Psychology

Rosenhans (1973) study, as was discussed in the authors scholarly article, On being Sane in Insane Places, has explored one specific issue that challenges the field of Psychology in an attempt to set the boundaries between sanity and insanity or normality and abnormality. Rosenhans (1973) interest in exploring the issue was due to the inconsistencies on existing data or information about the standards that are used to label individuals as sane, insane, mentally ill, and such. In general, Rosenhans view is that ideas and perceptions about sanity and insanity are not universal and depends on actual situations and various contexts in which events that depict behavior occur.

Rosenhan (1973) proceeded to conduct an experiment in order to further explore the issue. In the experiment, Rosenhan (1973) asked eight sane people, with most of them related to the field of psychology and psychiatry. The eight pseudopatients went to different hospitals to be admitted for experiencing odd behavior, such as hearing voices. When the patients were admitted to the psychiatric ward, they however exhibited their normal behavior. Although the patients have exhibited their usual or normal behavior, the staff at the psychiatric ward was unable to detect the sane behaviors exhibited. Overall, the conclusion of Rosenhan (1973) was that the understanding of sanity and insanity is biased, which the author named as Type 2 error. Type 2 error is such that physicians are more likely to label healthy people as sick due to their behavior, than to evaluate the behavior of sick people and label them as healthy when they exhibit normal behavior.

The findings and conclusions of Rosenhan (1973) have stirred numerous critiques and feedback from other scholars. The succeeding sections will look into some of the discussions by other scholars about the findings of Rosenhan (1973).

Critiques about Rosenhans On Being Sane in Insane Places
Weiner (1975) has strongly argued that the study of Rosenhan (1973) was irrational, but that the behavior and judgments of physicians are rational. Weiner (1975) justified the argument by saying that Rosenhans (1973) perception of the inability of physicians to detect sane from insane behavior and that the psuedopatients should have been released earlier since they did not exhibit insane  behavior should not only be based on the study the latter conducted since it could be that the physicians in charge of the psychiatric wards were keeping the eight pseudopatients for further investigation in order to determine when the symptoms for schizophrenia would then appear. (Weiner 1975)

Crown (1975) also shares the criticisms of Weiner. According to Crown (1975), the identification of sane and insane behavior is not merely evaluated through observation or the display of sane behavior from patients. The capacity of physicians to truly detect sane and insane behavior is from the interaction between the patient and the pseudopatient. Furthermore, the work of physicians in the field of psychiatry is not limited to the behavior of patients, such that patients admitted to the psychiatric ward who exhibit normal behavior are easily discharged. Physicians, to label people as sane or insane, require a great amount of time for observation and comprehensive assessment. (Crown 1975)

Other critiques on Rosenhans (1973) study were based on technicalities. For Crown (1975), the use of pseudopatients stirs up arguments about the ethical use of pseudopatients in conducting  a scientific research and that merely questioning the ethical standards of the study will place the validity and reliability of the study in jeopardy. The same argument was shared by Millon (1975) and Spitzer (1975). Millon strongly expressed that the empirical data obtained from the experimental study was seriously flawed. Millons (1975) argument was that Rosenhan (1973) was not able to place the variables in a controlled environment in order to yield more precise, valid, and reliable results. Furthermore, Millon (1975) said that the Rosenhan (1973) failed to exhibit logic and rationalism in interpreting the results of the study.

According to Spitzer (1975), the findings of Rosenhan (1973) have failed to meet the standards for validity and reliability. Furthermore, the fact that the pseudopatients were discharged as in remission means that the physicians were able to detect that the pseudopatients were not insanely ill. The rational judgment of the physicians based on their prolonged observation of the behavior of the pseudopatients contradicts the conclusions of Rosenhan (1973) and the authors interpretation of the results of the study.

