Psychology

Rational emotive behavior therapy is an active directive and comprehensive philosophical based psychotherapy which is aimed at resolving and directing both emotional and behavioral problems that causes an individual to be disturbed (Wilde, 1995). This therapy enables individual with emotional and behavioral problems to live a happier and a fulfilling live. The rational emotive behavior therapy was developed by an American psychotherapist and psychologist by the name Albert Ellis who was inspired by the teachings of the modern philosophers of Asia, Greek and Rome (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). REBT is one of the first forms of cognitive behavioral therapy which is aimed at solving problems that concerns the dysfunctions of emotions, behavioral problems and cognitions through a systematic procedure. REBT is both a psychotherapeutic system of theory and practices and the school of thought (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996).
Historical perspective
REBT was originally called the rational therapy and was established in the year 1955 by Albert Ellis (Rob, 2001). It was later revised to rational emotive therapy in the year 1959 then to rational emotive behavior therapy in 1992. As a result of the reputation of Albert on sexual and marital relationship problems, he discovered that he could help other individual with emotional and behavioral problems (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). It is a psychotherapeutic system of theory and Practices and a school of thought which was originally called rational therapy, it changed to rational emotive therapy and later to rational emotive behavior. REBT was one of the first of the cognitive behavior therapies that were predicated in articles Ellis first published in 1956. REBT is one of cognitive behavioral therapies developed separately which have similarities with cognitive therapy developed by psychiatrist Aaron Beck (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). REBT has changed and developed over the past century
Theories of REBT
Rational emotive behavior is not only a set of technical process but it also includes a comprehensive theory of the human behavior with regards to the changes in the environment (Rob, 2001). The therapy process is also a biopsychosocial process which is the understanding of biological, psychological and social changes of an individual in the response to certain stimuli. In the fundamental premises of REBT, humans emotion and behavioral theories is that almost all human emotion and behaviors are the result of what people think, assume or believe and also about situation they face. REBT (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). However, he argued that a person biology affects their feelings and behaviors in addition their are limitation to how far a human being can change according to theory of change human does not get upset by unfortunate adversities, but also in constructing their views of reality in their own language, in different beliefs meanings and philosophies about the world, themselves and others. They usually learn and begin to apply this need by learning the A-B-C-model of psychological disturbance and change, where by A, represent activating event that contributes to disturbed and dysfunctional emotional and behavioral C represents emotion and behaviors that follow from those evaluative beliefs consequences, B represent behaviors that follow from this inference or believe. A, adversity can be either both an external or internal event or satiation, and it sometimes refer to an event (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996)
in the past, presents, beliefs are most important in the A-B-C model and are philosophical meanings and assumptions about events, personal desires, and preferences (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). Bs, beliefs consist of highly evaluative and of interrelated and integrated cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects and dimensions. But according to REBT, it state that if a persons evaluative B, belief about the A, activating event is rigid, absolutistic and dysfunctional, the C, consequence emotional and behavioral is likely to be self-defeating and destructive, alternatively, if a persons evaluative B, belief is flexible and constructive, the C, the emotional and behavioral consequence is likely to be self-helping and constructive (Rob, 2001). By understanding the role of their mediating, evaluative and philosophically based illogical, unrealistic and self-defeating meanings, interpretations and assumptions in upset, through REBT people often can learn to identify them, begin to D, which mean dispute, refute, challenge and question them and distinguish them from healthy constructs, and subscribe to more constructive and self-helping constructs (Rob, 2001). Its framework assumes that humans have both social-helping and constructive and also social defeating and un-helpful habit and leanings (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). It also claims that people to a large extend cause emotional difficulties such as self-blame, self-pity, clinical anger, hurt, guilt, shame, depression and anxiety, and behaviors and behavior habits like procrastination, over-compulsiveness, avoidance, addiction and withdrawal by the means of their irrational and self-defeating thinking, emotion and behaving.
         REBT is applied as an educational processes where by therapist often actively or defectively teaches the client on how to identify irrational and self-defeating beliefs and philosophies (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). These in nature are very strong, extreme, unrealistic, illogical and absolutist, which in turn actively question and dispute them and replace them with ones which are self helping. By using different cognitive, emotive and behavioral methods and activities, the therapist can help the client, to gain a more rational, self-helping and constructive rational way of thinking, emoting and behaving (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). The main objectives in REBT is to show the client that whenever unpleasant and unfortunate activating events occur in peoples lives, they can have another way of making themselves feel healthily and self-helpingly sorry, disappointed, frustrated, and annoyed, or making themselves feel unhealthily and self-defeating horrified, terrified, panicked, depressed, self-hating, and self-pitying (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). By attaining and ingraining a more rational and self-constructive philosophy of themselves, others and the world, people often are more likely to behave and emote in more life-serving and adaptive ways.
     Insight 1 is where People see and accept the reality that their emotional disturbances at point C and also activating events or adversities at point A that precede C. Although A contributes to C (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). There are strong negative which are much more likely to be followed by disturbed Cs than they are to be followed by weak the main direct cores of extreme and dysfunctional emotional disturbances (Cs) are where peoples irrational beliefs, people strong believe about their undesirable activating events are attributed and accompanied by inferences in their absolutistic certainty (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997).
Insight 2  state that it does not matter how, when, and why people acquire beliefs which are the main cause of their dysfunctional emotional-behavioral consequence (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). They tend to hold irrational belief and continue confusing themselves with these thoughts, not because they held them in the past, but because they still actively hold them in the present, though often in their minds and hearts they still follow the core philosophies they adopted or invented long ago (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996).
Insight 3 this state that no matter how well they have achieved insight 1 and 2, insight alone will by fewer chances make people forget their emotional disturbances They may feel better when one knows, or thinks how they became disturbed because insights can give the impression of being useful and curative (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). But, unless they accept insights 1 and 2, and then also go on to strongly apply insight 3 they will actually get better in reality there is no way one can get better and stay better unless by doing continual work and practice in looking and finding, ones core irrational beliefs actively, energetically, and scientifically disputing them replacing ones absolutist musts with flexible preferences changing ones unhealthy feelings to healthy, self-helping emotions and firmly acting against ones dysfunctional fears and compulsions. one can significantly remove this behavior by a combing cognitive, emotive, and behavioral, as well as a quite persistent and forceful attack on ones serious emotional problems (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). REBT assumes that human thinking, emotion, and action are not really separate or disparate processes, but they all significantly overlap and are rarely experienced in a pure state emotions and behaviors significantly influence and affect thinking, just as thinking influences emotions and behaviors. Evaluating is a fundamental characteristic of human organisms and seems to work in a kind of closed circuit with a feedback mechanism
Theory of causation
This theory seeks to explain the combination of biological, psychological and social factors that are involved in the way individuals feel and behave (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). It explains that most of the human emotions and behaviors is as a result of what the individuals think, assume or belief about themselves, other people and the world in general. The theory claims that what causes the changes in emotions and behavior are what people believe about the situations they face that will determine how they feel and behave and not the direct situation itself (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). It also argues that the biology of an individual will determine their feelings and behavior. The Ellis ABC model illustrates the roles of cognitions. A is used to represent an event or experienced and the individuals interpretation, B represents the belief that follows the interpretation and C represents the emotions and behaviors that accompany the evaluation of the beliefs. An example is An individual meets a friend but the friend did not notice him or her, then he believes that the friend has deliberately assumed him and concludes that he or she is unacceptable to friends (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997).
Theory of change
This theory seeks to explain the changes an individual goes through as a result of the perceptions and believes that follows an event or experience (Olevitch, 1995). For instance, one might believe that he or she is not wanted in a given environment he therefore goes and changes his or her daily routine including eating habits, exercising and even the entire lifestyle in order to feel comfortable. An individual might also avoid contact with somebody he thinks he dislikes
Applications of REBT
The Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy has always been used to help individuals with a wide range of clinical and non clinical problems using a diverse range of modalities. People with mental disorders that affect their response to the environment have been successfully helped as a result of this therapy process    (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). The clinical applications of this therapy involves enabling people suffering from depression to behave normally and happier. Moreover, people with anxiety disorders which include obsessive compulsive disorders, agoraphobia, phobias and post traumatic disorders as a result of sexual abuse, accidence or adjustment to chronic health problems, physical disability and mental disorders have been treated as a result of the systematic process of this therapy. It is also important to note that people with behavior problems like violence, sexual behavioral problems can be assisted by the use of this therapy (Froggat, 2005).
    Non clinical applications include helping individual to cope with the changes in the environment and personal growth (Olevitch, 1995). The therapy contains certain detailed and systematic principles like enlightened self interest, self acceptance and risk taking. This process enables individuals to develop and act on a more efficient and functional philosophy of life. It also enables individuals in workplace to be more pro active and effective (Dryden, 2001). The rational effectiveness training has been widely used in workplace organizations.
The process of therapy 
When dealing with individual with emotional and behavioral problems, it is imperative for a therapist to have the standardized systematic process in order to handle the situation effectively and efficiently (Wilde, 1995). The first in process of therapy is by engaging client to build a relationship and this can be achieved by using the core condition of empathy, warmth and respect.  In most instances, an individual with this problem may engage in secondary disturbance like self downing over having problem about coming to the therapist (Froggat, 2005). It is also possibly the best way for engaging the client for REBT to demonstrate that change is possible and that REBT is able to assist them achieve where goals.  The second step of the therapy is by accessing person with this disorder and the situations that varies from person to person (Misc. 2004). These can achieve by client viewing what is wrong for them especially by checking for any secondary disturbance and does the client feels about this problem then carry out general assessment by determining the presence of any clinical disorders, obtain a personal and social history accesses the severity of the problem, note any relevant personality factor, and check for any non psychological causative factors, physical condition, medication, substance abuse, and finally the environmental factors (Wilde, 1995). The third step is preparing the client for therapy by clarifying treatment goals and by ensuring that these are or to know what the problem is that is specific and agreed by both the client and therapist (Froggat, 2005). Then assess the clients motivation to change, also you introduced client to discussion about the basis of REBT including the biopsychosocial model of causation and also the approaches to be used and implications of treatment then develop a contract (Dryden,  Neenan, 2005). Fourthly by implementing the treatment program and this occur in implementation phased by using activities such as analyzing specific episodes where target problem occur ascertaining belief involved, changing them and developing home work (Ellis, et al 1975).  
 It is also imperative to develop behavioral assignments in order to modify and improve way of behavior of an individual (Ellis, et al 1975). Other supplementary strategies like relaxation training are also important when dealing with an individual with emotional and behavioral problems. The fifth one is evaluating the progress of the client towards the end of intervention to check whether there are improvement as a result of the significant changes in the client thinking and their external circumstances. Sixth one is by preparing the client for termination to setbacks because many people after a period of wellness think that they are cured for life (Froggat, 2005). Consequently, when they slip back and discover the past problems are still present to some extend they are likely to give up working on themselves (Ellis, et al 1975). Warn this scenario occurs, it is likely for many individuals with emotional and behavioral problems and ensure that they know what to do when symptoms comes back. It is also important to discuss their views on asking for help if needed if needed in future and deal with any irrational beliefs about coming back like l should be cured for ever (Wilde, 1995).   
  
