Psychology

The ideals of social development ethics are based on a hypothetical ground that speaks of education for all and poverty for none. This conjecture standardizes social morality within a discursive framework. Subsequently, it creates the need to address the issues that might show up in the events of educational deprivation in the grip of poverty. The primacy of education can never be undermined in relation to social development and eradication of poverty and crime (Guico et al., n. d.). Analyses of social trends over the years in varying contexts have underpinned that lack of education tends to trigger criminal activities. Poverty is at once a signifier and signified of criminal practices. In other words, economic oppression mobilizes deviant ways, which, in turn, leads to further degradation of ethical standards. This coursework aims to investigate into the probable correlation between education, poverty and crime.

The two key ethical considerations in relation to the thesis topic are, according to Carlton (2009), as follows
Education tends to diminish crime.
It reduces the amount of poverty and distress.

It may be noted that both these principles form a methodological groundwork for further inquiry into the interdependency among the three elements. Now the pertinent question to resolve is what the ethical considerations are for nullifying the adverse effects of the conditions that promote crime and other social malpractices. Having religious piety and socioeconomic stability may well reduce moral quandaries related to what is right and what is wrong. But then again, a person who, due to lack of education, is intellectually incapacitated to make the distinction between different ethical standards or, for that matter, aloof to the possibilities of ethical degeneration may never be brought back to the normal course of life from felonious slants.        

The ability to deduce new dynamics towards enhancing competency and growth within the professional realm not only shapes new directions for counseling but also infuses better appreciation of making important decisions that can help shape peoples lives. The course together with its readings and materials serve to supplement and provide increase my ability to seek out the interplay and balance on how I correspond towards my personal experiences and use them to gauge its capacity within the professional realm.

To actively achieve such endeavor, the course provides each student with readings that culminate and increase their competency over related approaches in handling career counseling. Such dynamics then opens up our horizons towards what is important surrounding my chosen career. These then influence better appreciation of the counseling process and infuses a responsible and formal way of gauging ones abilities (Cross, 2006). This then allows a greater chance of increasing acquisition of skills by embarking into different notions that affect career counseling. They often involve (1) family relationships, (2) culture, and (3) personal values.

At the same time, the course also encouraged attention towards establishing career coaching techniques. Under this condition, new perspectives are given to showcase appreciation of how effective skills can be manifested in the workplace. It includes opening up capacities that will measure and locate strengths and weaknesses of each individual on what matters the most (Bench, 2005). Giving attention to these features can shed a light on understanding the value system that can transcend towards the needs of my clients.

With all of these, I do feel that the course can effectively contribute to my desire to effectively apply the principles surrounding career counseling. At the same time, it can also induce a better way to address the trends that are happening in society. Such approach then encourages better avenues to ensure that I live up to standards and remain accountable.

A career assessment provides one with a valuable insight into the various options one can choose from when deciding which career to pursue. By evaluating ones abilities, proficiencies and skills, such assessments identify the most appropriate career an individual should embark on (Zunker, 2006). This reduces the incidence of mismatching ones skills with a particular profession and, leads to higher productivity as individuals are proficient in their jobs.  

The assessment revealed that I have hidden talents and inborn qualities that are critical for one to excel in a counseling career. Patience, a love for people, and a caring attitude were qualities the tests revealed I possessed. Most likely I acquired these qualities during my early childhood (Kim et al., 2002). My parents brought us up to be caring individuals with a profound respect for other peoples opinions.

Some individuals have a predisposition to working under close supervision while others prefer to take up leadership positions (Kim et al., 2002).The test suggested that although I can work independently, I perform better under close supervision. This aspect fits in well with my overall goals as I plan to understudy the main counselor at my workplace so I can gain valuable experience. When I am confident enough, I intend to open up my own practice.
 
Despite the test identifying a number of things about me correctly, it was unable to factor in cultural aspects that have an impact on my final career choice (Zunker, 2006). Cultural attitudes in my community towards certain professions discouraged me becoming a chef or a musician despite the natural talent I have for the two careers. In future such tests should be designed in such a way that they can identify the most appropriate career for different ethnic communities, taking in the need for cultural change and modern perceptions concerning employment (Kim et al., 2002).

With the psychological world in mans life becoming more complicated, various methods of psychological therapies developed to provide refuge and amnesty to such various human complications. One such important process is that of art therapy. Based on its expressive nature, art therapy involves the use of a wide array of artistic materials that are largely combined with different theories of therapy as well as techniques in creating a long lasting knowledge about the human mental process. The application of art therapy has seen its way in various settings within the health discipline. This is from the point of view that the applicability of art therapy is more compatible with various conceptions of human mental process. The resting point of this process is building a process with which therapists use artistic models towards leveraging on the side of patient objects and health goals.

What is art therapy
Art therapy is a form of psychotherapeutic mechanism aimed at providing an opportunity for addressing the problem of intense emotions which sometimes become very hard for individuals, their family members and friends to handle. Art therapy provides the most supportive environment for dealing with such painful feelings and thoughts experienced by the individuals by applying a wide range of artistic materials such as clay, collage, paints or batik and themselves to creatively illustrate visual representations of feelings and thoughts. Although art therapy works well as an individual activity, it has been found to work most promising when done in groups.