Determining Sanity and Insanity
Based on the study of Rosenhan (1973) and the criticisms of other scholars on the formers study as previously discussed, a specific description of sanity and insanity materialized which may guide individuals in labeling emotions, thoughts, and behaviors as sane or insane. Detecting emotions, thoughts, and behaviors as psychologically abnormal requires a careful and considerable amount of effort in making observations and interacting with an individual to base the judgments or evaluation on. It is not enough that individuals merely say they are insane, although it would be one of the primary manifestations that would signal that individual to seek professional help.

However, based on the study of Rosenhan (1973), insanity should be based on the consistency of the prolonged behavior of an individual. In the study, the pseudopatients were discharged as in remission as their behavior indicated that they were not insane. Hence, behavior plays a significant role in determining sanity and insanity, but such behaviors should be carefully observed and diagnosed in order to be labeled as specific abnormal behaviors. Rational judgments may be based on the difference between normal and abnormal behavior. Individuals who display abnormal behavior that are psychological in nature, such as talking to invisible people, extreme display of behavior, unresponsiveness to people, and so on may be labeled as insane. Furthermore, the study by Rosenhan (1973) may emphasize the consistency in the thought process and behavior of individuals in labeling them as sane or insane. As previously discussed, it is not enough that people say they are hearing voices for instance, they should be able to think that they are hearing voices and act as if they are hearing voices. Abnormal behavior should then be something that the person exhibits in thought and in action.

The  problem in such descriptions is that it limits how individuals are to be labeled as sane or insane. For one, individuals cannot be labeled as insane because they display abnormal behavior. What if these individuals are merely odd or eccentric Thus, normality should not be the only basis for determining sanity or insanity. Furthermore, the previous definitions will most likely lead to errors in the judgments and observations of physicians. Physicians work based on guidelines or protocol. The judgments of physicians are based on what the patient says he thinks, and as proven by the research of Rosenhan (1973), physicians are able to act on specific cases simply by listening to what the patient says although it may be that the patient merely says it and not really thinks and acts it. The previous argument supports the arguments of Rosenhan (1973) on the inconsistency and flaws of judging people and labeling them as sane or insane. Furthermore, it proves how the rules of sanity and insanity are utilized in other situations such as criminal cases. The previous descriptions of insanity may make it easy for criminals to claim insanity by exhibiting how physicians regard insane individuals to be.

However, for individuals who are not directly linked to the field of psychology and psychiatry, the descriptions above may do in helping them determine sane or insane individuals from each other but it should not simply be the ultimate guide for making judgments. Furthermore, the previous descriptions may serve as basis or groundwork for future studies and research on abnormal study. The criticisms of some scholars on Rosenhans (1973) work may have been instrumental in establishing further studies on abnormal psychology since the arguments have raised specific important inquiries about sanity and insanity.

Overall, based on the previous discussions, it is important that abnormal psychology and the study of human behavior remain flexible, especially since there are various open arguments and flaws on the limited views and perspectives of sanity and insanity. The field of psychology and psychiatry should be very much open to new research studies and trends in understanding behavior in order to come up with various solutions to the problems concerning the inconsistencies on how sanity and insanity may be judged. It is also useful that scholars continue to critique research studies in order to arrive at various arguments that would set forth important questions that would guide the continuous development of the mentioned fields.

The client I present for this case study is the family of my aunt and uncle. As at present, my aunt, Kristina is 45 years old and my uncle, Erick is 52 years old. Their relationship started out during the years that Europeans were trying to escape to America for freedom and success. At this time, my aunt was also interested in moving to America. Thus, an arrangement was made by my mother for my sister to travel in the custody of Erick, who by coincidence, was also preparing to move to America at this time.