Research foundation section
REBT and CBT in general have a substantial and strong research base that verify and support the efficiency psychotherapeutic and theoretical underpinnings (Ellis, et al 1975). Scientific empirical studies have proven that REBT is an effective and efficient treatment for different kinds of psychopathology, conditions and problems, where by REBT and CBT are supported effectively by vast amount of outcome- and experimental studies. Randomized clinical trials about REBT have offered a positive view on the efficacy of REBT (Miller, 2002). Theory investigation in the field of psychotherapy and a large amount of clinical experience and other body of modern psychological research have allowed and come up with many of REBTs theoretical assumptions on personality and psychotherapy where some critiques have been given on some of the clinical research done on REBT from within and by others. For instance Albert Ellis emphasized on the difficulty and complexity of measuring effectiveness of psychotherapeutic (Dryden,  Neenan, 2005). This is because many studies only tend to measure whether clients feel better after therapy instead of getting and staying better. Ellis also argued with other clinician about misunderstanding misconstrued in research and in general about the REBT theory (Ellis, 2001). Some have criticized REBT for being harsh, formulaic and failing to address deep underlying problems. REBT theorist who has pointed out that studying of REBT carefully shows that it is philosophically deep, humanistic and individualized collaboratively by working on the basis of the clients point of reference (Ellis, 2001). They further pointed out that emotive experiential, interrelated and methodology of cognitive and behavioral intervention utilizes REBT integration. While others question REBTs view about rationality, radical constructivists who have claimed that reason and logic are subjective properties and those who believe that reason can be objectively determined (Miller, 2002). REBT theorists about objections to clients irrational choices and conclusions as a working hypothesis and through collaborative efforts that demonstrate the irrationality on practical, functional and social consensual grounds was refuted because of rise of claims maintaining REBT (Dryden,  Neenan, 2005).