The individuals who are referred to art therapists in most cases are those who have lost touch with their feelings and often find it difficult to express their feelings verbally. The cause of individuals losing their feeling is varied it can be caused after a moment of frightening, emotional blocking or confusion. It is therefore the role of an art therapist to wipe away these moments from the client. Art therapy can be applicable for managers and staff who are under pressure. It can also be used to assist people who are in constant stress or sometimes are overworked. Art therapy is also convenient for people with mental health problems and for people who have serious learning problems. Particularly the children who often have problems conforming with personal problems in schools or at their homes, art therapy can be highly beneficial in helping solve this menacem. A lot of interest can be developed by people who are ready to learn and explore concepts around their lives. People choose to study art therapy so that they may understand the phenomena of emotional problems that afflict the people in their place of living. It is pretty simple for a client to given art therapy. The client does not require any skill in making the arts. There is absolutely no artistic experience or skills required in art therapy. The art therapist has a role of providing the guidance from the first step to the last one until the client feels he is freed from the emotional menace.Individual Art Therapist Why one should invest in learning art therapy

Individuals can decide to learn art therapy and apply it on a personal level. The knowledge gained for the training can be used in exploring the inner issues of life. In fact, it is a safe way of expressing sensitive and strong feelings which is in most times very hard to express. Art therapy enhances communication between two individuals, professional teams or groups (John, 2007).  Art therapy can be used to explore the aspect of change. For people experiencing problems in communication, either written or verbal, art therapy can serve an important pathway to help these individuals get away with the problem. Professional managers in any venerable community should embrace art therapy to instill the required confidence and enhance life changes in the people they have responsibility for.The art therapy client

The perception towards the therapy received during treatment is satisfactory. Most clients get answers to their problems and their emotions which are intensified due to various life issues are settled. Some client have the same opinion that art therapy is not necessarily about being an artist, rather it is about utilizing the visual symbols in exploring emotions and feelings. Art therapy, to the majority, is about seeing the feelings and making them very visible to them. They can read their feeling through art therapy. The expressions of some clients talk of art therapy to be a source of a natural beauty which is free to grow and also an experience which can be extended or a space that is fun to have. Clients find it fun and a safe haven to be in. art therapy is satisfying to most clients who seek the treatment. They generally agree that in art therapy, it is the process in the treatment which is important and not the product itself (Kalmanowitz, Llyoid, 2005). Clients who often seek art therapy agree that in the process of art therapy, they are able to visualize how their minds work. The part of their minds which they say to visualize is that which they are not conscious of.Example of a client

Mr. X has recently taken an early retirement from his job as a college lecturer in a local university. Mr. X main role in the university was to offer lectures in the department of arts. After he retired he went back home to have time with his family. During his retirement period, Mr. X decided to have a picnic with his old loving wife. On their way, the car overturned and rolled several times leaving Mr. X very badly injured in the head. A friend of his, who is an art therapist, attended him as he was recovering in his home after receiving treatment for head injuries. Mr. Xs friend helped him get off the heavy feelings he had after the accident and to date he values and recommends other clients to seek art therapy.Art Therapist

A fully qualified art therapist has a wide understanding of the art processes which include proficiency in verbal communication. They are capable of creating a facilitating and trusting environment where patients are able to express themselves in an open and safe setting. The main aim of an art therapist is to assist his or her client get out of the confusing and often complex emotions which sometimes may prove to be difficult for the client to find an outlet him or herself. It is the role of an art therapist to foster confidence and self awareness in their patients (Kaplan, 2007). In fact, it is part of the art therapist role to craft ways of working with his or her patients in diverse settings. In cases where the client cannot speak, the artwork provides a valuable means of communication.The Art
The main purpose of art therapy is to maintain and improve the emotional and mental health of individuals suffering from intense emotions. There are other forms of therapies which utilize the performing arts for the purposes of expressions. However, art therapy basically utilizes paintings, drawings, photography and sculpture or other forms of expressions of the visual arts. This is the reason why art therapists are trained to recognize metaphors and non verbal symbols which are only communicated in a creative process. These symbols and metaphors used might be very hard to be communicated or expressed in words or in other forms of modalities (Gerry, 2005).

The art therapists assist their clients to discover the underlying feelings and thoughts which are being communicated during the process of art therapy and what the artwork means to them. Through this assistance, the clients will gain the judgment and the insight in addition to better understanding of oneself and the various ways to relate to the people such as family members, friends and anyone around them. Art making has been perceived as an opportunity to better express oneself in an imaginative, authentic and spontaneous way which provides an experience to have personal fulfillment
Art therapy exclusively utilizes art media as the sole source of communication although it is not necessary that clients referred to art therapists to have prior experience in art skills since the art therapist is not mainly concerned with drawing a diagnostic or aesthetic assessment of the image of the client. The primary role of art therapists is to create an enabling setting for the client to effect growth and change on a personal basis by using art materials in the most facilitating and safe environment.

An art therapist bases his or her services of healing by considering the perceptions, imagination and feelings. The practice of art therapy may require prior learning of skills  and techniques although much of the emphasis is based on the development and expression of images which come inside the client rather than those that are seen by the client in the outside world. Some traditional classes of artwork may require students to make drawings or paintings from imaginations in art therapy (Langan, 2005). However, the inner world of images, thoughts, feelings and ideas are also important to the experience of the learners in a class of artwork.