Not so much was known about Erick or his background at the time he was moving with Kristina to America. On a quick assessment of his personality, Erick was charming and good looking. He also had a lot of money. Though my aunt had no expectations of staying with this man or going into any relationship with him after their journey to America, Ericks charm swept her off her feet. He would wine and dine with her and take her on visits to different places for recreations before they even arrived at America. With these kind gestures, my aunt eventually fell in love with Erick and so did he though they knew little about each other at this time. However, later on, my mother found out about Ericks background from word of mouth. Information had it that he had been previously married, more than once and had impregnated his current wife at the time he was coming to America. He had succeeded to move out of the country without the woman he impregnated. My aunt had also been married to a man by the name, Arthur prior to meeting Erick. However, she had separated from this man after having a child for him. The child is Arthur by name.

Erick and Kristina eventually got to America with the hope of putting their respective pasts behind and settling down together for a fulfilled life as husband and wife. However, the events evolving in the marriage with time would prove this desire otherwise. 

Description of the Presenting Problem
The problem under consideration had begun a couple of years into being married and living together after the arrival of the couple in America. Erick would not leave his old habit of substance abuse through alcohol for a long time. This habit resurfaced again. The fact that Erick likes partying and social gathering was not in any way helpful. The situation grew worse with every social gathering Erick went. Invariably, the substance abuse degenerated into abuse on my aunt (Ericks wife). Signs of abuse were apparent on my aunt, as she became the object of various forms of verbal, physical and mental abuse. For instance, Erick would get intoxicated get behind the wheel, taking my aunt along with him for a rough ride in the car just to scare her. He would take a wire from a phone line and tie it around her neck in the car while driving at increasingly fast and dangerous speed.

These changes in Ericks attitude had a traumatic influence and transformation on the family as a whole. Kristina was the most affected. She even attempted to commit suicide at a time by hanging herself in the bathroom. She later got a re-think and resolved to divest her energy into finding God. Invariably, she began studying and practicing Judaism at full force. She attended the synagogue almost everyday just to avoid the troubles at the home front.

My cousin, Arthur was also involved in the trauma faced by the family as he was living with his mother Kristina. By witnessing different situations of abuse on his mother and the strict and mean attitude to him all from Erick, he started learning similar habits unconsciously. By observing acts of injustice towards his mother, Arthur expectedly would have revolted. However, considering the attitude of his stepfather towards him, voicing out his feelings becomes impossible. Over time, he too developed aggressive behaviors, which is likely to be partly as an outcome of his reaction towards perceived injustice (Greenberg  Alge, 1998) and partly through modeling by his stepfather (Corporate Leadership Council, 1999). Now, my cousin is 27 years old and it is evident that he behaves in the same manner as his stepfather. He has no problem hitting his girlfriend across the face in a public area for acting out. He cannot manage his anger unless it is through violence. Besides, he has a difficult time staying faithful and honest to his partners.

Some time after the episodes of abuses started, Ericks family lost their house because he was not paying his taxes. They were forced to move into a small apartment as result. This transition had a bad turn out on the entire family. The husband drowned himself in his new restaurant business where there was unlimited amount of alcohol and women. The mother would work and, after work, attend the synagogue until it was time to go home to sleep. Arthur also moved in with his girlfriend into the small apartment along with the rest of the family and developed an obsession for gambling and steroids. Later on, Erick had to sell his restaurant business to his partner because of the downturn in the economy.
Recently, I found out that Erick had impregnated Kristinas close female friend and now lives with her while lying to Kristina and telling her that he is going for fishing for a couple of days. This female friend had later attended Ericks birthday and brought the child with her sometime after she delivered. Kristina was still oblivious to what is going on around her.

The situation did not grow better as Erick shows signs of disengagement towards Kristina, and this has led her to reframe herself from the family. For instance, I found her recently waiting for a friend outside a restaurant on her birthday without the family. She goes to the synagogue to mop the floors but her house is left in unsanitary and unkempt conditions. When around her husband at home, she is very nurturing and attentive, because that is how he has set the boundaries. Erick continues to display acts of narcissism, intimidating and paralyzing the voices of other members of the family. For instance, around the kitchen table, he has a master king chair that no one in the family is allowed to sit on except him.

