Psychology

Social cognition studies how information is processed by people including storage, retrieval and encoding. It also studies application of the information in various social situations. The study of an individual is done in a cultural or social context. In brief social cognition focuses on interpretation of information generated by an individual and those around (Huitt, 2006). It has been observed most serious personality problems begin in middle childhood. It is here that the child begins to understand self. Children derive pleasure in being productive, getting intellectual stimulation and pursuing success. Failure leads to inferiority complex and later group membership.

Emotional Understanding and Influence on Self-esteem
Children in middle childhood have slow but steady cognitive development. They are learning how best to form hypothesis and classify information. In this stage practical engagement in learning activities gives the children enthusiasm. As they are motivated to work it builds on their self-esteem and competence. Similarly social and interpersonal relationships are developed at this stage. Peer and family influence become a strong motivating factor. The latter relationship however is stronger. Skills learned at this stage are useful in developing further relationships in adolescence (Education Encyclopedia, 2010). It is important at this stage for children to have best friends as it serves well to build healthy relationships in future.

Self understanding boosts self-esteem and further enhances social skills of the child. He or she will be able to interact well with friends and peers. At the same time the child will be motivated to work and try out various activities in the surrounding. Children will low self-esteem normally have problems with emotional development (Education Encyclopedia, 2010). Such children tend to shy off and avoid commitments. It is only by joining groups that the children tend to develop some identity.

Significance of Peer Groups and Subcultures
Peer groups are strong relationships and help a lot in development of character and identity of children. The group will accept a one member despite his or her weaknesses. For once the child will feel accepted and valued by others. It is therefore true that characteristics of the peers are specific to a group but not individual members. The child gets a way of expression and may in the end be able to find his true identity. The peer groups enable children to have a specific way to view the world. This view is different from the family, school or any other view. In most cases children who have problems at home or experience difficulty coping with school find solace in peer groups. The requirements to join a group such as dressing style, language and clothes are less demanding compared to societal expectations to conform.

A subculture on the other hand is more of a reaction to the dominant culture. The dominant culture may be represented by gender, age or ethnicity (Patterson, 1956). A group perceived as subordinate tries to challenge the dominant group by coming up with a different lifestyle. This lifestyle is unique and original to the members. The members of subcultures would therefore feel equal to those of the dominant culture. This is true in the sphere of community development and self-direction. Aspirations which initially appeared blocked can be realized through membership.

Friendship Circles in School Years
Friendship circles change among adolescents and children over a period of time. Two children become acquaintances and maintain their friendship (Berndt, Hawkins and Hoyle, 1989). For some reasons the friendship wanes or ends. There are various reasons which may lead two friends to contact less and form other friendships. For instance a friend who changes in status such as given responsibility at school or appear to have improved in intellectual stimulation may lose some friends. However, he gains other friends as a result.

The other reason for subculture and group membership is bullying. Both the bullies and their victims are vulnerable to low self-esteem. Children who have are victims of bullying are traumatized and need constant support and care. In most cases they need to be taken to environments that are friendly to help boost their self-esteem. In some cases it is parents to give the much needed approval and love. At this age the child is fast becoming conscious of his mental abilities, appearance, defects and other physical characteristics (Patterson, 1956). Friends and peers are always critical of these traits and a child may easily be disadvantaged in case he or she has a defect or is made to believe so.

Similarly bullies just like their victims have a distorted view or opinion about themselves. For these reason they require proper care and counseling. They need to respect themselves and others. This will not come easily as most bullies want to impose their authority on others. In some cases bullying becomes the only way to prove their worth. Most of them actually perform poorly in school.

Conclusion
The existence of peer groups and subcultures in the society is an indicator of discontent among children. The formation of these groups, more so of the latter, is a rebellion from the dominant group. Children need recognition and a sense of worth without necessarily having to stoop to those who seem privileged. However, there are circumstances which are beyond control of the society. Sometimes parents will unconsciously demoralize their children. A child with low self- esteem has no other alternative but join peer groups. As much as the groups might give the child a sense of belonging and identity he or she might be mislead. It is therefore important for children to be provided with necessary attention and favorable environment to develop fully.

