Psychology

1. Life Changes and Stress Test
The life changes and stress test allows individuals to measure the level of stress that they are undergoing and therefore decide what steps they can take after. Stress is the sure proof of the connection between the mind and the body, that is the mood picks up the stressor and the body reacts physically to the stressor. The life changes and stress test measures the levels of stressors that an individual perceives in normal life.

After taking the stress, the results indicated that I am experiencing borderline stress. Borderline stress is indicated by a surge of alert hormones when the mind perceives a level of stress. It is characterized by lack of sleep and over heightened awareness that normally means one cannot relax. However since the body after experiencing a stressor cannot remain in the hyper mode for long, the hormone levels finally subside and the individual is brought back down. This is when one may experience moodiness, headaches, aggressive behavior and inability to concentrate.

Management of borderline stress is simple, and sometimes only requires dealing with the stressor. For example in the case of the death of a close relative, to deal with the stressor requires proper grieving and acceptance. Taking up simple exercise and allowing the mind to process the loss will often lead to less stress, (Wolfgang 2005, 40). In the same length taking up something that is positively reassuring or emotionally strengthening reduces the effects of the stressor. Inability to manage borderline stress through the life changes presented by the American Massage Therapy Association (2010) for example exercise and enjoying yourself, may lead to increase in stress levels to over 300, and this will definitely require a professional to develop coping mechanisms.

2. V Axes Diagnosis
The V axes is a global psychological test that is used by professional psychiatrists, clinicians and psychologists to evaluate the patients ability to function in day to day activities. From the results of the test once it is administered the clinician is able to chart a proper treatment and intervention plan for the patient.  The diagnosis is designed to provide clinicians with a methodological and uniform method of diagnosing psychological patients. 

The V axes diagnoses works in a short time, measuring all aspects of a patients symptoms and functioning ability. The diagnoses incorporates all aspects of a patients functioning whether physical, social, emotional and general productivity. The diagnoses therefore provide an opportunity for review of the measures already taken and their effects, and provide an opportunity to set new intervention measures.

An example of the application of the V Axes diagnoses is in the treatment of a schizophrenic patient. Once the patients hospitalization is over, when the clinicians are considering releasing the patient, the V axes is applied. The axes provide a numbered diagnoses sheet to measure the patients functionality. If the patient scores 51-60 then the he is likely to suffer from mild schizophrenic symptoms and difficulty in social situations. The patient may not need to be hospitalized further but may require a case worker to visit and help him adjust to life after hospitalization, (Whiston 2008, 299).

Whitson (2008, 302) The V axes diagnosis is especially helpful in diagnosing the hospitalized patients for release, or in deciding the amount of care that a patient requires. Once the questions in the diagnoses test have been completed, they are applied to a 10 point scale that automatically determines the level of adjustment and functionability of the patient.

3. Anorexia Nervosa An Eating Disorder
Anorexia nervosa is simply referred to as anorexia. This is a type of eating disorder that is psychologically based. The patient often begins by dieting to loose weight and soon becomes obsessed with getting thinner and thinner. This means that the patient begins exploring more and more unhealthy diets. The patient views weight loss as a sign of control. The patient engages in a cycle involving restrictive refusal to eat, exercising all the time, and use of laxatives to loose weight. Weight loss becomes an obsession and an addictive behavior.

Maj (2006, 49) individuals with anorexia unlike popular belief are obsessed with food, but instead of eating it, they desire to become masters at avoiding it. They may suddenly develop an obsession with healthy eating and foods, or start cutting their food to smaller pieces and using smaller plates. Anorexic patients are often depressed and moody and are eager to please everyone lacking self esteem and self definition.

Although the disease in characterized by the need to gain control, anorexics almost always have disorganized lives apart from food and dieting. Anorexics often allow their obsession with food to distort all other aspects of their lives. Other forms of compulsion such as gambling and sex are common in anorexics.