Intervention
For this family, intervention is needed as a whole as well as for each member. In my opinion, the family has coexisting problems that have stemmed far back as before the family had begun. This is evident by the multiple relationships that the couples have been involved in prior to and at the time they came together as husband and wife. Each of them have had difficulties coexisting with one partner for long. As a result, they have endured many stresses in the past and this has reflected in the way they are handling the present relationship. Besides, I feel there is a gender inequality and this might provide a major explanation for crises. Addictions of with alcohol and infidelity are other factors.

Firstly, I considered using genograms in my sessions with the couple (Nichols  Schwartz, 2008). This way I can go back three generations from Ericks side and Kristinas side to study the history of the families of each. For Erick I came to realize that his biological father was very well off financially and, as a result, has an alpha dog mentality. My aunt Kristina, on the other hand, was raised in a household where she did not witness any type of abuse towards her mother by her father.

Before I would want to try family therapy on this particular family, I would encourage the husband to get some help such as a rehabilitation program for substance and sexual abuse. Once there are notable improvements as a result the rehabilitation program, I believe I can go into behavioral and cognitive therapy (Nichols  Schwartz, 2008). Everyone within this family has experienced trauma and I would hypothesize that a cognitive behavioral approach on each member separately might be necessary for a longer lasting treatment to shape a better future for this family as a whole.

I believe there are no prominent triangles formed in this family as detailed in Nichols  Schwartz (2008). There are only cutoffs and boundaries. The division between the family members is very apparent and I perceive that it was the wifes religious believe that have prevented divorce or separation so far. Kristina shows signs of aversive control because she will often cry and get withdrawn. Obviously, she is unhappy with the state of things in her marriage. To worsen this, Kristinas finances has been made vulnerable. The husband does as he pleases and does not bother himself again with family financial responsibilities since he sold his restaurant. Kristina solely provided financial support for her family and that includes Erick. Erick has been found to indulge himself in taking undue advantage of Kristinas finances.

In my opinion, Erick has rigid boundaries that needs to be addressed as a matter of prime importance. For intervention, a minimum of once a week therapy is recommended for Erick. The therapy would be a session for discussing his goals, his physical and mental state along with some other arising issues that he might be facing. Assigning homework to continue practicing positive behaviors and adjusting to daily triggers would be another approach. Feedbacks are expected about his successes or failures in executing his homework. In addition, ensuring that Erick is not overwhelmed and is prevented from having other relapses would be essential in having an effective outcome.

Kristinas aversion could be handled by asking her to focus on the positive sides of the whole scenario. She finds solace in going to the synagogues and this may not have occurred if there were no problems. In a way, she has had her problems met in that she has a place where she can find solace. I would ask her to focus more on this while displaying her warm attitude at home as well irrespective of what happens at the home front. I hope to make her visualize the possibility of integrating her whole family into the synagogue on the long run. This serves as a therapy for her in that she stands a chance of working agreeing with my recommendations to make this visual projection a reality. Progresses will also be monitored with a minimum of therapy discussions at least once a week. I hope that Arthur will be also positively influenced by the time changes starts occurring in the attitudes of the two leaders in the family.

The word culture does not have a very specific definition but it is generally used to refer to the way of life of a group of people which includes the behaviors, beliefs, values, attitudes and religion. In other words its the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group from another Culture is very diverse and there is a general consensus among anthropologists that people throughout the world have adapted to various widely differing conditions. Many separate societies around the globe differ markedly from each other in terms of language, traditions and many other aspects. Apart from these, there are also variations in the way they organize themselves, their shared concept of morality and the way they interact with the environment (Xenia, 2004). On the other hand, psychology is the science of the mind which is believed to be the source of all thoughts and behavior.

The discipline of psychology works towards understanding the role of mental functions in individual and social behaviors while exploring the psychological and neurological processes (Rartner, 2002). Culture and its significant role in human behavior has been recognized by psychological researchers and literature demonstrates cultural variations in many areas of psychology. In addition, the need to study culture in psychology was highlighted by the American Psychological Association most recently (Xenia, 2004).
 