The ages between 2 and 5 are often called the preschool years. During these years, children change from clumsy toddlers into lively explorers of their world. Physically, a child becomes stronger and starts to look longer and leaner. Physical growth is slower than in the first 2 years of life, but the outward changes can be dramatic as American Academy of Pediatrics (2004) documents that by 2 years of age, most children grow at a steady pace, although it has slowed from the phase of rapid growth during the first 18 months of life. Here a child can alternate between feeling excited, confused, and scared about their emerging independence. Temper tantrums may start occurring regularly.

By 3 years of age, most children Look leaner and longer compared to the early toddler years. Most children have gained about 4.4 lb (2 kg) and grown about 3 in (8 cm) since their second birthday. By 4 years of age, most children Have gained about 4.4 lb (2 kg) and grown about 3 in (8 cm) since turning 3.  Can say their name, identify some basic colors, and match things that are the same (such as a pair of socks). By 5 years of age, most children Have gained about 4.4 lb (2 kg) and grown about 3 in (8 cm) since turning 4.  For eating, it is important to note that finicky eating habits are common and normal in preschoolers. Many children have smaller appetites than they had in their younger years because they are growing more slowly therefore parents should ensure they offer nourishing foods from the major food groups.

The human brain is not a finished organ at birth -- in fact, another 10 or 12 years are needed before even a general development is completed, Ginsburg KR, et al. (2007). Structural maturation of individual brain regions and their connecting pathways is required for the successful development of cognitive, motor, and sensory functions. This maturation eventually provides for a smooth flow of neural impulses throughout the brain, which allows for information to be integrated across the many spatially segregated brain regions involved in these functions. T. Paus et al. (2000) reports that the speed of neural transmission is an important factor, and this depends not only on the junctions between nerve cells (synapses), but also on the structural properties of the connecting fibers (axons). Critical axon structural properties include their diameters and the thickness of the special insulation (myelin) around many fibers. Myelination is the insulating process that speeds up the transmission of neural impulses. Large groups of myelinated axons, which connect various regions in the brain, appear visibly as white matter. Axons of the major pathways in the human brain, such as those of the corpus callosum (which connects the two halves of the brain) or the corticospinal tract (which connects the brain to the spinal cord and the rest of the body), continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence, Myelinization is thus a major aspect of the workings of neural circuits. Adult primates with large brains require fast flowing information. Myelin coated axons make this possible. At age 5 there is a growth in the corpus callosum a band of nerve fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain resulting to the communication between the two sides which enables coordination. This refers to lateralization. The left hemisphere is specialized in language and this happens about two years while the right hemisphere specializes in recognition of visual shapes. Therefore, if this portion is removed or severed, plasticity occurs which refers to the changing of neurons, the organization of their networks, and their function via new experiences i.e. lack of coordination.

Gross motor skills include activities such as running, jumping,  throwing. At age 5 most children are skilled and graceful to learn basic motor skills by teaching themselves  learning from other children. However, fine motor skills(artistic expression) involves activities such as small hand movementscutting food with a knife and fork, and children normally experience difficulty  because they have not yet developed the necessary muscle control, patience and judgement. It is the duty of parents and teachers to help children master fine motor skills through encouragement.

Ginsburg KR, et al. (2007), indicates that about two thirds of childhood deaths among preschool children involve nonvehicular causes which include falling, drowning, choking, and poisoning. Studies show that boys suffer more injuries. However the strongest risk factor of all is socioeconomic status (brain immaturity) which is caused by child maltreatment which is any intentional harm or avoidable endangerment to anyone under age 18. This has raised ideas on intervention and prevention policies.

The intervention policies devised include laws requiring any teacher, health professional, police officer, or social worker to report all cases instituting a differential response deciding to respond either one way or another, depending on the particular situation foster care a legally sanctioned, publicly supported arrangement in which children are officially removed from their parents and entrusted to another adult or family which is paid to nurture them permanency planning devising a plan for a childs long-term care that does not remove the child from the parents unless doing so is necessary kinship care a form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child takes over from the abusive or neglectful parents. Prevention measures include primary prevention an approach that is designed to prevent maltreatment from ever occurring secondary prevention preventing serious problems by spotting and treating the early warning signs that indicate maltreatment might develop and tertiary prevention aimed at halting the harm after it occurs and treating the victim.

