interest on developmental psychology. Throughout history, child development has been ignored greatly as children have been viewed as adults small version, and very little attention was paid to physical growth, use of language, and their cognitive abilities. I consider the optimal child development to be vital to the society. This brings the need to understand the emotional, cognitive, educational, and social development of children. In this reflective paper, I have explained my approach to lifespan development and its application to developmental psychology.

Lifespan Development and Developmental Psychology
 It is easy to see how an individual has changed in his or her development through watching and analyzing childrens daily activities. When we consider the daily activities of adults or rather the aged people, we easily see how far we are yet to move in our development. This explains lifespan development as a process in development of people from conception to adulthood through adolescence. The process is involved with shaping individuals life from the initial time of conception to when the individual dies. Although different individuals have different life trends and patterns, all these life patterns or rather the course taken by each individual life is influenced by sociological, psychological and biological factors. Lifespan development gives an understanding of the methods, concepts and findings from various researches which are central to the developmental psychology study and practice.  My career is involved with the extent of development through gradual knowledge accumulation with regard to development in various stages, or the extent to which childrens innate mental structure changes from birth with regard to what they learn through their experience. Many researches are being carried out to determine the interrelationship between individual behavior, personal characteristics and environmental factors such as society and its impact on development.

Developmental psychology relates to many applied fields such as forensic developmental psychology which is concerned with how children act and react in the context of forensic, child psychopathology which refers to the occurrence of psychological disorders in adolescents and children. Examples of child psychopathology include attention-deficit disorders, oppositional defiant disorders and pervasive development disorders among others.

Development Theories
To acquire knowledge on children development stages, especially from birth to adulthood, a number of theories have been used. These theories have different perspectives of viewing determinants of child development from birth. They broaden our understanding on the development process giving understanding of how different variables influence development in various stages, either negatively or positively.

Piagetian - Cognitive Development Theory
This theory is involved with the nature and development of individuals intelligence. According to this theory, in order to adapt human intelligence, the intelligence being adapted should have the static and transformational aspect of reality. Intelligence achieved through actions and events of developing people ensures equilibrium in environment and individuals relations. The environment in which any individual grows in is assimilated in action schemes available. The peculiarity of the environment accommodates or transforms these schemes of action. Intelligence development thus involves a continuous accommodation and assimilation process. Intelligence changes qualitively with developmental stages to attain more abstract, increasingly broader, and more equilibrated structures.

According to the cognitive development theory, four main periods are involved, with completely reversible equilibrated thought development.  In the sensorimotor - the first stage in cognitive development, infants coordinate sensory experiences such as hearing and seeing with motoric and physical actions in order to understand the world they live in. Childrens physical actions from the world they live in give them knowledge of the world. Their progress is described by reflexive, institutional action at birth and start of symbolic thought at the end of the stage.

The preoperational period of cognitive development theory is concerned with the mind of the children. The child learns to present and use various objects by drawing, words and images. The child gets the ability to form magical belies, mental reasoning and stale concepts.  The thinking of the child is egocentric, and faces difficulties in attempts to take other peoples viewpoints.  The stage involves children from birth to two years.

Most of the children between the ages of seven and eleven years are in concrete operational stage of cognitive development. In this stage, children can appropriately use logic. They also have the ability to sort objects according to their characteristics, to recognize logical relationships and perform transitive inferences, to identify and name objects according to their characteristics such as size and appearance, to understand that objects or numbers can be changed, and be returned to the original status, and to understand that the number, length and quantity of items is not related to the objects appearance or arrangement.  (Piaget 2001, pp. 6)

The formal operational period of the cognitive development stage involves children at puberty through adolescence to adulthood. Individuals in this period think abstractly beyond their concrete experiences, they can draw conclusions given information, and their reasoning is logical. They have the ability to apply these processes in hypothetical situations. The ability of an adolescent in formal operational period to solve a problem verbally reflects their thoughts abstract quality. The young adults in this period can solve problems through devising plans, and test the solution to the problem systematically. In solving the problem, they use the best path which is characterized by development of best guesses or hypotheses and its systemic deduction or conclusion. In this stage, young adults can understand love, values and logical proofs they start being fascinated with that they are capable of, and entertain future possibilities. Their way of thinking about social matters is governed by their egocentrism. This egocentrism can be divided into two types of imaginary thinking, social thinking which is involved with the  behavior of getting attention ,  of personal fable which is involved with the sense of invincibility and personal uniqueness.