Incorporation of culture in psychology in the past
In the past, there was a dormant perception of the importance of culture in psychology and psychological processes. Up to about 1950, it was believed that culture was not part of people and it was considered as a kind of experimental treatment. It was until the 1980s that many researchers started emphasizing the importance of culture in psychology because they had internalized that there were some aspects of culture that influence all psychological processes. After culture was incorporated into psychology, some researches generally used it as a means of testing the universality of psychological processes while others used it to determine how local cultural practices shaped psychological processes. Therefore cross-cultural psychologists became mostly involved in determining whether certain developmental stages were universal across a variety of cultures. On the other hand, cultural psychologists became interested in knowing whether the social practices of a particular culture shaped the development of cognitive processes in different ways. In addition, research done using cultural psychology informs several fields within psychology like social psychology, developmental psychology and cognitive psychology although it tends to contradict with the Universalist perspectives that are common in most fields of psychology (Shinobu  Coyen, 2007).

Importance of studying culture in relation to psychology
Based on the fact that all human behaviors are cultural to some extent, culture is of great importance in the field of psychology. Research has shown that the study of culture provides three main contributions to the understanding of human behavior and other mental processes. The great knowledge about cultural similarities and differences in behavior forms the basis for improving psychological theories. Culture helps in understanding the evolutionary and historical patterns of the human behavior. In this case, the study of culture plays the role of gauging how people are programmed to behave in certain situations and whether these behavioral patterns are common across cultures or whether there are only culture specific behaviors. Findings from cross cultural research have impacted all areas of psychology and it informs us the similarities and differences in attachment, child rearing and development.  Examples of the areas of development include personality, thinking, perceiving, reasoning and problem solving. Therefore cross cultural research has contributed to knowledge in every area of psychological inquiry (Hill  Kraal, 2003).

The study of culture is a prime example of critical thinking because cross-cultural research asks questions on how notions of truth and psychological principles are applicable to people. For this reason, culture will explain why social behavior differs in people and address the issue of why some individuals in society follow the prevailing group norms more than others. This is followed by an analysis of their values, an area in research that is particularly in cross-cultural research. Culture also plays the role of explaining social cognition giving emphasis on attribution. This is the tendency to explain human behavior in terms of reasons that are located either in the person or the environment. Similarly its from the study of culture that psychologists are able to understand gender behavior the perception of men and women in various societies, patterns in the selection of marriage partners, opinions on how men and women ought to behave and the differences in their psychological characteristics (Hill  Kraal,2003).

Another major contribution of culture in psychology is elucidating the process of psychological adjustments in individuals. Cross-cultural psychologists have studied this topic for many years and the findings that have emerged have appeared to be of great importance. Studies can be done on the factors that can predict intercultural adjustment success and the potential for that success. The Intercultural Adjustment Potential Scale (ICAPS) can be used because it predicts adjustment and adjustment related behaviors. These behaviors are above and beyond those predicted by personality and emotion recognition. Such studies are essential in the identification of psychological engines of adjustment. Psychological engines refer to the psychological skills which are necessary for a successful living in a multicultural environment. Examples of such psychological skills include emotion regulation, openness, flexibility, critical thinking and autonomy. Therefore culture functions in giving solutions to some psychological research studies by providing the appropriate tools like the ICAPS (Hill  Kraal, 2003).

Lastly, research on intercultural adjustment provides clues to psychologists about the possible psychological constructs necessary for adjusting well to life in a pluralistic and diverse environment. To elaborate this further, culture contributes towards psychology by helping in the creation of a universal psychology that is inclusive of many people of diverse backgrounds. Due to these, cross-cultural research has flourished and the new findings have gained recognition with more theories incorporating culture. Although many classic findings still remain classics up to date, results on the universality of facial expressions, the relationship between language and thought, some developmental processes and other traditional notions of psychological processes have been modified to include culture. Therefore, its essential to note that conceptions of self are bound culturally like the concrete manifestations of many psychopathological states. These developments are useful to psychology and cross cultural research has played an immensely big role in facilitating them (Hill  Kraal, 2003).