Questions
1. Describe the six stages of Piagets sensorimotor development. Explain what is meant by feedback loops and circular reactions. In what ways was Piaget mistaken about infant development
Piaget describe the first 2 years of life as the sensorimotor stage of development. There are six sub-stages of the sensorimotor stage.  In sub-stage 1 (0-1 months) of the sensorimotor stage, Piaget described the infant as interacting with her environment on a reflexive level and not differentiating herself from other objects.  In sub-stage 2 (1-4 months) the infant is beginning to acquire feelings, but still does not show behaviors that would imply that she has an understanding of her own movements as they relate to other objects.  During sub-stage 3 (4-8 months) the young child starts to anticipate the positions of objects in motion and sees herself as the cause for all events (Wadsworth, 1996).  According to Piaget, it is in stage 4 of the sensorimotor stage that the young child starts showing observable intelligence in regard to objects in her environment.  That is, the young child begins solidifying the concept of causality.  Her actions on objects begin to show intentionally toward a goal (Wadsworth, 1996).

The next sub-stage, sub-stage 5, describes the experiences of the young child who is approximately 12-18 months of age.   This sub-stage is characterized by behaviors described as more intentional in regard to the young childs interaction with objects.  Where as in sub-stage 4, when meansends activity was the primary mode of interaction, the young child in sub-stage 5 executes a more experimental or intentional method of achieving her goal.  There is a greater level of maturity or at least a more cognitive exploration of objects in this period as compared to the previous period.  Before this period, the interaction was unidirectional.  Now the young child begins to recognize that an object, which has a specific spatial context, can, in addition to cause and effect, be a source of activity independent of her own body (Wadsworth, 1996).

The final sub-stage is Sub-stage 6.  This sub-stage describes the young child who is approximately 18 to 24 months of age.  Piaget characterized the young child in this sub-stage of sensorimotor development as being able to use analogy to problem solve even in novel situations.  This sub-stage is describes as a stage of invention or cognition not based on trial-and-error activity.  Problem solving is a mentally-based, rather than a physically-based activity.  It is at this sub-stage that true and complete object permanence, as well as the concept of logic, emerges.  Observation of the young child who has achieved this period of development illustrates that she has mastered both sequential and invisible displacement.  She would, therefore, search for an object methodically and with logic rather than with trial-and-error experimentation.

Feedback loops and circular reactions are the processes of rediscovering chance coordinations and their preservation through repetition.  Due to the formation of new coordinations between reflexes, the functional repertoire of the infants gets elaborated, which in turn leads to new schemes.  Thus, the various sub-stages of sensorimotor intelligence are characterized by increasing degrees of elaboration and coordinations between schemes.

In some ways, Piaget was also mistaken about infant development since his theory tends to ignore the cognitive skills typically assigned to the right hemisphere of the cerebral cortex.  He tends to ignore intuitive-creative thinking and the holistic use of information which relies on hunches.

2. What are schema  Describe and discuss the processes of adaptation to new information.

Schema, is a term that Piaget described as the cognitive or mental structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize the environment (Wadsworth, 1996, p. 14).  It is in the creation of new schema that the young child becomes more methodical in her adaptations and interactions with objects and her environment.  It is through maturation and the interaction with the environment that the original schemas at birth develop into elaborate or new complex schemas.  The complexity of schemas may vary from a simple structure representative of a specific and simple act to one composed of multiple and interrelated structures representing a theory applicable to many complex present and future problems.  Such a generalizable schema is a powerful tool and may explain why a child may be able to solve new problems with unexpected accuracy and rapidity.
 
3. Describe the information-processing theory of cognition, and discuss how changes in the areas of affordances, categorization, and memory abilities have contributed to our understanding of infant cognition.