The word stress is widely used all over the world. It is used to refer to the situations in which they are in. In most people, when one speaks of stress, what that clicks in their minds is one undergoing or having some discomfort from their routine. Until now, many people do not understand and know exactly what that causes or leads to one having stressed. Students too have a lot of questions concerning to the subject and for one to unveil the truth about stress facts one then has to do some studies and get involved in all ways possible. According  to researchers and many scholars, stress is considered as any physical, chemical, or emotional factor that has effect or causes bodily or mental unrest and that may be largely be classified as a factor in disease causation.
    Physical and chemical factors that cause stress include illnesses, trauma, toxins, infections, and any injury of the sort. The word psychological stress is usually widely used by common people to refer to the mind state of distress but when the same term is used by psychologist, hey use it to denote any force that impairs the stability and balance of bodily functions.
    After stress is referred to as causing body imbalance I thought of it as something bad and I think am sharing this sentiment with quite a number of people. This prompted me to come up with a way that I could monitor my self and people around me for a period of three weeks so has to know what does stress entail, its effects and the most effective ways of managing it.
    My study revealed that stress comes in all forms and it affects to persons of all ages. I come to learn that in a challenging situation, the brain prepares the body ready for defensive action and in this process there are stress hormones, While undertaking my study I came to discover that stress cut a cross the board, from men, women, children and even the unborn (features). Finally I learnt that learning to understand and manage stress is very important in curbing the counter effects of stress.
    During the period of study I learnt and put into use some techniques which were quite helpful. I come across many techniques and got to know exactly what each entailed. After be informed on the various techniques I decide to base my study on two of them 1) the physical exercises, 2) Relaxation and meditation.
    Relaxation and Meditation strategy of stress management technique, is a structured technique which do help in control of stress and improvement ones physical and mental well being. I learnt this technique with quite a lot of ease. I particularly narrowed down to Meditation technique which is one of the mot popular to achieve physical and mental relaxation. This all process can be learnt a lone. It enables one to achieve the meditative state where a lot of deep centering and focusing upon the core of ones being there is quieting of mind, emotions, and body. The structured part of it involved a daily routine
    Physical exercise promotes overall fitness, and this has adverse effects on emotional stress and tension as well. I particularly went for these two types of techniques because of the many reasons. I practiced various breathing skills, that is when I used to feel anxious or stressed out I would take a deep breath, hold in four to five seconds, then slowly blow it out. Just that easily I so it working to me and with friends I had take to be my sample. This physical stress management worked quite well me and it was simple apart from the tedious ones which are quite enjoyable with just having the right attitude. Exercise distracts us from the courses of stress and warms and relaxes cold, tight muscles and tissues which contribute to stress feelings.
    Relaxation techniques, such as yoga, deep breathing, meditation and many more help in relaxation response. Relaxation response also increases energy and focus, combats illness, and heightens problem solving abilities. Initially before this study I used a lot of cash treating illnesses that were as a result of stress. So whenever I could feel distressed, I used to immediately see the doctor. Before the self study about stress, my body was susceptible to infections.
    I used to spend time with my loved ones without really knowing that I was doing my self a lot of good. Having quality time with those we love makes us experience fewer stress-related symptoms and better stress managers. In future I would like to pursue a course in stress management and get to learn the many relaxation programs being offered. Also I would like to perfect my mediation techniques, and methods for emotional and physical relaxation which are learned skills and processes. Mediation can be very much acquired though a quick course with a competent instructor.
    The above two strategies are very much effect in having my body remains in balance. Practically I have incorporated these two techniques in dealing with my fellow students and the teaching staff. Nowadays I know on how to program myself and beat the various set deadlines. I have learnt to be a good time keeper. In particular have learnt to prioritize tasks and avoid over-commitment. Organizational skills are in check and this has helped in avoiding the misplacement of items.

This is a term used to refer to psychological consequences of exposure to or confrontation with quite stressful encounters (Militaryspot.com. 2009). This disorder can occur after life threatening encounters like military combat, natural disasters, incidents of terrorism, dangerous accidents or even violent personal assault like rape. People who survive trauma usually return to normal life after sometimes, though some people develop stress reactions which do not disappear on their own and sometimes may worsen with time.  Such individuals develop post traumatic stress disorder (Swan, 2009). People with this disorder usually experience nightmares, flashbacks, have insomnia, hyper arousal avoid reminders and feel emotionally detached. These signs are detrimental to the victims daily life. The disorder was initially called shell shock, combat fatigue, and even post Vietnam syndrome. It was officially recognized in 1980 that it is a mental disorder (Elias, 2008).
Post traumatic stress disorder has physical and psychological signs which include depression, drug abuse, memory loss, and cognition. Other physical and mental health problems are also experienced. The disorder can also be linked to difficulties in social or even family life like work insecurity, marital issues, family disagreement, and financial problems. Military personnel are likely to suffer from post traumatic stress disorder since the nature of their job exposes them to such threatening conditions like combat, missions which are horrible and have life threatening experiences, being shot at, or even seeing someone dying (U.S. Army War College Library, 2008). Other factors in combat situation can increase the level of stress to an already stressed military officer and this is likely to culminate into PTSD and other related mental ill health (Grinage, 2003). The aggravating factors include what you do in the war, politics surrounding the war, where the war is and the type of enemy you are facing (Overman, 2008).
PTSD in the military is also associated with sexual trauma. This is any sexual harassment or even sexual assault while in the military. It can affect both men and women and most likely at the time of training, peacekeeping, or even at war (U.S. Army War College Library, 2008). Though sexual assault is common in women soldiers, it is reported that more than a half of the veterans with military sexual harassment are men (Science News, 2008).
Background of the disorder in the military
    The psychological impacts of trauma in the military have been described as a long as the military has existed. It was referred to as Da Costa syndrome or even soldier heart which was associated with signs like cardiac signs, hyper reaction and provocation. These symptoms were described in the war veterans of the American civil war. During the World War 1, it was suggested that the syndrome was due to brain damage caused by exploding shells. Later at the time of World War 2, new terms like combat necrosis and operational fatigue were used to describe the symptoms of PTSD. The current knowledge on PTSD was influenced by Vietnam War. The method of diagnosing PTDS was established in 1980, though method of diagnosis proposed was later upgraded (Grinage, 2003).
Military doctors have been wondering why some war fighters exposed to bombing and bloodsheds develop stress while some exposed to the same conditions are never affected. Studies which were conducted on war veterans and civilians provided some insight into this problem. Individuals who experienced childhood abuse have history of mental illness and degrees of trauma have been observed to have increased chances of developing (Swan, 2009). Protection from this disorder can be found by having friends whom you can share with the experience one went through and also developing some coping strategy (Militaryspot.com. 2009).
Technology is currently being employed in detecting early signs of the disorder. Military officers are supposed to undergo a series of physical and mental test before being sent to the field. The tests done also include genetic testing, brain imaging and stress examinations. These tests are carried again in the war fields and also after return from the war zones. There is dire need to detect the early signs of the disorder (Science News, 2008).
PTSD is an incapacitating tension disorder that may cause a lot of suffering and increased use of health resources though the condition most of the time goes unnoticed. The emotional and physical signs occur in three categories which include re- experiencing the pain, serious avoidance of normal activities, and increased signs of hyper reaction (Overman, 2008). Diagnosis of the disorder can only be made after the signs have been observed for more than one month and the effects on the normal activities are noticeable. Majority of the patients with PTSD have experienced some psychological disorder (Elias, 2008). The most common psychological disorder which such people experience includes depression, substance abuse and other nervous disorders. Management of the condition depends on the multifaceted strategy which must constitute supportive patient education, cognitive behavior treatment, and psychopharmacology. Pharmacological therapy involves discriminatory serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Grinage, 2003).
PTSD has not been exhaustively studied in basic health care, though the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 increased knowledge of the disorder. Now many cases of  can be handled in family practice patients since patients are more than willing to share the information with their doctors and also are aware of the diagnosis (Tull, 2009). Quick diagnosis and proper treatment of these patients can be of great benefit to the patients themselves and the family.
 Epidemiology
It is estimated that the overall prevalence rate of PTSD in the US is a bout 9 and the condition is more common in women as compared to men. Majority of the people show signs which do not qualify to be diagnosed and these signs are commonly observed in groups who are highly predisposed to the condition (Militaryspot.com. 2009). The contributing factors to the disease are directly associated to the traumatic situations. The probability of developing varies with the factors like severity of the trauma experienced, for how long it was experienced, and the nearness of the trauma experienced (Swan, 2009). It is also reported that there is a likelihood of 30 of people who have been exposed to traumatic conditions developing signs of PTSD, though how someone responds to trauma is dependent on severity and personal encounter linked with the trauma.  PTSD in women are always associated with rape and sexual assault while in men it is linked to seeing someone being injured seriously or killing (Elias, 2008).
People who had fallen victims previously are very prone to victimization in future. An individual who has a history of childhood abuse stands a greater chance of developing PTSD in adulthood. There exist a link between mental problems and victimization by assault therefore patients diagnosed with mental ill health have high probability of suffering from PTSD (Science News, 2008). Substance abusers are more likely to be exposed to traumatic situations hence they stand higher chances of developing PTSD. An individual who suffered any behavioral problem before attaining the age of 15 like in patients with antisocial personality problem have high chances of developing PTSD. PTSD is one of the least researched on nervous problem there is some proof that genetic factors may increase the chances of developing PTSD if such a person is exposed to adequate traumatic event.
 Causes
The real cause of PTSD is not known well, most researchers suggest that a subjective inclination is required for the signs to develop after a traumatic encounter. The people who are likely to develop PTSD usually have prior misery or anxiety problem or may even originate from a family with anxiety and neuroticism (Militaryspot.com, 2009). Taking it from the biological point of view, failure of the body to adjust to its original state before the trauma occurred differentiates PTSD from a simple fear. When one is scared, the immediate sympathetic discharge prepares one for either fight or flight reaction (Overman, 2008).
PTSD does not have specific age at which it can develop. The time period at which the signs will be observed is varied and it is affected by nearness, and the degree of the trauma as well as existent of other psychiatric problems (Elias, 2008). The victims personal understanding of the trauma affects the signs observed. For victims who have gone for treatment, the signs may last for about 36 months while those who have not gone for treatment may last for about 64 months. 75 of patients who have PTSD do not heal fully. The conditions prognosis is dependent on how fast one seeks medical attention, early and continuous social support, preventing re-traumatization, and absence of other psychological disorders or drug abuse (Grinage, 2003).