In conclusion, the incorporation of culture in psychological studies is of optimum importance because its part of an individual and most things that affect people psychologically are a result of what happens around them of which culture is not an exception. To be more specific, involving cross-cultural studies in psychology have always yielded good results that offer solutions to most psychological problems.

A mood disorder refers to a collection of diagnoses in DSM-IV-TR classification system, where an interruption in an individuals mood is purported to be the major primary characteristic. Depression is one of the major mood disorders, and is a medical condition which involves both the body and mind (American Psychiatric Association 994). It is also known as major depression, clinical depression or major depressive disorder. It affects individuals feelings, thinking as well as behavior. Depression disorder can as well result in an array of physical and emotional problems. People with this disorder may have problems carrying out daily activities (Mayo Clinic Staff 1). The purpose of this paper is to explore the symptoms, causes and DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria of depression disorder.

Major depression being one of mood disorders has signs and symptoms that include loss of sex drive, feeling of unhappiness, frustration and loss of pleasure in day to day activities. Like other mood disorders, an individual with major depression will experience excessive sleep, restlessness, slowed thinking, indecisiveness, fatigue, trouble in making essential decisions and frequent taught of committing suicide (Beck 10). This disorder affect each individual in a dissimilar way, thus symptoms differ from one person to the other. Cultural background, age, inherited traits and gender all play a significant role in how this disorder may affect an individual. In young children, depression symptoms may comprise hopelessness, sadness, worry and irritability. Symptoms in teens or adolescents may comprise anger, isolation from peers and anxiety. Slowed thinking and excessive sleep are frequent symptoms in adults and adolescents, though are never common in children (Croft 1).

The exact cause(s) of depression disorder is not yet known. Just like several mood or mental disorders, it seems a number of factors may be responsible. These include biological differences, neurotransmitters, hormones, inherited traits, life events and childhood traumatic events. Individuals with depression or other mood disorder seem to encompass physical transformations in their brains (Croft 1). The implication of these transformations remains uncertain, though may in due course assist pinpoint the causes. Additionally, natural brain chemicals, such as neurotransmitters are directly related to an individual mood and thus are thought to influence depression. Changes in the hormonal balance may as well trigger mood linked disorders, such as depression. Hormonal changes can emanate from menopause, thyroid problems and a variety of other conditions. Also, depression is more prevalent in individuals with a family history of such conditions. Several studies are being conducted to identify the gene that might be responsible for this mood related disorder. Similarly, events like financial problems, loss of a friend, death and elevated levels of stress can precipitate depression in some individuals. Whats more, traumatic events, such as death of a parent or abuse during childhood, may lead to lasting changes in a persons brain, making it highly susceptible to mood disorders, major depression included (Croft 1).   

According to DSM-IV TR, an individual suffering from depression ought to either encompass a loss of pleasure in normal activities or depressed mood constantly for a period of about two weeks (American Psychiatric Association 995). This mood should represent an alteration from an individuals typical mood, educational, occupational and social or other imperative functioning ought to be depressingly impaired by mood alteration. However, mood change as a result of substances, such as medications, drugs or medications is never diagnosed as a major depression. Equally, depression disorder can never be diagnosed if an individual contains a history of hypomanic, manic, mixed episodes or if depression is not superimposed on delusional disorder, schizophrenia, or psychotic disorder. Furthermore, when diagnosing depression disorder, symptoms resulting from bereavement are not considered unless they are consistent for a period of more than two months. In addition, symptoms, such as functional impairment, suicidal ideation, or psychomotor retardation are pertinent to diagnosis of depression disorder (American Psychiatric Association 996).