For patients diagnosed with severe malnutrition that has led to organ failure, hospitalization is necessary. This is because the immediate focus is on weight gain through intravenous feeding by passing the mouth. Different forms of therapy both individual, group and family sessions are applied. Clinicians have found it especially advantageous to apply the Maudsley therapy approach in family therapy for anorexic patients. A good intervention plan addresses the patients need to be controlling, the self esteem and personal perceptions, the desire to starve themselves and nutritional education. Although anorexia can be treated without medication sometimes the clinicians may put the patient on prescriptions to moderate moods and other emotional or psychological symptoms, (Maj 2006, 399)

4. Anxiety Disorders- Social Phobias
In America today, social phobia is the 3rd largest psychological disorder affecting the American people. Individuals suffering from social phobia often experience feelings of anxiety when forced to be in a situation that requires them to engage socially. 

Heimberg (1995, 7) there are at least two forms of social phobia, the first being social anxiety which is characterized by extreme emotional discomfort about social interactions and relating with others. The patient is often worried that they are being scrutinized or analyzed by others. This form of anxiety often develops in adolescence and follows to adulthood.

The second form is the specific social phobia where patients may be confident in certain social situations but completely overwhelmed in others. For example patients may suffer from fears of eating in public, using restrooms that are public or attending any gatherings of a social nature, (Heimberg 1995, 8).

The essence of a social phobia arises from an irrational belief and expectation of negative judgment from others. Unlike other forms of disorders, patients suffering from social phobia are aware of the irrationality of their beliefs but are unable to overcome them. Patients often suffer from low self esteem and experts are of the view that social phobias generally develop from childhood.

Social phobias are often very difficult to treat as the patients may experience the emotional distress even in therapy. Despite this, group therapy and combined cognitive therapy have been found to be extremely successful in helping patients deal with social phobias.

5. Gender Identity
For a child to develop gender identity, social and cultural perspectives influence the roles and choices made. Each cultural group uses biological sex to make the distinction in gender, but beyond this each culture posses variations in distinguishing gender identities.

Coon (2000, 451), division of labor is often used to identify with one specific gender. Each culture posses a specific division of labor, identifying the roles to be fulfilled by each gender. Boys are socialized differently to accept more manly roles associated with their gender such as protection of the family, while girls are socialized to be home makers a role suitable for their gender. In fulfilling their particular roles, children begin to identify with a specific gander.

Gender differences In the same way there exist differences in the emotions and reactions of both males and females. For example men tend to be more aggressive than females, and are quicker to express this aggression physically, while aggression does not come easily for females.

Females also tend to be more empathetic than males, generally associating with the plight and abuse of others easily. Additionally women are more able to decode emotional and non verbal cues than men, (Coon 2000, 453).

Another difference arises in the ability and willingness to communicate. Women find it much easier to communicate and reveal much more details than men. Psychologists actually claim that it is easier for women to undergo successful therapy than men.

Finally there have been claims that women have much more long term memory than men.

6. Narcisstic Personality Disorder
This is a personality disorder characterized by an exaggerated form of self importance.  Patients often display an exaggerated need for attention and desire for admiration. Narcissists often demand a lot of praise and admiration from others. Lack of such gestures tend to draw over emotional reactions and may sometimes lead to violence. A narcissist often sees themselves better than others, they feel they posses exceptional talent and live in an unrealistic world where they are powerful and successful, (Livesley 1995, 104).

There are two theories that define narcissism from culture. In the first, psychologists suggest that there are some forms of culture that idolize a child. This is especially so in cultures where a specific talent for example sport seems to be considered exceptional. As the child grows they are unable to develop realistic goals and ideals away from the idealizing parents or community. They therefore emerge to adulthood stuck on the idealized child they were.

A second theory presented suggests the opposite that narcissism develops when the child craving for emotional attachment especially from the mother does not get it. Emotionally stunted, the child withdraws to a part of themselves that the parent seems to value such as talent or looks. They inflate this part of themselves and become exceptionally attached to it, (Livesley 1995, 104).

Narcissists often find it hard or impossible to deal with criticism or failure. Although they may not show it outwardly, or they may react with arrogance, failure haunts them deeply. However their excessive ambition often leads to higher chances of success, though this may sadly be short-lived as they cannot withstand correction and criticism. On the other hand the fear of failure may cripple narcissists both professionally and personally.