Diagnosis
   
There should be a prior traumatic experience though this is not enough in making diagnosis (Tull, 2009).  The method of diagnosis should specify the factors related to the patients view of the trauma together with the time the effects of associated signs, memory of the traumatic incident and disruption of the usual activities and signs of increased irritability (Swan, 2009). Before diagnosis of PTSD can be made, the signs should have lasted for more than one month and must have resulted in some degree of disruption in the normal activities of the patient. Victims of a traumatic incident who have showed signs of anxiety which lasted for less than a month are said to suffer from a condition known as acute stress disorder. Acute stress disorder requires at least 3 dissociative signs plus constant signs associated with PTSD (Swan, 2009). 
    At times diagnosis of PTSD may prove a bit complicated in the events where the victim cannot relate the connection between the signs and the traumatic incident experienced (U.S. Army War College Library, 2008). Other conditions which may make diagnosis a bit difficult include unwillingness of the patient to reveal the incident, or even the signs observed may be blocked by depression, substance abuse and other factors. History taking should be direct, empathic, and the physician should not attempt to judge the patient. Connecting patients current signs with the trauma which occurred when the victim was still young is not easy (Elias, 2008).
Treatment
    Therapy for patients suffering from PTSD is based on multifaceted strategy. The treatments given include patient education, social support, and nervous management by counseling and psychopharmacology (Science News, 2008). It is very necessary to start with patient education and social support so as to lessen the effect of the traumatic incident. Local and national support groups may be necessary to destigmatize the mental ill health diagnosis and confirm that signs of PTSD entail several reactions to stress and need therapy. Family and friends support encourages appreciation and reception that may eliminate the guilt felt by the victim. The main treatment of PTSD is psychopharmacologic and psychotherapeutic (Overman, 2008).
    Studies have showed that cognitive behavior therapy is successful in eliminating the signs seen in PTSD (Militaryspot.com, 2009). There are various types of cognitive behavior therapy which include cognition therapy, exposure therapy and stress immunization training. The therapies are mainly concerned with ways for patients to approach fear and develop worry management apparatus. The various types of cognitive treatments are uniformly effective when used alone or in combination. Other treatments like group therapy, movement desensitization, and reprocessing action may show some role in the management of PTSD. Though their effectiveness has not been established, cognitive behavior therapy remains the basic method of treating PTSD (Grinage, 2003).
    It is also estimated that about 14 of patients suffering from PTSD do not complete their treatment in psychotherapy. Highest drop out is recorded in exposure therapy and this shows that most of the patients have problems with re-experiencing the trauma (Science News, 2008).  The physician attending to the victim should provide a concrete therapeutic approach with good listening skills and empathic support. If the elimination of the signs of PTSD fails with the initial support and medication, then the victim can be referred to a therapist (Tull, 2009). Since the disorder may result in suffering for the patient as well as the family members, then family and other group treatments may be recommended as a supportive therapy to individual management of the patient suffering from PTSD (Elias, 2008).
    As at now, paroxetine and sertraline are the only drugs that have been recommended by the US food and drug administration for the management of PTSD. These drugs have been found to be successful in the acute management of signs of PTSD. Sertraline has been found to be successful in preventing the return of signs of PTSD. Use of neuroleptics in the management of PTSD is left for research. Patients who show signs of the disorder that are more serious and disturbing are managed using neuroleptic medications. It is noted that these drugs reduce flashbacks and nightmares especially risperidone. Clozapine was also reported to be effective in the management of patients with related psychosis. The use of tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors was found to be moderately effective as compared to placebo. The problem with these medications is serious side effects and this makes them to be considered as the third option when choosing medication for PTSD (Elias, 2008).
Prevention
    Catastrophes like Indian Ocean tsunami may have caused PTSD in the victims and the rescue workers. Currently rescue workers from organizations like Red Cross and Salvation Army have included counseling for the victims of a major catastrophe so as to prevent the development of post traumatic stress disorder (Overman, 2008). In the United States, there is a provision for compensation of victims of PTSD. Most of the war veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan are returning home with serious physical, emotional and relational disturbances and because of this, the United States Marine Corps has established a program that would enable cope with these problems. Also Walter Reed Army Institute of Research established the Battlemind program with the aim of helping service members to avoid or eliminate PTSD and associated disorders (Militaryspot.com, 2009). In the United Kingdom, there has been an outcry that National Health Service is directing veterans on service charities such as combat stress. Veteran affairs Canada provides a new program to the veterans like psychoanalysis, financial payback, deployment, health advantage program, disability awards and family support (Elias, 2008).
    Prevention of PTSD is also possible through early admission to cognitive behavioral treatment in addition to some medication like propranolol though their efficacy is modest. Critical incident stress management has been employed with the aim of reducing the impact of potential traumatic incident and to try to avoid occurrence of PTSD. Studies carried to determine the effectiveness of critical incident stress management proved that it has no tangible efficacy while some indicated that it is aggravating the situation (Grinage, 2003).

    Although the overall incidences of  in the military is relatively low, a substantial increase in the number post traumatic stress disorder if the number of combat troops in war torn regions such as Afghanistan is increased.  Therefore, determining the number of military personnel with symptoms of this disorder may result in reduced burden in the future. Additionally, further research efforts should be aimed at gaining a clear understanding of the vulnerability to PTSD signs among military personnel.