The term therapy comes from a Greek word, therapeia meaning to be conscientious to. In art therapy, a skilled professional will attend to the individual making the art. The person giving these guidelines plays an important role in the process of art therapy. The supportive relationship has to be maintained along the process so that the client can find the meaning along the way through this healthy relationship. Another most important part in the process of providing art therapy is the individual attendance to his personal art making process and also providing a personal meaning to the art. This implies that an art therapy will ensure that the client finds it easier to find a story, meaning or the whole description of the art. It has been seen in most cases that very few art therapies fully rely on the individual participation. It is the duty of the art therapist to facilitate the exploration of the clients of the narratives and materials about the art products which are created during the process of art therapy.Art-Based Assessments The general practitioners working in hospitals will require examine the conditions of the patients in order to know the treatment or correct prescription. Similarly, art therapists and allied professionals take an analysis of the client prior to giving therapies. The difference between art therapies and general practitioners is that the former group takes use of art based assessment to obtain complete evaluation of the cognitive, emotional and developmental conditions. A number of psychological analyses take significant application of art making to study various aspects of mental functioning. All the qualified art therapists and allied professionals are highly trained to interpret and administer these forms of assessment which mostly rely on the simple directive and a more standardized range of art materials (Evans, Dubowski, 2001).a) The Diagnostic Drawing Series or DDS

DDS is a type of assessment which is correlated with the diagnosis of main disorders related to psychiatry. In the assessment a three drawing series is involved which most mental healthcare professionals put into application in identifying the problem of emotions in their clients. The first part of the assessment involve the mental healthcare professional or art therapist asking the client to sketch any drawing by using pastels of colored chalks on a piece of paper. The next part involves the clients being asked to draw a tree and in the third and the final part, the client is asked to illustrate by drawing lines, shapes or colors on how they are feeling.b) The Mandala Assessment Research Instrument (MARI)

Another example of assessment is the use of a procedure called, The Mandala Assessment Research Instrument (MARI). Here, a person is often asked to choose a card usually from a deck which has different mandalas. The designs are usually enclosed in the geometric shape and the person must choose a given color from the set of colored deck. The person receiving the therapy is then asked to draw the mandala from the card he chooses with an oil pastel which can be any color of his choice (Weber, 2009). This procedure involves the artist who is asked to give explanation on the meanings or experiences which are related to the mandala which the client drew. The assessment is based on the beliefs of seeing a recurring correlation between the shapes, images and patterns that the client draws and the artists personality. The assessment test is aimed to assess and provide clues to the psychological progression of the individual needing the therapy and his current psychological condition.c) House-Tree-Person (HTP)

In this form of assessment the patient is asked to make a drawing of three distinct images. The images can be a house, a person or a tree. After the patient is done with the drawings, the art therapist will then ask the patient questions such as, the age of the person in his drawing, what the person is doing in the drawing, what are the building materials of the house the patient has just drawn, or what the weather is like in the drawn picture. This kind of assessment is usually done either through achromatic or chromatic means where colored lead pencils can be used to make illustrations. Colored markers can also be used to make such illustrations. The projective assessment of the person, the house or the tree in the drawing made by the patient represent various aspects of the artist and the manner the artist feels about herself or himself.d) Road drawing

In road drawing the assessment and any intervention in providing therapeutic services, the patient is asked to make a drawing of a road. This type of assessment is a projected one which tens to create various graphic representations of the individuals path of life. This kind of drawing has the capability of eliciting spontaneous imagery that indicates the origin of the patient, the history of the patient and his or her processes. The road represents the patients life experiences to the present and the intended future. All these derivative concepts are drawn from a simple picture (Kaplan, 2007).   Art therapy and other forms of psychological therapy

This form of psychotherapy requires that a healthy relationship is built between the client and the therapist. It should be noted that art therapy is quite different from other forms of psychological therapies which involve two way processes. Contrary to such other forms of psychological therapy, art therapy involves three major processes the client, the therapist and the artifacts or images created. This type of therapy, unlike other psychological therapies provide the clients with the opportunity to express and communicate their feeling which is integral to the people who may find it difficult for expressing their feelings and thought in a verbal way.Where to find art therapy services

The art therapists have a sound mastery of the art processes and the general knowledge of therapeutic practice in working with both individuals and groups. They may carry out their services in residential places or community based environments. These settings which may have art therapists are children and family centres, prison service facilities, palliative care and bereavement services, adult mental health facilities and centres involved in helping individuals with learning disabilities. The art therapists can be found in hospitals and especially in units managing trauma and psychotherapeutic departments. In drug and alcohol departments, art therapists play an important role in helping the afflicted individual to recover from their intense emotions (Gerry, 2005). It is a growing scenario that art therapists are getting a great position in forensic services. Additionally, art therapists have been found to be important in caring for patients who have experienced serious head injuries and stroke.

The main employers of art therapists include the National Health Service, Prison Service, Education Service, private hospitals, the Social Service, mental health projects and various charity organizations. Art therapists can also serve as psychiatrists in special groups of adults, adolescents, children and also the aged people.Training in Art Therapy program Requirements It is not very easy to carry out the tasks of an art therapist. These important professions in our society face challenging scenarios and therefore require the culturing of special sensitivity and skills to better perform their integral function in helping individuals with intense emotions. The main requirement for one to be admitted to the study of art therapy is maturity and flexibility. In some colleges which offer a Masters Degree program in Art Therapy, the course is designed to comprise of experimental and theoretical aspects of art therapy provision. This course takes two academic years (full time) or three academic years (Part time). It is important for the applicants to have a first degree in arts although other degrees obtained in undergraduates can be considered (Withrow, 2004). It may also require that prior to joining a program in Art Therapy, the students should have a working experience in the field of healthcare, social care or education industry. Standards and Professional Body of Art Therapists Owing to its diversity in profession, art therapists should uphold the standards set by the professional bodies in various states. It is important that all the practicing art therapists register themselves with the professional bodies existing in their individual states. The same applies to professions in the field of Drama and Music Therapy. Majority of states for instance in the UK, art therapists and Drama and Music therapists register themselves with the Health Professions Council.