7. Depression
A depressive disorder is characterized by a group of symptoms that reflect extreme sadness and irritable behavior that exceeds normal grief.  Depressives often are characterized by sudden moodiness (shift from highs of extreme joy to lows of extreme grief), sleeping and eating disorders and sudden illnesses. Depression is often hard to identify as people may confuse it with sadness and grief, (Alford and Beck 2009, 90)

There are three types of depressive disorders. The first is major depression normally characterized by some symptoms such as irritability, crying bouts that interfere with the patients life. The symptoms always last around 14days. The second type is dysthymia which involves the clients inability to function fully for long periods of time. This is a chronic depression disorder. Finally there is the bipolar disorder also known as manic depression. The patient often exhibits periods of depression where they are irritable or sad followed by periods of mania where the patient is irrational and violent, (Alford and Beck 2009, 90)

Depression and sadness Depression is often confused with sadness but whereas sadness is a symptom of depression it is not depression. The main difference is in the period where sadness is experienced. For example when one has lost a loved one for a period of time they may grieve, and their life maybe disrupted but often this period ends. When the sadness persists through long periods and begins to disrupt normal productive life then it now turns to depression.

Additionally it is easy for individuals to deal with sadness and grief and understand why they feel as they do in that particular moment. However for depression people cannot explain their feelings or their behavior.

8. Warning Signs of Suicide in Adolescents
Changes in eating and sleeping habits although teenagers often have changing eating patterns, drastic changes that include either overeating or starving themselves may be a sign of depression and as such a cry for help. Adolescents who suddenly and drastically change their eating for no reason at all, sometimes complaining they are not hungry or are satisfied should be observed closely.

In addition children who suddenly cannot sleep or sleep too much may also be suffering from anxiety or depression which often results in suicide. Guardians and parents noticing such changes should consult professionals to help them diagnose the child correctly and set up an intervention plan.
Withdrawal from social activity perhaps this is the most telling sign of depression in adolescents. Adolescents have a need and crave the attention and company of their peers. A child who suddenly develops the desire to withdraw and spend time alone is probably undergoing a difficult adjustment that could lead to depression and eventually suicide.

Violent actions, rebellious behavior, running away parents and guardians of adolescents who have committed suicide often state that they had not seen the child for hours but they had a tendency to run away. Suicidal Adolescents see suicide as an escape route from a situation they find difficult or impossible to deal with.

Such actions may also be related to the use of drugs. 60 of the suicides recorded are often while the child is under the influence of drugs. The ability of drugs and alcohol to alter the mood and perception of the individual is sighted as a cause for suicide (Spirito and Overholser 2003, 82).

Additionally the adolescents are uncommonly concerned with their personal look believing it defines them. Neglect of what they consider probably most important should be an indicator that they have a problem.

Marked personality change for children who were extremely social, they suddenly become loners. Others were high performers and suddenly they cannot seem to concentrate on anything. This personality changes are indicators of highly complex psychological issues, (Spirito and Overholser 2003, 80).

Adolescents may also develop untreatable diseases and symptoms of illnesses that disrupt their normal schedules and life.

Loss of interest in pleasurable activities adolescents often crave approval a childs inability to withstand praise even when they have done exceptionally well is a sign of emotional distress that may lead to suicide.

Additional signs other indicators that may be slight are verbal indications of suicide (I want to kill myself) periodically or loss of self esteem. Teenagers who also develop bizarre behavior like an obsession with death rituals and preparation for death are at risk for suicide.
                                               
 9. Mood Disorders
Mood disorders are also known as affective disorders and are disorders that distinguish themselves through unusual mood experiences. Mood disorders are characterized by the experience of one mood over a period of time in an unhealthy manner. Most mood disorders are treatable and easily diagnosed. The patients exhibit a number of symptoms such as low pleasure experiences, suicide tendencies, and tiredness, loss of memory, disinterest, poor sleeping and eating patterns. Generally speaking a person may be diagnosed with a mood disorder if two or more of these symptoms persist over a period of two weeks.