Nightmares are frightening dreams that each and every individual has experienced at least once in life. It can be defined as a dream occurring during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep that arouses feelings of intense, inescapable fear, terror, distress, or extreme anxiety that usually awakens the sleeper (Harris, 2004). It is believed that nightmares are the result of a central nervous system response. Nightmares are dreams that occur during rapid eye movement sleep which result in feelings of fear, anxiety and extreme terror. Nightmares happen in the latter part of the night and make the sleeper awake. The sleeper will be able to recall the matter in the dream. Most nightmares may be a normal reaction to stress, and some clinicians believe they aid people in working through traumatic events (Harris, 2004). Frequent nightmares can be considered as a disorder. This disorder can negatively influence the social, personal, occupational and other crucial spheres of the life of the individual. It is often termed as repeated nightmares or nightmare disorder. Earlier it was termed as dream anxiety disorder. Repeated nightmares are otherwise explained as a series of nightmares that have a recurring theme. Nightmares are not considered normal unless they disturb sleep and other developments like psychosocial development. Nightmares are frequent in childhood and less common in adulthood. Nightmares start from the age of 10. Nightmares are found to be more common in girls than boys. Adult nightmares are mostly related to outside stressors or it can exist along with other psychological disorders. In both children and adults, night terrors, fears and nightmares are initiated by painful events, traumatic events and unresolved psychological conflicts. Emotional traumas (that are often overlooked by parents) can disturb the sleep of children. Emotional traumas and fears can make them vulnerable to nightmares. For example, loss of a favorite toy or watching a fight between parents can make children susceptible to nightmares. Even though nightmares, night terrors and fears need not be considered seriously, frequent occurrence of nightmares must not be ignored. 

Nevertheless, about 50 percent of adults experience occasional nightmares, women more often than men, and do not require any treatment (Harris, 2004). Stress or anxiety is considered as the most common cause of nightmares. In majority of the cases, a sudden event (painful, fearful or stressful) precedes the commencement of nightmares. Sleeping immediately after eating would increase brain activity and body metabolism. This may result in nightmares. In adults, prescription drugs like reserpine, beta blockers, levedopa, and antidepressants can makes nightmares. Sudden withdrawal from addictive substances can also trigger nightmares. Heavy drinking is yet another practice that can cause nightmares. Other drugs suspected of causing nightmares include heart drugs, antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, antihistamines, appetite suppressers such as fenfluramine, antidepressants, Parkinsons drugs such as levodopa, and   ulcer drugs (cimetidine) (Harris, 2004). Other major causes of nightmares include
Death of a relative or loved one (bereavement)
Extreme fear for something
Illness accompanied by a fever
Side effects of a drug
Breathing disorders during sleep (sleep apnea)
Sudden alcohol withdrawal
Sleep disorders (sleep terror disorder, narcolepsy)
Individual who suffer from nightmares should share their problems with their friends and relatives. It is also recommended that the individual follow a regular and strict fitness routine. Proper aerobic exercises would be of great help. Proper physical exercise would help the individual have a deep sleep. This would lessen the chance of nightmares. The individual can also perform relaxation therapy to lessen muscle tension and thereby reduce anxiety.  Individuals who experience nightmares frequently are advised to seek help. People who suffer from nightmares are also asked by physicians to avoid continuous use of tranquilizers. They are also advised to avoid caffeine and other similar stimulants. If a person gets nightmare shortly after starting a new medication, he is advised to contact his health-care provider. He will be asked to stop using that medication and consider a better alternative. For nightmares caused by the effects of drug usage or persistent alcohol use, the individual is advised to seek counsel and treatment for discontinuing usage. The individual with nightmare is advised to seek the help of a health-care provider if nightmares are so frequent and prolonging. The individuals medical history and other background will be examined and physical examination would be performed to trace the real cause of the nightmares. Physical examination of the individual would include neurological, physical, and psychological examination. If treatment options addressing stress and anxiety, side effects of medication and substance use, do not resolve the problem, your health-care provider may send you to a sleep specialist who will perform a sleep study (polysomnography) (Harris, 2004). Patients will be given proper medication to induce good sleep, thereby preventing nightmares. The health-care provider will perform a detailed examination followed by a diagnosis that would relate the nightmares to the individuals personal medical record.
Medical history questions associated with nightmares include
Do you see nightmares frequently (repeatedly)
Do you see nightmares in the second half of the night
Do you suddenly, fully awake from sleep following a nightmare
Does nightmare intensify your fear and anxiety
Do you have any memory of frightening dream (are you able to recall the image or plot) 
Did you have any illness or fever recently
Any stressful or emotional situation happened to you recently
You consume alcohol How much How often
Do you use medications or drugs Which ones
Do you use natural supplements (home remedies or alternative medicine)
What all sleep difficulties you face 

Diagnosis of nightmares will be based upon the history of the individual. Certain individuals have major psychological problems that would result in nightmares or bad dreams. It is important to consider psychotherapy to pinpoint major life stressors, past traumatic events and depression that might be causing bad dreams (Harris, 2004). If the individual is taking some medications, he should consult with the prescribing physician to understand whether the pills are causing nightmares.

Chronic nightmares can also be treated using desensitization method. This treatment method makes use of the instruction regarding the rehearsal of the bad dream (night mare) and assuming a different end for it. In one study, patients were instructed to select a recent nightmare and write it down, change the nightmare in any way they wished, write down the changed version and rehearse the changed nightmare in an imagery relaxed state (Harris, 2004). Patients were asked to rehearse the new version of the dream once in a day for few (consecutive) days after each bad dream or until the dream completely vanishes away. It is believed that desensitization or rehearsal method would lessen distress and reduce the frequency of nightmares.
A proper night sleep is supposed to cure nightmare problems. Going to bed on a regular time and getting up on same time every morning is a healthy habit that would boost sleep. Sleep disruptions can result in insomnia and nightmare problems. Exercise is also believed to help the individual have a good sleep. Avoiding caffeine is yet another healthy step. Sources of caffeine include chocolate, coffee, soft drinks, non-herbal tea, diet drugs and few pain killers. Smokers have light sleep and they wake up early in the morning as their body is subjected to nicotine withdrawal. Alcohol robs people of deep sleep and REM sleep, keeping them in the lighter stages (Harris, 2004). Relaxing before bed time would help the individual have a good sleep. For example, a warm bath would relax the body and reduce stress symptoms that cause nightmares. Engaging in interesting activities during bedtime is also helpful. Waking up early in the morning and exposing body to sunlight would be a good step for having proper sleep. Doctors recommend exposure to morning sunlight for individuals who suffer from sleep disorders. People who suffer from nightmare are advised not to lie awake in bed. If not getting sleep immediately, it is best to watch TV, enjoy music or do something which is interesting to the individual. Maintaining comfortable temperature in the room is supposed to help people have good sleep that would eliminate the possibility of nightmares. Extreme heat or cold can trigger sleep problems. Scientists have been successful in locating the real reasons of nightmares and they have come up with measures that can control nightmares. In one experiment, subjects were trained to play the computer game, Tetris, involving the manipulation of pieces of a falling wall (Harris, 2004). The scientists monitored the subjects dreams over the first two nights, and more than half of the subjects reported dreaming of falling Tetris pieces (Harris, 2004). These types of initiatives are found to be effective in solving nightmare problems