One of the most important art therapy professional bodies in the UK is the British Association of Art Therapists (BAAT). BAAT is an organization in the UK which brings all the art therapists together in sharing knowledge and skills concerning the area of art therapy. BAAT has individual Code of Ethics of Professional Practice which gives a guideline on how the practice of art therapy should be carried out by the professionals. The Association comprises of twenty regional groups with both the international and the European sections. The Association works to maintain an inclusive directory of all qualified art therapists and strives to promote the practice of art therapy in the whole region of the UK. The British Association of Art Therapists is a dynamic organization and provides the right tools for art therapy profession which is ever growing and expanding terms of professionalism.

Another important professional body is the American Art Therapy Association (AATA). This is an organization with diverse, creative and engaged professionals who are dedicated to the philosophy that the creative process of art modeling is fully life enhancing and has a potential healing capacity. The association has a culture of inclusion which combines people from all backgrounds regardless to color or class. The main moving spirit of the association is being open to the new expressions and concepts which continue to expand the efficacy of art therapy as used in healing process (Evans, Dubowski, 2001). The association serves the general public and its members by enhancing professional standards competence and increasing the development of knowledge in the field of art therapy. There are abut 5,000 members represented by the association in the United States and about 36 states and Regional Chapters  that hold meetings and activities which promote the art therapy at local levels.Code of Ethics

Every profession has the guiding principle on the manner at which the profession should be practiced. Art therapy being a profession requires the code of ethics in order for the members to act according to the requirements of the society. Generally requires the application of art to provide therapeutic services. Both the art therapists and psychotherapists have standard behaviors in the practice of their profession. It is required that art therapists act according to the standards set in their individual countries and the international settings (Langan, 2005). In some situations, art therapists are responsible for any crime they commit relative to breaching of the codes set under their professional ethics. Through the guideline given in these codes, the professionalism in the field of art therapy is highly maintained and patients are likely to have very satisfactory services.

Generally, art therapy is the most natural way of providing solutions to people who have problems of communication and can not freely interact with their members of the family, their friends or the people around them.  It is with this great concern that governments and other bodies have set out mechanism to assist these kinds of individuals to obtain the care they need by increasing awareness of art therapy. It should be noted that art therapy is not a standalone in complex situations like head injuries. More medical procedures are required and art therapy seems to provide a synergistic mechanism to solve the problem faced by the patient.

Working at a bank as a customer service representative provides an opportunity to interact with a lot of people. While most of the interactions are pleasant, some customers behave irately due to bad circumstances and unpleasant experiences with our banking system. This is where the fallacy of approval arised, as I used to blame myself for the customers problems. No matter how hard I tried, it was impossible to make some customers happy and that made me feel inadequate. However, I began to notice that the same irate customer would be happy on another day, even without trying hard. Thats when I realized that my quest to win everyones approval was just impossible. The sooner I accepted that, the more satisfied I felt with my job.

As I am a Brazilian and not an American by birth, I used to feel awkward about my accent when I first started to work in America four years ago. In the beginning, I was self-conscious and worried about what my co-workers thought of my speech pattern. I even used to be a little concerned when a customer asked me to repeat myself. This was a classic case of fallacy of perfection, as I wanted to sound like a native speaker right from day one. When I started to observe different speech patterns even among native speakers, I realized that there is no such thing as the perfect accent. As I started to interact with more people, I began to realize that people were more interested in what I was saying and not how I was saying it. This not only made me more confident, but also helped me get forge strong relationships at work.

When I first started working in the bank, the job involved a lot monotonous tasks. Hence, fatigue was starting to show up and this led to a minor incident. When I was advised by the manger to be more careful in future, I made it a habit to expect the worst-case scenario at all times. This fallacy of catastrophic expectations made the job even more tiresome, which affected my efficiency at work. One day, I came across a magazine article that explained how things are not always as bad as they seem to be. Since I wanted to make a serious change, I decided to let go off the fear and got back to being my calm self. From that day on, I feel much lighter at heart and that makes more efficient worker. Overcoming these fallacies have not only helped me advance my career, but also grow as a person.

Previous research by Brown and Burton, and young and Oshea have revealed some systematic nature of problems encountered by children in performing subtractions that more so those that involve multicolumn (Young, 1984153). This paper will focus on studying the systematic nature of these problems that are encountered by children in performing subtraction. In order to achieve this, a model was developed using the Amzi prolog based on examples originating from the young and Oshea model in a previous research.  The model was used to support previous research findings from the production system proposed by Young and Oshea. It its findings, the research established that the errors that the children make are systematic in nature (Young, 1984154). The model developed from the Amzi prolog was used to demonstrate these errors. Through the program it was established that by simply changing or omitting a given procedure, the results obtained would also change in a fashion similar to that exhibited by children in solving problems involving subtraction. The resulted hence demonstrated the earlier assumption made that the problems that the children exhibit are not only systematic but follow a clear procedural nature that can be easily traced.

Young and Oshea in his article acknowledge that childrens errors arise from improper strategies rather than incorrectly recalling number facts. The article resents a production system consistent with earlier nature of cognitive skills. The article clearly elaborates strategies used by children that result to the answers they eventually get whether correct or incorrect. Young and Osheas article, through giving of well articulated examples systematically examined the nature of errors that children make in computing subtraction problems.

Computerized programs are known for their systematic nature. Data input into these programs follow a systematic nature to produce the desired results. Procedural deviations are known to result into undesired outputs. Through use of the Amzi program, this research analyzes the systematic nature of the problems and the resultant effect of omissions or procedural deviations. It establishes the relation of these deviations to the errors already discussed as being exhibited by children.