Vygotskys Cultural-Historical Theory
This theory has helped in understanding of the influence of the surrounding culture to a childs life. The knowledge acquired from this theory gives understanding of the role of scaffolding in development, and gives knowledge on how to live in an environment of artifacts created by activities of prior generations in the environment. According to the theory, for any child or adolescent to enhance cognitive development, the child or adolescent should be active in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). In order for children to reach the ZPD, assistance from more experienced person or adult is required.  When helped and guided by more experienced people, children can do more than what they can do without the guidance.  The abilities and skills in the process of developing are usually defined by ZPD, which is actually a range of tasks which needs an individual to depend on a more competent individual to perform. For a clear understanding of the role of surrounding environment to the development of a child, here is an n example a four - year hold child wants to walk across a balance beam. The child makes many attempts but he fails to balance. The child seeks assistance from older sister who is almost graduating from college, and walks across the balance beam while holding the sister. In this case, the sister gives assistance, thus acting as a scaffold. Scaffolding can also involve structures, breaking down the task to be done into smaller easier to follow steps, providing feedback about the childs progress while doing the task, and providing motivation. (Saxe 1990, pp. 11-13).

Children tend to gain competency as they grow in a society supporting scaffolding. As time goes by, the scaffold reduces the amount of their support to the children, in response to the childs performance. Considering the given example, as the child gains confidence to balance while walking across the balance beam, the sister can continually reduce the support from holding childs two hands, to holding one, and eventually to not holding at all as the child gains ability to walk without assistance. Scaffolding influences the cognitive development of a child through installing the necessary skills for independent solving of problems in future. The Vygotskys theory explains the importance of the culture or the society for individuals development. The theory offers a distinguishing feature. Human beings have the ability and need to inhabit an environment with transformations from people who have lived there before.  The ability of people to create and utilize artifacts results in transformations and mechanisms of the transmissions from a generation to another.

Freunds Psychosexual Theory
According to this theory, the childhood events and experiences act as major determinants of the childrens behavior.  According to this theory, child development involves a series of psychosexual stages

Personality is developed by the age of five years in most children.  The early experiences of a childs development process contribute a lot to development of childs personality and subsequent behavior in the childs later life. According to the Freuds psychosexual development theory, psychosexual energy is behaviors driving force. Healthy personality is a result of successful completion of psychosexual stages. This means that unresolved issues at any particular stage cause a persistent focus on that stage.  Unless the issue is resolved in the appropriate time, the child development across the developmental stages remains stuck. For example, a child stuck at the oral stage is likely to over rely on others, or seek oral stimuli such as drinking, smoking, or eating.

Development in Context theory
This theory expounds our knowledge on how the environmental planning and design of development relates to its context.

Significance of Attachment in the Emotional Development of an Infant
The bond between mother who is the primary care giver of the infant influences the infants later development. When a close emotional relationship is established between a child and someone special in the childs life, social development of the child begins. The person can be a parent or anybody else in the society. Attachment involves enduring, intense social-emotional relationship. A number of ways are used to illustrate attachment in early childhood and infancy. As the child develops through the different developmental stages, the child tries to relate and behave in relation to the attachment figure. Attachment figures act as secure bases for developing children, who depend on them entirely to explore the environment they live in. When the attachment is withdrawn, the developing child gets distressed, reunited the attachment brings back the childs joy. As the children develop, their behavior orientation is directed towards the attachment figure. The child watches the attachment figures from far, listens to their voices, and seeks their attention. According to the animal study and the Freuds psychodynamic theory, children are believed to have  inborn behavior patterns such as smiling, crying and clinging which the child uses as a way of ensuring a proximity with the attachment figure, especially the mother. They also have a biological tendency of attaching to a particular person. This attachment is crucial as it is different from any other attachment which might occur in subsequent development process. (2006, pp. 8).