The information-processing theory of cognition offered a more suitable explanation for the development of complex innovative behaviors. This theory is especially appealing to psychologists who view man as an active, striving, self-directing organism.  Changes in the areas of affordances, categorization, and memory abilities have contributed to our understanding of infant cognition.  Affordances, categorization, and memory abilities are all crucial both to the conceptual development and linguistic development of young children. In categorization, children gain mental structures of the world or form concepts. Forming a concept often involves forming a category (Mandler, 2003). In memory abilities, they acquire ways to represent and communicate these structures with language. Without categorization, we would have to respond anew to each novel instance or problem we encounter (Quinn, 2003). Cognitive operations from concept formation to judgment, memory, problem-solving and inventive-thinking all involve the areas of affordances, categorization, and memory abilities (Bruner et al., 1956).4. Compare and contrast Skinners and Chomskys theories of language development. What is the current thinking about the processes of language development

Until now stimuli and responses have been discussed only as observables. The attempt to explain all of behavior on the basis of observables has been the goal of radical behaviorists for a number of decades.  A high point in this attempt was Skinners (1957) explanation of language behavior.  However, Skinners work was judged by Chomsky (1959) to be inadequate for linguistic analysis.  Currently, learning theorists of a less fundamentalist bent have dealt with the issue of nonoobservables in the explanation of the process of language development.

Moral development is an important factor in all humans. According to Piaget and Kohlberg religion, morality and values develops early in the life of children and continues till adolescence stage. There is hardly any differences in gender as both boys and girls are motivated by the same circumstances. This behavior at some stage tends to be rebellious, but this can last only a certain period. Children require the support of parents, community and schools in order to emerge as responsible adults.

Progression of Moral Reasoning
According to Piaget the initial sign of children moral reasoning is the strict adherence to duties and rules (Carpendale, 2000). The stage is heteronomous resulting from a childs cognitive structure. Young children in general are egocentric. They tend to project their wishes and thoughts on others. They are also characterized by moral realism believing in immanent justice. Children expect all wrongdoing to be followed with punishment. According to Piaget the relationship between adults and children contributes a great deal to the latter moral thinking (Carpendale, 2000). Adults hand down power to the children. However, as they play together with fellow children only rules seen as practical are observed. The children go ahead to formulate their own rules.

On the other hand Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development. He observed a compulsory progression through the stages for each individual. The last two stages, five and six and however not attained by every individual (Daeg de Mott, 2001). The three levels contain two stages each. The preconventional level has an egocentric and individualistic point of view. The third and fourth level is conventional level whereby a child acts from the perspective of a society member, maintaining society norms and behavior. In the last two stages or postconventional level the individual acts from abstract ideals based on principles.

Gender Differences in Moral Reasoning
There are a number of conflicting studies on whether or not women and men differ in their moral reasoning. According to some researchers there is a difference in the manner which men and women solve moral dilemmas (Dawson, 1995). Women consider moral issues in terms of compassion, caring and relationships while on the other hand men consider the same in terms of individual rights and justice rules. However, another research conducted on accounting majors indicates absence of a significant difference in moral reasoning between the genders (Gowing, 2005). In addition differences in values were seen to be insignificant though female students tended to be more concerned about equality and self-direction.

Adolescence Egocentrism
Adolescences often feel that no one is interested in them and that they are unique. This creates a feeling that no one can understand them. They create for themselves an imaginary audience and believe to be the centre of attention (Santrock, 2005). All this is important as it leads to the ability to process information and improve vast areas in memory. It is at this period that the breadth of knowledge expands. The adolescent is not expected to continuously think in this manner. As he or she increases the content of knowledge and matures in thoughts soon the behavior changes for the better (Gibbs, 2003).One may ease rebellion and become close to family members. He or she might listen to other peoples views and opinions. Friendship and relationships become more mature.

Discrepancy in Thoughts and Behavior
It is easy for adolescence to cheat despite moral and religious views. There a number of reasons for this behavior. First, adolescences feel a sense of uniqueness and want believe that no one understands them. As much as they may understand what is expected of them and or what is right still they want to experiment with their life. Again, there are moral and or religious views which prescribe actions opposed to a particular group (Guttmann, 1984). This would mean alienating some of them.

Adolescents want to explore life to the fullest, make own decisions and appear in charge. Regulations that impede this progress will be shunned. Again, according to Kohlberg theory it is at this stage that abstract thoughts develop. As much as there is much pressure for adolescences to conform, they feel an obligation to rebel. This is a way to use their thoughts to arrive at a solution.