In Britain, subtraction teaching takes a two way approach namely the decomposition and the equal addition methods (Brown, 1978176). Both methods take the same approach in terms of column arrangement with the operation originating from the right side to the left. Their difference arises from the methods used in borrowing. This research used the Amzi prolog program language to identify the errors that result in applying these methods of solving subtraction errors.

The research put focus on establishing the validity of the theories put forward by Young and Oshea as to the systematic nature errors exhibited by children in solving subtraction problems. Through careful analysis of these errors, the research will be able to recommend possible solutions to these problems.  By establishing the trends that are a result from certain procedural undoing, the research will be able to establish whether it is possible to prescribe similar solutions to childrens errors that display systematic nature of occurrence.

The research aimed to ascertain whether their existence some practical proof that the errors experienced by children in subtraction are actually procedural as proposed by previous research findings of Young and Oshea. Through establishment of this proof, the research would wield the much needed ability in disputing earlier theories that childrens errors are as a result of failures in the process of recalling and determining number facts.

Previous research in the past had proposed that childrens errors basically originate from failure on their part to recall and determine number facts. In Britain, there exist clearly articulated rules used in teaching subtraction amongst children (Young, 1981160). In both rules there exists the minuend, the subtrahend and the difference as illustrated below

The basic and most fundamental rule is that the columns are to be processed from right to left as illustrated below

Whenever the subtrahend digit S presented is greater than the minuend digit M, ten is borrowed from the minuend on the left and subsequently the minuend on the left is decreased by 1 or alternatively the subtrahend increased by one depending on the rue used e.g. in the case mentioned above ten is borrowed from six and added to (3). Subsequently (6) is decreased by one.

Young and Oshea analyzed the various errors that result from omissions or deviations of any of the procedures mentioned. The production system theory involved in his article is supported by analysis of over 1500 subtraction errors by 10 year old children (Young, 1981153). In essence the findings revealed that up to two thirds of the problems originated from systematic errors rather than problems with number recalling (Young, 1981153). Ashlock in his writing stated that the errors fall into clear patterns and can be attributed to erroneous algorithms (Alfred, 197443).

In his research, Young and Oshea expressed the procedure fro correct subtraction as an information processing model which cast in the form of rules with errors accounted for mainly focusing on the omission of one or a combination of the rules (Young, 1981154). The following is a set of examples from the Oshea model.

Modeling errors was deduced from children who had been taught the decomposition method. Their errors were classified according their systematic nature of occurrence. Young and Oshea then concluded that childrens errors were in deed systematic in nature and could be attributed to procedural errors. This formed the basis of this model as it meant to establish the ascertain Young and Osheas assumption about the errors being procedural.

Methodology
The program was developed systematically through careful incorporation of the rules necessary for subtraction. The variables, in this case the numbers involved in subtraction were written as follows
 13  5  8 was represented as minus (13, 5, 8)
8  5  3 was written as minus (8, 5. 3)
The rules were displayed in the program as shown
Example 1
654421subtraction(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight)-
minus(TopRight, BottomRight, AnswerRight),
minus(TopLeft, BottomLeft, AnswerLeft),
writeit(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight, AnswerLeft, AnswerRight).

This case represented a child starting with the right hand side of the column. The child deducts the bottom right from the top right to get the answer right. The child then deducts the bottom left from the top left and gets the answer left. This sin the program appears as (6, 5, 4, 4, 2, 1) represented by the statement writeit(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight, AnswerLeft, AnswerRight).

Example 2
23111922borrow(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight)-
add(10, TopRight, NewTopRight),
minus(NewTopRight, BottomRight, AnswerRight),
minus(TopLeft, 1, NewTopLeft),
minus(NewTopLeft, BottomLeft, AnswerLeft),
writeit(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight, AnswerLeft, AnswerRight).

This is a representation of subtraction involving borrowing. The child adds 10 to the top right to get a new value for top right. The child then deducts the bottom right from the new top right to get the answer right. The child then deducts 1 from the top left value to get a new top left value after which the bottom left value is deducted from the new top left value to give the bottom left answer.
The above mentioned examples are cases where the child followed the procedures required hence the results produced were all right. Talking a look at instances where the rules were deviated from.

Example 3
9816-45234
borrow(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight)-
add(10, TopRight, NewTopRight),
minus(TopRight, BottomRight, AnswerRight),
minus(TopLeft, 1, NewTopLeft),
add(1, bottom left, NewBottom left
            minus(NewTopLeft, NewBottomLeft, AnswerLeft),
writeit(TopLeft, TopRight, BottomLeft, BottomRight, AnswerLeft, AnswerRight).

In this case, the child deviates from the rules. The child unnecessarily borrows and adds ten to the top right figure. However he finds no use fro his borrowed 10 and instead uses the old figures by subtracting the bottom right to the top right to get 4. The child then unnecessarily deducts I from the top left to get 8 and further goes ahead to add one to the bottom left. The child finally subtracts the new bottom left from the new top left to get 5. The deviations from the rules results into a wrong answer.
The program also in analyzing the errors developed the following

Example 4 zero error
70-4737zero_error1(TopLeft, 0, BottomLeft, BottomRight)-
AnswerRightBottomRight,
minus(TopLeft, BottomLeft, AnswerLeft),
writeit(TopLeft, 0, BottomLeft, BottomRight, AnswerLeft, AnswerRight).

The child does not know what to do with the zero and so puts down the bottom right as the answer right. The child goes ahead to correctly subtract the bottom left from the top left to get a correct answer left.

In general the program was made up of a systematic sequence of instructions that were meant to produce results. Variations in instructions was done to establish the effect of missing out on any sequence step with the aim of establishing if the effect took similar approach as that exhibited by children in performing subtraction errors.