Maternal deprivation hypothesis based on the belief that mother or any other care giver should continually sustain an intimate and warm relationship to the infant to reduce the subsequent consequences. A research conducted in hospitals and orphanage shows that intellectual retardation, depression, difficulties in forming and maintaining formed relationship, and emotionally disturbed behaviors are associated with maternal deprivation. Children who have grown without relating with the mother, especially within the first three years of development have difficulties making friends, maintaining made friends, and their performance is also affected. Although the damages caused by these consequences are permanent, they can be reversed by re-uniting the attachment. Many mothers do not respond to their childrens needs, and such children tend to seek satisfaction from other people. This means that instead of having an attachment between the mother and the child, the attachment   is between the child and the person satisfying the childs need. In the world we live, not all people can play the role of a mother effectively many children whose mothers ignore and neglect them continue being attached to them despite the neglect. This causes difference in emotional behavior between the child with a secure attachment and the one whose attachment was as a result of lack of alternative choice. (Wertsch 1999, pp. 20)

Children who get secure attachment during their first three years of development are more positive, have higher self esteem, are less aggressive and their emotional and social health is usually excellent.  These children have abilities to develop and maintain a healthy relationship with those they live with, and in their subsequent adult life, they are able to relate and maintain happy relationships. On the other hand, children who lack secure attachment suffer the consequences throughout their lives. They suffer depression, they are emotional, and their behavior is troubled and anti-social. These children carry these traits in all development stages, thus   facing problems in their adult relationships.  To limit such traits, relevant support such as encouragement, counseling, subsequent loving and healthy relations are required.

Children form multiple attachments throughout their development childhood life. The father, other siblings and other people who the children relate with in their development can form other attachments. Although all children require a biological mother to provide care, to hold them and to provide warmth and love which is ideal to all children, some children are brought up by non biological mothers, and some mothers do not provide care to their children. Children brought up by non-biological caretakers tend to form a strong attachment with them, and they grow up feeling cherished and loved by the caretaker. In cases where children are emotionally and socially deprived, they get adverse trauma. To heal these traumas, such individuals require enough care. Early trauma has the power to drag individuals life downwards through hard and negative road, and can cause detrimental effects to the individuals life. (Surgaman 2008, pp. 37).

Conflict between Parents and Adolescents Seems Inevitable
Many terms have been used to refer to adolescence. In development lifespan, adolescence is a period of changes in individuals social, cognitive, biological and psychological characteristics. This developmental stage is considered as a transit from childhood to adulthood. Individuals in this development stage encounter drastic challenge, as they make adjustments in themselves, peers, and family. These changes occur even in institutions. It is important for both parents and their children in adolescence to understand that this is a period of trouble and happiness anxiety and excitement bewilderment and discovery and of departing the past and lining with the future. Adolescence is confusing adolescents in the stage to adults involved with enhancing effective development of young people in this stage, and to the parents nurturing the adolescents throughout this development process.

Family conflict between parents and adolescents is inevitable. In every familys history, conflict is ubiquitous. Various reasons have been given for conflicts between adolescents and parents. According to adolescents report, the conflict is as a result of failure of parents to provide the emotional support they require, either parents or adolescents feeling of failure of the other party to meet what is expected of them, failure of consensus about individual, family or societal values. (Commons 2002, pp. 169)

A study on the findings of a research carried out to more than 1800 European parents, African American and Latino parents nurturing adolescents show that conflict between the parents and adolescents occurs on almost all main everyday matters such as dressing style and daily chores among others rather than from substantial issues such as drug abuse, and sex among others. Other research reports show that as the adolescent develops, the conflicts arising from these issues tend to decrease leaving room for finances as the major cause of the conflict in the older adolescence age. As the young people develop, the level of agreements between them and parents reduce, reducing the levels of conflict, especially in families involving boys. Parents should learn to cope with their youngsters in adolescents since conflict between parents and adolescents is a family life fact.

The young people encounter problems when negative emotions are exchanged between parents and adolescents. For example, when a father is stressed by the adolescents behavioral and emotional problem, and the mother is depressed or anxious, the adolescent school grade tends to be poor. Nurturing of adolescents and the outcome is different in different families. Parenting styles and socialization are differing with parents or adults. (Demick  Andreoletti 2002, pp. 216219)

Application of communication skills can reduce conflicts and subsequent frustrations between parents and adolescents. Good communication skills act as the starting point to resolving frustration in both teenagers and parents. Essential communoication skills entail taking appropriate time to communicate with the other party with minimal distraction. Since teenagers expect to be understood when communicating with the parent, the parent should reflect the statements made by the teenagers. This shows understanding. For any communication to be considered effective, both parties need to understand one another. To ensure that the adolescents have understood their parents statement, they should repeat the statement.