Support for Development of Moral Reasoning
The moral development of children can be said to be influenced by biology and the environment. Since the latter can hardly be changed then parents, schools and communities at large must endeavor to create n ideal environment for the growth of children. Parents for instance must try early in life to provide stimulating materials to enable children discover their world (Daeg de Mott, 2001). They should practice to talk and read to their children. Similarly schools and communities must create opportunities for children to explore their world. Special care and attention should be given to anti-social students (Gibbs, 2003). As much as there are rules and regulations, there should be an opening for self realization. The children must be allowed to experiment with their thoughts and ideas though with some degree of supervision.

Conclusion
Children have a strong sense of right and wrong. This sense is given with the society that the children grow up in. As they mature, children explore the world and come to understand the reasons why society behaves the way it does. They are thereby enabled to come up with an identity which may or may not be in agreement with society. It is primarily for this reason that society should endeavor to give the very best to their children.

Significance of obesity
The problem of obesity is a very significant one but most adolescents tend to underestimate it. According to the World Health organization, there are more than a billion overweight people. Alarmingly, 300 of them are obese. Adolescents are highly prone to obesity.

Risk factors contributing to obesity
The change in lifestyle and behavioral patterns of people that was not there a couple of decades back are the most significant factors that contribute to obesity. Globalization of food market, increasing purchasing power of people, modern lifestyle and urbanization has led to an increase in obesity that is spreading like an epidemic. Technology has advanced at an accelerated pace. Whether it is leisure or work people have various options to indulge from home. There is increased and automated transport facility. Decrease in physical activity and intake of complex diet that contains high level of sugar and saturated fat are also the contributing factors.

Problems that result from obesity
Fatal problems like type 2 diabetes, stroke, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and even some forms of cancer like large bowel cancer and hormonally related cancers are the results of obesity. Apart from these, some non fatal health conditions like infertility, skin diseases, chronic musculoskeletal and respiratory problems are also the results of obesity.

Suggested approaches to reduce the incidence of obesity
Individuals should increase the intake of whole grains, vegetables, nuts and fruits. They should cut down on food items that have high contents of saturated fat and sugar. They should start physical activities like brisk walking for at least half an hour regularly. There should a constant urge in individuals to maintain their weight. If weight gets reduced people should not return to the old lifestyle, rather continue with it.

Significance of anorexia nervosa
Anorexia Nervosa is a very significant problem as adolescents suffering from it are obsessed with weight loss even when they are slim and slender. They go to the extent of making themselves throw up food in order to maintain their body weight. This attitude is a serious threat not only to the physical but also mental well being of a person.

Risk factors contributing to anorexia nervosa
Major risk factors that contribute to this eating disorder are dieting, low self esteem, body dissatisfaction, childhood sexual abuse, family history of eating disorders, and obsession with perfectionism.

Problems that result from anorexia nervosa
Problems that are result of this eating disorder are dry yellowish skin, insomnia, restlessness, growth of fine hair all over the body including face, fainting tendency, dizziness, headache, mood swings, irritability, bad memory, andominal pain, constipation, loss of menstrual periods, weakness, lack of energy, tendency of feeling cold all the time, hair loss, slow heart rate, fluttering of the heart, low blood pressure, anemia, swollen joints osteoporosis, kidney stones, kidney failure, bloating, constipation, low level of sodium, magnesium, potassium, brittle nails, if pregnant then high chances miscarriages, chances of low weight babies, post natal depression etc.

Suggested approaches to reduce the incidence of anorexia nervosa
The first and foremost approach would be to educate adolescents about anorexia and the problems that one can face if suffering from this disorder. There should be ways to increase their self esteem. There should be dissemination of information about what are the healthy eating habits and make the sufferers aware of the coping techniques. Family therapy can also prove to be extremely helpful especially if an individuals family history of eating disorders gets detected.

Significance of bulimia nervosa
Just like other eating disorders, bulimia nervosa is both medical and psychological problem as a bulimic adolescent can consume around 3000  5000 calories in as less as 60 minutes. Those who suffer from it indulge in  secretive excessive eating and then use inappropriate methods like purging, crash dieting, excessive exercising, using laxatives, diuretics etc. in order to get rid of the results. Hence it is a kind of obsession that needs to be treated as soon as its symptoms appear.

Risk factors contributing to bulimia nervosa
There is a certain section of people who have high risks of suffering from this disorder. This set of people are those adolescents who aim to become performing artists like, actors, gymnasts, models, ballet dancers or sportspeople like runners, wrestlers etc. Factors like low self esteem, poor body image, dieting are also some of the reasons that contribute to this disorder. If there is a family history of bulimia nervosa then too a person has high chances of being a victim to it. Sometimes young girls and boys who are undergoing physical changes due to puberty or those who have recently gone through break up of a relationship also become prone to this disorder.