Results
The application of the rules already written in the prolog program resulted in the following examples
Case 1 no borrowing required, subtraction rules followed
- subtraction (4, 5, 2, 3 ).

  45
 -23
  __
  22
Yes

The above mentioned reflected the subtraction rule where systematic following of rules was applied. Subtraction originated from the right hand side with each rule adequately followed. The rule was tested numerically with each step followed and thus the Amzi prolog program confirmed the resulting answer as yes

Case 2 borrowing involved, subtraction rules followed
- borrow( 4, 3, 2, 5 ).
  43
 -25
  __
  18
Yes

The above tested the application of borrowing rules. Numerical testing of the subtraction rules involving borrowing was done with each step adequately followed. The Amzi prolog program confirmed the answer as yes
Case 3 error, always subtracting smaller from larger
- smaller_from_larger( 6, 3, 4, 4 ).
  63
 -44
  __
  21
Yes

This case tested the effect of lack of appropriate rule to address which between the subtrahend and the minuend need be deducted from the other. The rule used here represented error of simply subtracting smaller from larger where the child lacks borrowing knowledge and decides to subtract smaller from bigger. Due to the lack of proper step on handling borrowing issue, The Amzi prolog confirmed the answer as yes.
Case 4 always borrowing, mixing up subtraction rules
- always_borrow( 9, 6, 4, 2 ).
  96
 -42
  __
  34
Yes

This rule modeled instances of borrowing unnecessarily. The child always borrows on later to find no use for the borrowed ten. The child then goes ahead to reduce the left value ignoring the ten previously borrowed. The child further mixes up subtraction rules and increases the bottom left by 1. The answer was confirmed by the Amzi prolog as yes
Case 5 add bug error, always adding one to the top left instead of bottom left
- add_bug( 2, 1, 1, 9 ).
  21
 -19
  __
  22
yes

This rule was meant to demonstrate addition bug errors that children exhibit in performing subtraction. After borrowing 10 from the left rather than reduce the top left by 1, the child increases the top left by 1 always resulting to the answer demonstrated.  Upon introduction of this rule the Amzi prolog confirmed the answer as yes.
Case 6 problem with subtracting large from small
- large_from_small( 7, 2, 5, 7 ).
  72
 -57
  __
  20
Yes

This rule was used to demonstrate case errors when subtracting large from small. In instance where the bottom value is greater than the top value, the child does not know how to handle it and instead puts the answer below as zero. The Amzi prolog displayed the resultant answer as yes.


Case 7 zero error, not knowing how to handle zero on top
- zero_errorE( 7, 0, 4, 7 ).
  70
 -47
  __
  37
Yes
This rule was designed to demnostrate the  zero error. It represented a case where teh child lacks knowledge on how to handle the zero and instead decides to take the bottom right value as theright answer. The prolog program confirmed the answer as yes.
Case 8 zero error, not knowing how to handle zero on top
- zero_errorF( 7, 0, 4, 7 ).

  70
 -47
  __
  30
Yes
This rule was for modeling another kind of zero error exhibited by children in doing subtraction. In represented instances where a child lacks the knowledge on how to handle a zero present in the calculation, top right. The child then decides to put the right answer as zero. Testing this numerically resulted in the answer produced by the child being proven by the Amzi prolog as yes Discussion
The ultimate out come was considered a success in confirming the previous assumptions that were derived from the Young and Osheas model. Deletingaltering a part of the procedures in the program rather than leading to a system crash results to a behavior that basically resembles the subtraction errors made by the children.

Examples above, in contrast to earlier claims by Brown and Burton that children errors resulted from poor understanding of number facts (Brown and Burton 1978), clearly demonstrated, that the child had clear knowledge of number facts but instead lacked some procedural knowledge. The errors recorded resulted from procedures not done or poorly done like always borrowing even when unnecessary. Another procedural error recorded was the child always subtracting the small value from the large value rather than follow the procedures required in identifying what to do. Other than these procedural errors, the child had clear knowledge on how to handle number facts and adequately did problems involving number facts to give reasonable outputs. This is in line with Young and OSheas claims that children usually possess necessary number facts but mostly faults on procedural basics.
In the case where there existed zeros on top, the child got confused and ignored the application of multicolumn subtraction procedures. This left the child not knowing what to actually do with zero of which he eventually put as the answer (case 8) the child in this case moved on to the other column displaying good knowledge of number facts but by skipping a procedure was not able to get the correct answer.

Through the Amzi prolog program the model confirmed the theory put forth by Young and Oshea in which he proposed that childrens subtraction errors due to their systematic nature can be modeled using computer languages. The model was able to display mistakes similar to those by children once some procedural steps were either deleted or altered. This displayed the procedural lapses suggested by Young and Oshea being practically obtained. This thus justified Young and Osheas assumption that what children exhibit is a case of erroneous algorithms rather than lack of number facts.

While it may be argued that the program was simply modeled to suit the purpose for which it was intended, this is not true. Its systematic and well sequenced results proved its ability to face the challenge it was up to. Only something that is sequential can be modeled sequentially to produce results similar to those desires. If the program had only been modeled to produce desired results of the researcher, then the results would lack sequence and ability to match what as expected but would instead only give desired result for the sum it was meant for. It therefore is clear that the model adequately served its purpose through providing platform for arguing in support of proposals put forth by young and Oshea.