PART I
The topic of marriage and divorce is one of the most discussed topics in the world over. This is perhaps due to the fact that it is an issue that affects everybody regardless of race and color. It is a topic that is almost inevitable from discussions.
The institution of marriage is highly regarded in all societies of the world. However, although the institution of marriage is of great importance and plays a vital role I the society, it can also be a source of great pain and frustration especially when it is rocked by problems. This discussion looks in great depths at this important institution and what leads to divorce in marriages (Ahrons, C. 2002).
United States has been ranked among the top countries as far as marriages and subsequent divorces are concerned. Failure of marriages to work and thus leading to separation and divorce has always been there since time immemorial. However what is alarming is the number of marriages that are breaking in the world today with the rate of divorce rising each day.
PART II
A
Researchers have attempted to establish the reasons as to why the rate of divorce has gone up at such an alarming rate. Some of the findings include lack of preparedness when entering this particular institution. According to a research carries out recently many young people are entering into marriage before they are well prepared. As a result they lack the seriousness required to handle a marriage and all that comes with it. On the same issue it has been found out that there is a general misconception of what marriage is especially among the young people. Most young people perceive marriage to be only a relationship where a male and female stay under one roof because they are in love. However what is ignored in this kind of perception are the responsibilities that come with this kind of institution. Upon entering this institution they thus feel overwhelmed with handling all the obligations that come with marriage and end up opting for a divorce (Weitzman, L. 2004).
B
It has also been noted that many laws regarding marriage and divorce have since been relaxed (made flexible) unlike was the case back in the years. Before 2009, divorce could be granted on very strict grounds only like infidelity, desertion, cruelty both mental and physical. This was known as the fault-based divorce meaning that a fault must have been seen to exist in a particular marriage in order for divorce to be allowed. However this has since changed as divorce is granted based on shaky grounds. In such circumstances it is only the aggrieved party who was allowed to apply for a divorce. If the aggrieved party opted not to apply for a divorce then no divorce would take place at all. However after 2009 the no-fault divorce was introduced where a party could apply for divorce without necessarily having to prove to the court the party responsible for the broken marriage. This has been cited as the major cause of high rates of divorce as people can simply divorce as they wish (Ahrons, C. 2002).
C
This law has been greatly contended by many people citing that during the fault based divorce law the rate of divorce was not as high. They argue that when it is made easy for people to divorce, they will always opt for dissolution of their marriage rather than make an attempt to repair it. Statistics indicate that after the fault based divorce law was dropped, more cases were of divorce were reported with the cases increasing by about 15.


PART III
A
In her book, The Divorce Revolution, Lenore Weitzman argues that no-fault divorce has since turned marriages into institutions that are expected to last for only a period of time. This is opposed to the greater understanding of marriage, which is supposed to last for a person lifetime (until death). Marriage is no longer a commitment but a simple arrangement that can be rearranged any time without giving any reason for it (Weitzman, 2004).
The no fault divorce seems to be giving the villain more power so that one person in marriage is given more power to divorce which power overrides the power of the other spouse who would wish to remain married. Thus in this particular case the hero is the person who wish to end their marriage as they are bale to do so without having to put much effort.
B
On other hand, those who are support the no fault divorce law argue that this law has nothing to do with the high rates of divorce that has characterized todays society. According to writer Hanna Rosin causation is not proved by correlation. According to her divorce rates have been going up as the years go by and the laws that have been put in place in regard to marriages and divorce have only a very small contribution as far as the rates of divorce are concerned. She therefore argues that taking people back to the fault based divorce days will not help in any way to reduce the number of divorce cases. It is further argues that bringing back the fault based divorce law would only work to hurt the very families that the law is supposed to be protecting,. This is because during divorce proceedings there must be substantial evidence that one part in the marriage is at fault. This brings about a tussle where one party is accusing another of a wrongdoing which the other party is not accepting. This kind of battle makes divorce proceedings very painful, frustrating and brings about negative psychological effects to both spouses and most importantly the children of the marriage (Macy, C. 2009).
C
The author of Good Divorce Ahrons, is of the opinion that no fault based divorce are more civilized in that spouses in marriage do not have to fight so much in an attempt  to prove the wrongdoing of the other party as is the case in fault based divorces. The pain of children watching their parents separate is thus reduced as the tussle is not there.
The manner in which divorce laws should be implemented and effected has taken a center stage for many years now. This is because everybody recognizes the importance of marriage and family in every society. The only difference is that every person has hisher own approach of how best family should be preserved (Weitzman, L. 2004).
PART IV
In my opinion I believe that the fault-based divorce laws are the way to go. This is because although institutions of marriage can be somewhat difficult to manage, the role they play in the society cannot afford t be ignored. For that reason therefore all measures must be taken to ensure that these institutions work regardless of the hardships. Spouses I marriage must not be made to believe that when things seems very tough in their marriage the easier option is to back out. In this society a person who has many problems cannot be advised to forget hisher problems by indulging in drugs. Similarly encouraging spouses to divorce because their marriage is facing hardship is not the solution. Instead couple should be encouraged to work out their marriages and be constantly reminded of the blow their divorce may have on their children (Ahrons, C. 2002).
A marriage should be allowed to undergo divorce upon substantial and concrete evidence that such a marriage is irretrievably broken meaning that no actions can serve to repair such a marriage. Instead of making it easy for couple to break up better measures need to be taken to ensure that marriages are strong. Some of these measures include looking into the root cause of divorce and attempting to curb them (DiCanio, M. 2005).
Conclusion
I am therefore totally opposed to divorces and I believe that all religions would rally behind me in support. All religions believe in the preservation of marriage as it is one of the highly held institutions of society. Let us all work towards making marriages work instead of opting for the easier way, divorce.