Mood disorders generally consist of unipolar disorders such as depression characterized by the persistence of one particular mood, or bipolar disorders characterized by the persistence of two or more symptoms such as in manic depression. The shifts in mood are usually in a defined set of patterns, for example extreme sadness immediately after a period characterized by great happiness and joy, (Barlow and Durand 2008, 228).

In life, human beings are often faced with circumstances that require them to adjust accordingly to adapt some adjustment behaviors. These are known as normal behaviors in adaptation. For example in a situation where one looses a loved one, normal adjustment includes proper grieving and finally acceptance of the loss. Where an individual grieves for an extremely long time, to the point of affecting their productivity, this is known as a maladaptive behavior. This is where the individual is unable to adjust to new circumstances or situation properly.  They may develop coping mechanisms such as alcohol, gambling and drugs which are unhealthy. Maladjustment often leads to mood disorders, (Barlow and Durand 2008, 452)

10. Enabling Behavior
Families and close friends of an addict are often accused of engaging in behaviors that allow the individual to continue without treatment and in addiction. Enablers often believe that they are being helpful when in fact they are destroying opportunities for the addict to acknowledge negative behavior.
From the eGetgoing information (2010), some of the enabling behaviors include making excuses for the addict. Family members may call bosses and previous engagements of the addict to report that they are unwell when in fact they are just hangover or suffering from withdrawal.

Whenever family members take up a persons responsibility either housing them or paying their bills, they give them more freedom to engage in whatever addiction. While paying their bills may seem like a good reason, it gives them a reason to return to their addiction.

Addicts tend to misbehave and cause messes when they are on a high. Sometimes friends take up the responsibility of cleaning up their messes while at the same time making excuses for them. This covers the extent of the addiction from the addict himself.

Family members often find it difficult or embarrassing to discuss chemical dependency with addicts. Refusing to accept that they have a problem only worsens the situation. Where family members find it hard to intervene, it is advisable to consult a professional to help, (eGetgoing, 2010).

The more friends and family rescue an addict, the deeper the addiction becomes. It is advisable that friends and families ignore enabling behaviors forcing the addict to face up to their problems.

11. Cognitive Impairment Disorders
Cognitive impairment occurs in a shift in how the patient thinks and perceives things. It normally deals with the functions of the brain which are affected by pathogens confusing and in extreme cases rendering the brain useless. Sometimes the disorders can arise from birth through birth defects, chemical and substance abuse of the mother or developmental hindrances. (American psychiatric association 1996, 886).

Some of the causes of cognitive impairment include birth defects, trauma injuries to the head and diseases such as Alzheimers. Individuals who have also engaged in drug and substance abuse are more likely to suffer from cognitive disorders. Some medicines also put patients at risk of cognitive disorders.
 
A cognitive disorder often interferes with normal body and brain functions. Changes may not be major sometimes including short term memory loss and mood disorders. However they can also cause the inability to think independently and properly. Cognitive disorders make simple tasks such as reading, basic motor functions and personal care to seem extremely difficult or impossible to perform.
Patients cognitive function can be improved through specialized therapy such as speech and motor therapy. However patients often require being hospitalized either in group homes where they can remain independent while still receiving specialized care. On the other hand severe cases of cognitive impairments often necessitate hospitalization in highly secure and supervised facilities (American psychiatric association, 1996 888).

Although some symptoms of the cognitive disorders can be inhibited by drugs and the individual become normal, most of the symptoms are very difficult to treat and are degenerative in nature. Cognitive disorders can cause absolute memory and motor function loss reducing a mature productive individual into a childlike mess. Often the people closest to the patient suffer most.

Abstract

When it was first discussed, homosexuality was approached as a disease. Doctors, experts and even the homosexuals themselves worked indefinitely to find the cause of homosexuality and stem it from society by discovering a cure. Society at the time held very conservative views on the matter, refusing to discuss it openly. In some other cultures homosexuality was considered taboo to be punished by law. Homosexuals were often banned from participating in social activities and were considered outcasts.