A stereotype is a common belief on a particular social group of individuals based on gender, race, religion or culture. Gender stereotypes are stereotyped images of females and males. Gender stereotypes are depicted by the media and the society. The paper establishes the kinds of gender stereotypes, their effects on the society and individuals wellbeing, and its prevalence. There is also a conclusion that gives the current state of things and the way forward in handling the problem. The society tends to think that by knowing the gender of a person is enough to tell hisher character. This is very wrong because the only things that can be known by observing these of a person are the biological characteristics. The society bases its judgment on gender therefore restricting people from attaining their potential. This also affects social relations and interactions. The solution to this problem is more research and use of the available literature in teaching children from the earliest stage in their life.

A stereotype is an ordinary belief about a particular social group or types of community based on gender, race, culture or religion (Rudman and Glick, 2008). Stereotypes are consistent and simplified notions of groups of people based on past postulations. The term stereotype originates from Greek terms, stereos that means solid or firm and typos which means blow or impression or engraved mark. The term therefore means solid impression. Stereotypes include different kinds of characters, which can either be constructive or unconstructive, correct, or incorrect (Rudman and Glick, 2008). Even constructive stereotypes can have destructive results, like overestimated uniformity where people want others to view them as exceptional, rigid prospects and strengthening of a groups weakness and dependence. Gender stereotyping is the stereotyped images of males and females. Masculine and feminine images that are represented by the media and the society project a lot of mental mystiques. The instruments of gender stereotyping include the society, school and the media (Rudman and Glick, 2008).

Gender stereotyping
Gender stereotyping, is common in the whole world and is a noteworthy phenomena in private and public levels of relations. Stereotyping descriptions of men and women personality are prevalent in intra- and inter-gender conversations as well as in media. Women are shown by media as being dominated by males, controlled by emotions, emotional and dependence (Rudman and Glick, 2008). They are also shown as being weaker and less intelligent than men. The responsibility assigned to women by the society tends to be marital and family oriented. Traditionally, women are rarely shown to be capable of combining marriage and employment. Men on the other hand are shown to be strong, domineering and tend to acquire official employment. Social interactions may encourage stereotyping. Impressions formed by being told by others are usually more stereotypic than those formed by observing. Other sources of peoples ideas on gender stereotypes are radio, television, movies, video games, magazines and any other form of information transfer that influences our attitudes and shapes our values (Rudman and Glick, 2008).

As people grow up and without knowing it, the culture influences them through the stereotype images. This creates images in their minds and leads to accepting them as reality (Campbell and Storo, n.d). These beliefs are so embedded into the minds, that a lot of people think they are normal and so they do not question them. Although subscription to these beliefs does not happen consciously as part of our belief system, our cultures fill us with messages about what it is to be male or female. The method by which people discover and believe in roles is referred to as socialization (Rudman and Glick, 2008). This operates by boosting acceptable and discouraging unacceptable behavior. The instrument of socialization is society, school and the media. These instruments make it known to a child what is to be expected of him as a man and as a lady. It is very hard for children as they grow up not to experience some form of stereotyping. As they grow up, the gender stereotypes they were exposed to as home are strengthened by other aspects of the environment. A childs mushrooming sense of self- or self concept results from multiple ideas, behaviors and beliefs that heshe is exposed to. As human beings, we experience range of emotions, including grief, happiness, antagonism, and affection (Rudman and Glick, 2008).

The society has clearly embraced the fact that males are different from females. This is observed in every aspect of life as in education, profession, housework, decision making, and in child care as well as education. In our education system, the prevalence of gender-specific education is greater than that of co-educative schools. In the gender-specific education, girls and boys are separated and sent to different schools (Campbell and Storo, n.d). Education for boys tends to be more important than that of girls. In profession, job place is not considered as a place for women. Occupation and professional advancement is not considered important for women. Most decisions are left to men and even women have accepted that they will let their male partners decide on where they will stay, choose where their children will acquire education, choose what property to acquire and all other important decisions concerning the family. Even at work, most decisions are left to men. In case there is conflict, it is the word of men that will be taken (Campbell and Storo, n.d).

In the present day society, people are trying to reduce gender stereotyping by sharing responsibilities. Even though the responsibilities are not mixed, there is a consensus among individuals to try and strike a balance. In N. America and S. America, this is the method that is used by couples whose occupation is agriculture. The approach that is mostly used in America and Britain is the double burden. This is the model that is applied by males and females who have jobs and have the obligation of working at home. They both work in the paid job and share the responsibilities in the house (Campbell and Storo, n.d).

The reality is that as a group, girls and boys are more alike than they are different. Differences between entity boys and entity girls are greater than those between a standard girl and a standard boy. It is clear that stereotyping is so misleading and should not be used as a basis to judge character behavior of interests. People tend to presume that men and women are different they are in fact opposite sexes (Campbell and Storo, n.d). They see gender as the key predictor of capabilities and interests and also presume that if it is clear that one is a male or female, then a lot is known about them. We base peoples characters, interests and capabilities to the fact that heshe is a male or a female. By knowing peoples gender may make them know about them biologically but it will tell us very little about their other aspects. Sex is not a good interpreter of a persons academic capabilities, interests or emotional traits. From a research by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, it was discovered that gender is a bad predictor (Campbell and Storo, n.d).

From the graph (see Appendix 1), Correlations, otherwise known as predictive relations, represented by the vertical axis, range from zero to one. 1 is for a perfect relationship while 0 is for no relationship. For example, the relationship between birth and death is an ideal relationship, represented with 1. This means that once a person is born, it can be predicted with complete conviction that heshe will eventually pass away. The closer the relationship is to the perfect 1, the better the forecast. The relationship between high school Grade point Average and college Grade point Average is 0.6. This is a bit high meaning that if one has a high High School GPA it is likely that hisher college GPA will also be high. The relationship between gender and quantitative skills is about 0.1, just the same case with the relationship between gender and verbal skills. This relationship is very low meaning that if all what people know about you is that you are female, then they cannot tell your quantitative or verbal skills (Campbell and Storo, n.d). This shows that personality, interests and conduct are determined by much more than only the gender. Opportunities should be offered according to capabilities and not sex. Almost everything that is done by men can be done equally well by women and also things that are done by women cab be done by men (Campbell and Storo, n.d).    