Schizophrenia is considered as one of the most serious and challenging mental disorders that affect individuals across ages. In the United States alone, over 2 million adults or about 1 percent of age 18 and above have been afflicted with this mental illness. More often than not, schizophrenia is feared and misunderstood as it interferes with a persons ability to think properly, manage their emotions, distinguish reality from fantasy, create decisions, and relate with other people. Alongside these is the stigma attached to the disorder due to lack of public understanding, which makes it much harder for people suffering from the illness and their families to live a normal life. It is important to note that schizophrenia is not a result of bad parenting or personal weakness (National Alliance on Mental Illness NAMI, 2009). At the moment, there is still no general consensus as to what truly causes this debilitating this disease. However, on-going researches have already found some clues about the origin of the disorder, and because of these consistent efforts, various treatments are already made available to support the needs of people suffering from the disorder. In this regard, this paper seeks to understand the causes of schizophrenia based on the enormous amount of research accrued over time, and the available treatments and interventions to address this debilitating mental disorder.
An Overview on Schizophrenia
    In order to properly synthesize the recent understanding on the causes and approaches on the treatments of schizophrenia, it is therefore an imperative to discuss how the disorder was derived and defined from the past, and how modern understanding of schizophrenia has evolved.
    The word schizophrenia is less than a century old, the illness itself is said to have accompanied mankind throughout history. Written documents that detail schizophrenia identified the disease to have existed since the old Pharaonic Egypt. The disturbances that are commonly found during the onset of schizophrenia like depression dementia and thought distortions have been described in past literatures such as the Book of Hearts. However, long before the introduction of schizophrenia as a mental disorder, the aforementioned symptoms were once associated with poison and demons. Although early Romans and Greeks were aware of psychotic disorders, each condition was treated and considered to fall in a single category. In fact, no specific condition diagnostically met the criteria for schizophrenia. Early theories supposed that all mental disorders are caused by evil possession of the body. As such, the most common treatment was exorcising, ranging from innocuous approaches such as exposure to certain types of music to dangerous and deadly means like drilling holes in the skull of the individual so as to release the  evil spirit  (Schizophrenia.com, 2004).
    German physician, Emil Kraeplin was one of the pioneers of the classification of mental disorders into varying categories. Dr. Kraepelin employed the term dementia praecox for individuals exemplifying symptoms that are now associated with schizophrenia. Although the concept of madness has been existent for thousands of years, schizophrenia was only distinguished as a distinct mental illness in 1887. In order to do so, Kraepelin first made a distinction between dementia praecox and manic depression. His observations showed that dementia praecox is a disease of the brain, specifically a form of dementia. He named the disease as such so as to distance it from other forms of dementia like Alzheimer s disease (Schizophrenia.com, 2004).
    By 1911, Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler coined the term schizophrenia as a replacement for Kraepelin s initial term, as he deemed that dementia praecox was misleading because the symptoms of the disorder does not have any relation with dementia. In place of the course and outcome emphasized by Kraepelin in his initial studies, Bleuler emphasized the signs and symptoms of schizophrenia. He made distinctions between the negative symptoms (fundamental symptoms), which are often specific, chronic, and permanent features of schizophrenia, and positive symptoms (accessory symptoms), which may be completely absent during or all part of the cause of the disorder, or at times very prominent among schizophrenics (Schizophrenia.com, 2004).
    Both Kraepelin and Bleuler laid the groundwork for the categorization of schizophrenia based on its prominent symptoms and prognoses. Over the years, experts working on this field has continuously found means in order to classify the subtypes of schizophrenia. The DSM-III delineated the five categories of the disease identified by Kraeplin and Bleuler disorganized, paranoid, catatonic, residual, and undifferentiated, the first three of which were originally proposed by Kraeplin himself. Although DSM-IV still employs these classifications, it was shown that they were not helpful in predicting the outcome of the disease, as the types are still not reliably diagnosed. Today, experts are using other systems in classifying the types of schizophrenia in accordance to the superiority of positive and negative symptoms, disorder progression, co-occurrence with other mental illnesses (Schizophrenia.com, 2004).
    Since then, schizophrenia has been identified as a severe and disabling brain disorder, characterized by abnormalities and distortion of perception and expression of reality (Regier et al., 1993 as cited in NIMH, 2009).  People suffering from this condition manifest diverse symptom presentation ranging from hearing voices that other people do not usually hear to hallucinations and delusions. Schizophrenics may not make sense about what they are talking about. They may sometimes become catatonic, or at times may appear perfectly fine until they voice out what they are thinking. Due to these, people diagnosed with schizophrenia are terrified about their illness causing them to withdraw or become extremely agitated. Although there are various treatments capable of relieving the symptoms of schizophrenia, no known cure that will fully eliminate the disease is still developed. As such, people who have the disorder would have to cope with the symptoms throughout their lives. However, researchers are also continuously developing effective treatments and employ new research tools to further understand the causes of the disorder (NIMH, 2009).
Causes of Schizophrenia
Psychological Theories of Schizophrenia
    Following the groundwork set by Kraeplin and Bleuler, early attempts forwarded to understand the origin of schizophrenia were grounded in psychological theories. For instance, Sigmund Freud, proposed that psychological process plays a role in the development of psychotic symptoms (Howells, 1991 as cited in Maddux  Winstead, 2003). Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, in 1948, also proposed that schizophrenia was a result of the rearing of a schizophrenogenic mother (Fromm-Reichmann, 1948 as cited in Walker, 2005). Subsequent theories about the causes of schizophrenia were centered on family interaction models. However, just like earlier theories, these studies contributed little in synthesizing the etiology of schizophrenia, although  in some way these also provided ideas about the importance of familial support among the sufferers of schizophrenia (Howells, 1991 as cited in Walker et al., 2005).
Genetics and Environment
    More than 80 years of behavior genetics research in the context of twin, family, and adoption studies highlighted the concept that schizophrenia is highly heritable. Several family studies have shown that schizophrenia runs in families, and that the likelihood of acquiring the disorder is much higher among individuals whose close relative is suffering from schizophrenia (Nicol  Gottesman, 1983 as cited in  Beck et al., 2008). Accordingly, a recent quantitative review of 11 well-conducted family studies presents that first-degree relatives of individuals with the disorder are 10 times more likely to acquire schizophrenia than those individuals with non-psychiatric family history (Sullivan, Owen, ODonovan,  Freedman, 2006 cited in Beck et al., 2008).
    Similarly, adoption and twin studies also provide more support in reinforcing the causative contribution of genetic factors in the development of schizophrenia. Irving Gottesmans (1991) twin study found that Monozygotic (MZ) twins, who share almost 100 of their genes, have the highest tendency of schizophrenia concordance (as cited in Walker et al., 2005). Gottestman (1991) also noted that among MZ co-twins of schizophrenic patients, 25 to 50 are at risk of developing the same disorder (as cited in Walker et al., 2005). As for dizygotic (DZ) twins and other siblings that share about half of their genes, about 10 to 15 of DZ co-twins of the patients were diagnosed with the disorder (Gottesman, 1991 as cited in Walker et al., 2005).
    Meanwhile, although a quantitative review of adoption studies found no difference in the rate of schizophrenia among adoptive relatives of persons with and without the disorder, it was also inferred that biological relatives of schizophrenia patients are five times more at risk in acquiring the disorder compared to the biological relatives of healthy adoptees (Sullivan et al., 2006 as cited in Beck et al., 2008). These studies provide ample evidence on the role of genetic components in the etiology of schizophrenia.
    Although behavior genetics highlight the role of genes in the development of schizophrenia, the specific genes and mechanistic details that trigger the onset of such illness remain trivial and yet to be discovered. However, the field of schizophrenia genetics maintain their conviction that many susceptibility genes serve as contributors to the development of the disorder, and each of these genes, though still not identified, has a small effect in the overall etiology of schizophrenia (Gottesman  Gould, 2003 Sullivan et al., 2006 as cited in Beck et al., 2008).