The Changing Views of Homosexuality
Aristotle a famous philosopher was quoted as saying that societies that denied homosexuality were backward and underdeveloped. At the time the practice of homosexuality was widespread in Greece and Rome. During the 16th and 17th century, kings and noble men acquired young boys to serve as their slaves and homosexual partners. Homosexuality was practiced as a family planning method and was widely accepted.

Spencer (1995, 13) In the late 17th century the European countries came under the ruler ship of the church which frowned upon such practices. The pope declared homosexuality not only ungodly and inhumane. He ordered the burning and stoning of homosexuals on a stake.  Rupp (2002, 74) The European countries took to this new belief, they embarked on stumping out sin and establishing chastity and holiness. At the time, the church had a stronghold in each of the countries. Using sermons of destruction and instilling the fear of eternal damnation, the church succeeded in declaring what has previously been considered a matter of personal choice a matter of law.

In the early 18th century, the church had succeeded in banning homosexuals and turning it into an illegal act. Anyone caught in the act of homosexuality was immediately sentenced to a public death without a trial. All the countries and societies ruled upon by the European countries held this strong belief. There were public executions of gays that involved burning in fire and sulphur, a biblical imitation of the fires of hell.

In the late 19th and early 20th century, the issue of homosexuality arose again. This time America was considered the bed rose of the homosexuals. Downturn pubs were formed specializing in entertaining homosexuals only. However the wide held view was still that the acts were immoral and un-human. Mondimore (1996, 35) The homosexuals had to meet in secret and matters concerning homosexuality were not openly discussed. At this time the gay bashing incidents arose and became common.

Homosexuals were openly assaulted and sometimes even killed for their nature. Police harassment of gay members of the society was common. Although some people were of the view that if left alone the homosexuality trend would disappear, others held the view that homosexuality could only be undone forcefully.

In the 1970s therefore it was common to hear of incidents involving gay men especially, where they were maimed or killed. Being gay at this time was life threatening and endangering. Homosexuals often led double lives some even going as far as to marry and have children in an effort to hide their true identity. Families and communities often took harsh stands, disowning gay members from their midst. At this time being gay meant leading a completely secret life from that people believed one should lead (Mondimore 1996, 40).

The gay bashing and assault incidents led to the activism of the 90s and the attitude changes in the 20th and 21st centuries. Although some people are still against homosexuality, some states have gone as far as to legalize gay marriages. Gay activism has become so common. Harassment and assault have been declared illegal. The rights of homosexuals have become a commonly discussed issue. Homosexuals can now hold their relationships in open. Whereas religious and other institutions may be against homosexuals, the civil rights of gays and lesbians have become widely accepted. The cases of assault and gay bashing have become more and more isolated (Spencer 1996, 125).

People are more and more beginning to accept homosexuality as natural. Homosexuals are now being viewed as equal human beings with rights. The general view is that though homosexuality may not be considered as moral, it is a persons choice which is protected in the legal statutes. Homosexuals are now holding public office and declaring their preferences openly without fear. Discrimination on gay grounds has been declared illegal. All people must be treated equally despite their sexual orientation. The main opposers of homosexuality still remain to be religious institutions, (Rupp 2002 134).

Conclusion
The views on homosexuality have evolved greatly over time. From complete denial of homosexuals, the 21st generation is fast coming to accept homosexuality as a personal choice. The stress on the protection of the right to make personal choices is fast changing the views on homosexuality. Homosexuality is now considered as any other relationship discussed and practiced openly. Homosexuals no longer have to meet in secret or lead double lives.

Families and communities are beginning to view individuals past their sexual orientation and focusing more on their productivity and skills. Gay celebrities and public leaders have played a big role in educating people towards more acceptances of gays and the homosexual culture. The loss of controlling power by the church has led to decreased acceptance of the harsh stands against the homosexual culture. Today people are more concerned with developmental and economic matters, and less concerned with a persons sexual orientation. Many people are of the belief that whoever a person chooses to love and relate with is a personal choice and does not affect them in any way.