Problems that result from bulimia nervosa
Abdominal pain, bloating, constipation due to laxative abuse, loss of menstrual periods, ulcers, acid reflux, mouth sores, tooth decay, esophagus, ruptured stomach, dizziness, weakness, swelling of feet and hands, hoarseness, chronic sore throat, broken blood vessels of the eyes, swollen salivary glands, swollen cheeks and weight gain are the problems that might occur due to bulimia nervosa.

Suggested approaches to reduce the incidence of bulimia nervosa
To reduce the incidence of this disorder it is important to educate the sufferer about its ill effects. Changing unhealthy thought processes and breaking the cycle of binge eating and purging would help. Therapy combined with antidepressants also prove to be extremely beneficial.

Self esteem is a cognitive characteristic whose status is highly influenced by the type of parenting style a child is brought up with in addition to the childs personality traits (Alarcon, 1997). It is therefore important to evaluate how parenting styles together with the childs personality affect the childs self esteem.

Parenting style and childs self esteem
There are four well known parenting styles. These include authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and uninvolved parenting (Alarcon, 1997, para 2). A child who is brought up through authoritative parenting stands higher chances of developing high self esteem. This is mainly because such parents allow their children to enjoy independence as well as a sense of individualism. In addition to giving necessary warmth and autonomy, such parents also set limits for their children. It is a lets talk it over parenting style and is effective in creating high self esteem (Alarcon, 1997, para 3).

An authoritarian parenting style is known to lead to low self esteem as the child is made to conform to the demands of the parent. There is no sense of autonomy and individuality and the child may suffer physical humiliation as a way of enforcing regulations. Such children are associated with low curiosity, unhappiness and withdrawal all of which indicate low self esteem (Alarcon, 1997).

A child who is brought up in permissive parenting style usually attains low self esteem. This is because the child is left to make their own decisions without even necessary regulations from the parent. Failure to set guidelines for the child and lack of restrictions makes the child immature and an underachiever. Uninvolved parenting equally results to low self esteem as the child feels rejected and the parent becomes uncaring. This leads to delinquent behaviors in the child.

In conclusion, it is important to note that a childs temperament influences the parenting style used. A difficult temperament leads to authoritarian parenting whereas an easy-going temperament is likely to make the parent use authoritative parenting style (Alarcon, 1997).

Interaction between students and the teachers is very important in assisting the students ability to achieve favorable results in class. Scaffolding can be described as a technique used to issue instructions in which case the teacher aspires to model a desirable learning strategy or task with the aim of steadily shifting responsibilities to the students. In general, scaffolding can be defined as the type of assistance accorded by the teacher or peer in support of the learning activity. Proper administration of scaffolding provides a link between what the students already know and what they do not know (Lipscomb, Swanson,  West, 2008). Scaffolding therefore is directly related to cognitive development in human beings. This paper will relate scaffolding and cognitive development in a four year old child and that of a person who is about to graduate from college.

Scaffolding and Cognitive Dev elopement
At four years of age, an individuals cognitive development is exhibited in development of symbolic thought. This refers to the ability of the individual to represent concrete objects, actions, and events based on the mental and symbolic capabilities. At this age, individuals are capable of problem solving, they think about cause and effect relations, and are able to express these ideas to others (Seefeldt, Wasik, 2006). At a time when one is about to graduate from college, the individual is at the formal operational stage of cognitive development. This stage begins at twelve and continues into adulthood.

This stage is characterized by development in abstract thought and therefore individuals can conserve and provide logical thinking in the mind (Huitt,  Hummel, 2003). It is therefore clear that scaffolding will highly be required at four years than when an individual is about to graduate from college. At four years, the teachers have a greater responsibility of molding the child compared to the responsibility of the teachers at college level.

Conclusion
Many pre-school and other educational programs are formulated based on the cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget. Scaffolding is therefore applied based on the principle of cognitive development and parents and teachers in challenging the abilities of the child are not supposed to present materials and information that is not commensurate to the childs level of development.