    Aside from the attribution of schizophrenia to biological factors, recent findings have also indicated that genetic influences of the disorder are also concerted with environmental factors. For instance, a study in Finland found that the rate of psychoses including that of schizophrenia was profoundly higher among matched control adoptees. There were also indications that genetic vulnerability of adoptees is associated with disruptive environment (Tienari, Wynne, Moring,  Lahti, 1994 as cited in Walker et al., 2005). Similarly, a study by Mary Canon and colleagues (2002) associated obstetric complication with the onset of schizophrenia. It was found that the risk of having the disorder linked to obstetric complications is double compared to having no such complications (as cited in Beck et al., 2008). Some studies also implicated that schizophrenia is disproportionately higher in urban environments (McGrath et al., cited in Beck et al., 2008), although there are still no clear indications whether such observed elevations are due to prenatal or perinatal factors of urban birth of whether urbanicity does confer the risk of developing schizophrenia at a later point in the form of social isolation and psychosocial stress (Boydell  Murray, 2003 as cited in Beck et al., 2008). These findings are clear indications that the interaction between genetic and environmental factors plays a significant role in the development of schizophrenia.
Neurobiological Factors
    Different brain chemistry and structures were also pointed out as contributors to the rise of schizophrenia aside from the outlined genetic and environmental factors above. Several studies presented that abnormalities in the structural connectivity of the brains are evident among schizophrenic individuals. Based on clinical results, it was found that more neurotransmitters are released between neurons of schizophrenic brain, which causes the symptoms of the disorder. Initial studies thought that the problem was solely caused by excess dopamine in the brain. However, recent studies also pointed out that aside from dopamine other forms of neurotransmitters like glutamate and GABA also contribute to the onset of the disorders symptoms. For instance, glutamatergic neurons, which are part of the pathways that connect the hippocamus, thalamus, and prefrontal cortex, were found to have been implicated among schizophrenia patients. Diminished activity at glutamatergic receptors region of the brain was also observed among patients, (Carlsson, Hansson, Waters,  Carlosson, 1999 Goff  Coyle, 2001 Tsai  Coyle, 2002 as cited in Walker et al., 2005). while GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, is said to have effects in the increase of psychotic disorders. Postmortem brain tissue of schizophrenics patients showed abnormalities such as the reduced uptake and release of GABA, (Lewis, Pierri, Volk, Melchitzky,  Woo, 1999 as cited in Walker et al., 2005), abnormalities in the interconnections of GABA neurons (Benes  Beretta, 2001 as cited in Walker et al., 2005), as well as the loss of cortical GABA interneurons (Walker, 2005).
     Meanwhile, the brain structure as a contributor to the onset of schizophrenia remains controversial. However, there have also been extensive postmortem evidences as well as current imaging technologies proving that many regions of schizophrenic are structurally abnormal (Wright, Woodruff,  Bullmore, 2000 as cited in Emental-health.com, 2001). The most common finding in the structural imaging of the brains of schizophrenia patient is their enlarged lateral ventricles. There are also evidences citing that schizophrenics have reduced volume of brain and smaller cerebral cortex, frontal and temporal lobe structure, though these findings remain controversial (Wright et al., 1999 Velakoulis et al., 1999 Hirayasu et al., 1998 and Shenton et al., 1992 as cited in Emental-health.com, 2001). Although experts have learned a lot about schizophrenia, research has yet to come up with coherent and agreed-upon studies on the role of neurobiological factors and processes in the emergence of this disorder (Williams, 2006 cited in Beck et al., 2008).
Schizophrenia Treatments Interventions
    It is worthy to note that despite the improvements in the diagnosis of schizophrenia, this disorders complexity and its symptoms blurring boundaries with other mental illnesses make it difficult to develop a cure that would totally eliminate the disease. However, it should also be taken into consideration that schizophrenia has various treatment options that are focused on reducing the symptoms of the disorder so as to improve and restore productive quality life for patients. Common optimal treatments available for schizophrenia are that of pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatments.
Pharmacotheraphy Medication treatment
    Pharmacotherapies are contemplated as the most extensively used intervention for the reducing schizophrenia symptoms. Since mid-1950s antipsychotic medications have been in circulation. Majority of people treated with antipsychotic medications manifest substantial improvements in their conditions. Conventional forms of early antipsychotic medications include Perphenazine (Etrafon, Trilafon), Fluphenazine (Prolixin), Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), and Haloperidol (Haldol). Newer forms of these drugs emerged during 1990s and are commonly referred to as atypical because of their different mechanisms of action. They are found to be more effective against reducing negative symptoms of schizophrenia, to have limited side effects, and to show the promise of recovery for individuals to whom older forms of antipsychotic medications were not effective. The most commonly prescribed atypical medications include Clozapine (Clozaril), which is notable for its capability to treat hallucinations and delusions. However, one of the major drawbacks of this drug is the loss of white blood cells that serve as the protection of individuals from infections a condition known as agranulocytosis. Because of this potential occurrence, treatment with the use of Clozapine can be difficult for many people however, other forms of antipsychotic drugs can be employed as a replacement for clozapine such as Paliperidone (Invega), Risperidone (Risperdal), Olanzapine (Zyprexa), Aripiprazole (Abilify), and Ziprasidone (Geodon), (NIHM, 2009).
    Psychosocial Interventions
    While antipsychotic drugs are proven to be crucial in reducing the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia, they are not consistent in relieving the behavioral symptoms of such disorder. Even if patients are already free of psychotic symptoms, many still exemplify difficulties in other aspects of their lives such as communication, self care, and establishing relationships with other. Adding up to this is the fact that just like any other forms of drugs, antipsychotic medications have unwanted effects that could further lead to more serious problems. Hence, psychosocial treatments are also put in place so as to complement the medications used in the treatment of schizophrenia. These forms of interventions assist patients to maximize their functioning and regain their control over themselves so as to help them deal with the daily challenges of life, may it be at home, school, or work. Psychosocial interventions include illness management skills, rehabilitation, integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse, family education, self-help groups, and  cognitive behavior therapy (NIHM, 2009).
    In illness management skills, patients are taught how to properly manage their illness by teaching them methods about watching over the signs of their disorder, and how they can possibly prevent relapses. Rehabilitation is a process through which patients undergo social and vocational trainings for them to function better in their communities. Such intervention may range from communication skills training, public transportation learning, counseling for money management or even job trainings. Integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse is an intervention that addresses co-occurring disorders among schizophrenia patients. As substance abuse is common among many schizophrenics, this intervention is prescribed for the general population of schizophrenia patients along with other treatment programs. Family education is an intervention designed to educate the family members of patients. By engaging in this form of intervention, family members are taught about the disease and the coping mechanisms so as to encourage loved ones to continue going through treatments. Self help groups, though they do not necessarily involve professional therapists, include group members that can relate to the affected individuals and in turn provide them with support and care they need. People who usually participate in this form of intervention usually are the ones who advocate the research and intervention of treatment programs for schizophrenia and draw public attention toward the discriminatory practices against people suffering from the disorder. Finally, Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy that addresses the patients way of thinking and behavior. Therapists who facilitate this treatment teach patients how to set reality apart from fantasy, to avoid listening to voices, and to manage the symptoms of their illness. CBT is aimed at profoundly reducing the severity of symptoms and possible relapses of schizophrenia (NIHM, 2009).

    Based on the outlined discussion, it can be inferred that schizophrenia is indeed a debilitating illness that to date remains without a cure and definite cause. Despite these  perspectives though, continuous research and understanding about this disorder made it possible to develop treatments that are centered on improving the conditions of individuals suffering from such mental illness through reducing the symptoms and possible relapses, thereby providing a positive outlook in the future of this clinical disorder. In the meantime, it is perhaps best to encourage people to conduct further studies about schizophrenia so as to  help people afflicted with it and allow them to maximize their potentials.