Examples of gender stereotypes and their effects
In the society, there are two notions that exhibit stereotyping Act Like a Man and Be Ladylike. This has been shown in the diagram 1 in the appendix. In each of the two, there is a list of the traits, attitudes and behavior that a boy is expected to adapt in the process of being a man. These traits are learned and boys and men are not born with them. The second is also a stereotype just like the first. Women are also expected to conform to particular roles as they grow up in the society. These two notions depict the real picture of the society as concerns males and females. What it means to Act Like a Man is to be strong and brave, be Macho, be in charge of, do not back down, brawny, involved violent sports, strong in contrast to women, do not cry, sexually hostile, be a leader and a burp, not nice or generous. What it means to Be Ladylike in Society  gracious, delicate, pleasant, kind, tender, responsive, skinny, small, do not fight, cannot outsmart men, shed tears, well dressed, rely on men, housekeepers, take care of babies, affectionate, and emotional. It is believed that males are not born to be violent or have negative attitudes towards females. These behaviors and attitudes are learnt through the stereotypes of what the society thinks about acting like a man. This can result to violence, especially against women (Campbell and Storo, n.d).

Stereotyping has separated roles that should be carried out by males from those that should be handled by men. This belief limits personal choices in determining interests and skills. It discourages males from participating in what they consider roles of the females and restricts roles that are considered males. Gender roles are socially and culturally defined descriptions and beliefs about personality of males and females (Glick et al, 2004). Gender roles and stereotypes effects males and females especially where they are judged by how well they conform to conventional stereotypes. The uneven division of household roles and childcare, based on the belief that that is the role of women, contributes to the reported lower marital contentment in females. This affects couple and family interaction. This is also because the division of family labor is based on gender. Gender stereotyping can affect performance for both males and females. This is as a result of stereotype threat. Stereotype threat happens when a person is aware that heshe might be judged by the society or might self-fulfill negative stereotypes about herhis gender. This threat can negatively affect performance by increasing anxiety. This mostly happens in situations where females are supposed to perform duties that are considered males or where males are meant to perform duties that are considered females (Glick et al, 2004).

Feminists and other researchers argue that gender stereotypes decreases girls self-confidence creating an effect on their personality, inspirations and aspirations. Stereotypes also restrict both girls and boys of certain modes of behavior, course of study and choices of career. Gender Stereotypes also leads to unfairness in employment opportunities where some positions are considered males and others females (Glick et al, 2004). Stereotyping causes a lot of emotional and psychological trauma in the victims. This can happen if you loose a deserved job or promotion just because you are a woman, if a girl cannot participate in a favorite sport just because she is a girl or when a boy cannot participate in preparing his favorite dish because he is a man. Stereotyping does not affect individuals only but also the society in general. This is because when people cannot achieve their potential, it means that even the society is deprived.

Stereotypes are destructive because they restrict potential. We should understand that we do not have to recognize the dictates of stereotypes and that we have the power to decide on what makes sense to us. Every one has a choice we can choose to live like the stereotypes, which can result to unhappiness, loneliness, and possibly violence or, we can choose to be courageous, be ourselves and establish relationships where we are accepted for what we are. This can prove to be hard but role playing in the contemporary society has proven it to be possible. It makes all the difference when we listen to, and respect other peoples needs and interests (Glick et al, 2004). A healthy relationship curriculum, will help people deal with these influences from a young age, helping them to form positive values, and attitudes and hence form health relationships. Young people should be assisted in discouraging stereotyping and other restrictions to choice and opportunity. The 21st century is where it is important to redefine the prevailing stereotypes of gender roles and interactions therefore breaking taboos that are linked to male-female positions and capabilities. More studies should be carried out to establish other measures that can be taken to completely curb gender stereotyping. The media should also focus on positive relationships and avoid stereotyping (Glick et al, 2004).

To be able to fight gender stereotyping, all the roles and responsibilities should be integrated. Education should be equal for both men and women. There should be similar career opportunities for both males and females. There should be no domination decisions should always be on consensus basis and status quo sustained in case of conflicts. Decisions reached by two will always be better that those decided by one. This is because ideas and opinions will come from two parties and the best will be selected. Men and women should share the responsibilities of tendering the family equally. In the co-educative schools, there is similar classes and education for both girls and boys. This is the system they should be put in place in order to handle gender stereotyping.

Favorability of male and female stereotypes across cultures
Researches have shown that stereotyping is prevalent in every society world wide. Stereotyping differs across women with the prevalence of female stereotyping being higher than the male stereotyping. Gender stereotyping also varies across societies. This can be seen from the graph (see Appendix, graph 2). The graph compares gender stereotyping in Italy, Netherlands, Taiwan, America, Singapore, Turkey and Germany. In all of the countries female stereotyping is higher than male stereotyping.

Conclusion
The fact that gender stereotyping is a major problem all over the world is clear. Children learn at a very young age what it means to be a boy or a girl. As they grow, they experience the process of role socialization. Parents, teachers and other members of community should assist children from a tender age to be positive. Children should be taught to do all roles regardless of their gender. Self-confidence and self-esteem can be mastered from a young age.