How Stress Can Affect Prenatal Development
 Maternal stress influences the outcome of the pregnancy and the subsequent behavior of the children. It acts as functional and permanent structural changes. Review of literature shows that experiences in the early lives of individuals shape the behavior and functioning of the brain. Gestational stress has profound impact on the functioning state of endocrine, and the behavior of the individual in adulthood. The type of stress induced, the pattern of exposure and the gender of the offspring determine the susceptibility of the effect of the stress. When predictable stress is induced on daily and repeated basis, the adult offspring, especially a female one, experiences robust changes.  Exposure to stress in prenatal development increased the levels of anxiety-related behaviors. Female offspring experiences prolonged response to corticosterone, unlike the male counterparts who experience increased level of basal ACTH. Pre-natal exposure to different unpredictable stressors pattern had little effect on the HDP. The exposed females had anxiogenic-related behavior. The gonadal steroids of the induced also change in males and the testosterone increases. This means that stress in prenatal development influences the nature of the stress experienced by expectant mothers and the gender of the offspring determines the difference in sensitivity of the developing endocrine and nervous systems to stress. (Cole 2005, pp. 26)

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function differs in males and females.   In normal gestation, in adulthood females have higher HPA activity compared to the males. Female adults have increased corticosterone compared to male adults. However prenatal stress modifies the hormones whereby the basal levels of corticosterone and ACTH increases in female. The HPA response to stress on exposure to prenatal stress varies with gender and stress paradigm. In cases of random exposure to prenatal stress, HPA response to the induced stress is not altered in either gender. The prenatal stress restraint gives opposing effects to the two genders. Women are susceptible to the anxiogenic effects of prenatal stress. This is associated with affective disorders in women in their adulthood. The sexual dichotomies with regard to exposure to stress in early development stages are well explained by utero glucocorticoids. The females serum corticosterone is higher compared to males. A research using mice showed that gender difference due to differential corticosterone transports into the placenta. More maternal corticosterone is transported to the female fetus in the placenta (Demick  Andreoletti 2002, pp.332).

Research Method
Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methodology research design can be used to pursue lifespan development. In qualitative method, the researchers interviewing people in various developmental stages can also give vital data, especially from word of mouth, or objects. The quantitative research is the most preferred in this case. This is because the research has a clear understanding of what heshe is researching on. It is easy to design the study aspects before collecting data on developmental stages. This makes it hard to use qualitative research method whose design emerges with the unfolding of the study. Since the data collected in quantitative research involves numbers and statistics, unlike the qualitative method   whose data is in form of objects pictures and words, the quantitative method can be more effective.

Conclusion
Developmental psychology is a career worthy taking. The knowledge acquired in learning developmental stages and theories help in development of behavior in many individuals. A developmental psychologist can help in developing good behavior through counseling and in settling the parent adolescent conflict as well as advising on the developmental risks associated with prenatal stress, the significance of attachment in emotional development of infants, and the role of scaffolders in development of competence.

In group interplay, it is essential to carry out dynamics that can facilitate healthier interaction with members. Due to this, the process of group cohesion corresponds to the value of finding appropriate motivation and force to allow each member to fulfill their specific duties and responsibilities effectively. By carrying out these options accordingly, it can help achieve a particular purpose and develop the specific skills necessary to adhere to the trends in a particular organization or workplace.

Analyzing the process of group cohesion, this aspect strengthens the ability of the group to function effectively given specific tasks and objectives. In particular, it conveys directions that allow both task and social interaction to foster to justify appropriate means to get the job done (LCSC.edu, 2004). This then encourages patterns of synchronized behavior and actions that are congruent to what organizations want. Seeing this, it impacts the aspect of decision making and provides opportunities for members to take part in this endeavor (ACCEL, 2010).

Alongside the value of group cohesion, it is also essential to understand the different factors affecting its development. It can be argued that these areas include the (1) environment, (2) personal factors, (3) group factors, and (4) leadership remains essential in achieving a cohesive interaction between members. Allowing the tents associated in this process impact the interplay of relations and objectives can cultivate different issues such as conflict resolution, culture, and communication patterns (Forsyth, 2006).

Lastly, all these aspects correlate with one another as it provides essential ingredients in administering new dynamics surrounding achievement of goals and cooperation. Here, it does not undermine the aspect of sacrifices or togetherness but rather used as an instrument in determining proper avenues for people to build relationships and camaraderie (LCSC.edu, 2004). Such perspectives then induce greater capacity to handle challenges, balance specific tasks, and bring out the best in each member.

In the end, group cohesion remains to be an essential ingredient shaping organizational and group development. Not only does it instill a diversified perspective in addressing a specific task, it also opens up new foundations that carry out appropriate means for members to utilize these associated motives and pursue a common goal. This then becomes essential in gaining new skills, developing leadership, and strengthening communication patterns.