There a number of organizations that support people with mood disorders, the Mood Disorders Support Group (MDSG), is among such organizations. It is located in the New York City and was founded in 1981. MDSG serves individuals suffering from both unipolar (depression) and bipolar mood disorders, including their friends and families. The organization has found that when an individual is suffering from a mood related disorder the whole family undergoes through the same experience (Horowitz 1). Thus, supporting family members or friends is beneficial, as they will acquire the much needed skills effective in assisting the sufferer during the recovery process. Being a non profit making organization, MDSG assist individuals to accept and deal with their conditions to enhance quality of life. The organization offers an ample opportunity for those suffering from mood related disorders, such as depression or bipolar to share personal thoughts, experiences and feelings in minute, confidential gatherings. Likewise, MDSG non profit organization sponsors a variety of reliable lectures on a number of issues pertaining mood disorders. The lectures are solely designed to keep individuals with mood related disorders, their friends as well as families well-versed with current developments in the comprehension of mood disorders and the intervention for people having such disorders (Horowitz 1).

Development is characterized by the element of change wherein it is the process of moving from one state to another. In addition to this, the change in development is deemed as to have a lasting effect, which means that this change is not just any change but fundamental to the succeeding processes. This change in development is also deemed as a growth or progression through certain stages. These stages all point to a common end or goal. In relation to this, human development is characterized as maturity which is fairly demonstrated through action (Infed.Org, 2010, p.1).

Life span development is composed of the stages that human beings go trough. This process is life long and continuous that every human being goes through. From being conceived to childhood, adolescence, adulthood and eventually death, human beings go though certain changes that characterize these stages of development.

As we go through life, we are constantly changing. According to Mark Dombeck, Ph.D as he described life span development

From the moment we are first conceived, to the day we die, we are constantly changing and developing. While some of the changes we undergo are as a result of chance incidents and personal choices, the vast majority of life changes and stages we pass through are due to our common biological and psychological heritage as human beings and are shared by all people (2004, p.1).

From this, development is a lifelong process that all human beings go through. Also, human development is a process that is both influenced by the biological and the social aspect of the lives of human beings.

Development is also described as the mechanism by which human beings successfully respond to the challenges to living their lives as posed by a combination of their biology and social forces. Problems arise when these challenges are not met (Hendry  Kloep, 2002, p.8).

There are basically three major stages of human development namely childhood, adolescence and adulthood. As people go through such stages, they learn to master their bodies in order to communicate, form relationships, to work and to love (Dombeck, 2004, p.1).

In addition to this, Dombeck describes this mastery of the human body and human capacities as
Knowledge about how human lifespan development is supposed to unfold is important because it serves as the base upon which our life problems sit. If we fail to master a working knowledge of how to get dates as a teenager, for instance, we may later find ourselves with a socialanxietyproblem as an adult. If we are not properly nurtured as an infant, we may have difficulty trusting in relationships at all as an adult. Knowing something about how people typically develop themselves over time thus helpsusto place our problems and illnesses into context, and also suggests ways that our problems can be fixed (2004, p.1).

With this, the stage wherein a human being is at dictates what kinds of behavior she exhibits, what kinds of problems she encounters and what kind of solutions she will do about such problems. Overall, the stage of development influences the mind and behavior of the human being. In addition to this, when a problem in one stage is left unresolved and the person moves on to the next stage, problems will arise for the human being when she gets to the next stage of life span development.
Human development is not in the same rate with everybody. Some develop slower than the rest. It is important to note that although development is linked to ages, children develop at different rates and healthy development includes a wide range of ages. Being lagged behind by a few years is not alarming (Oswalt, 2008, p.1).

With this, the focus of the research emerges. The research aims to unravel whether the life span development of human beings are purely linear. The research will look into the question whether skipping one stage is possible in human development. In addition to this, the research will also be trying to study whether going back to a previous stage is possible or not. Furthermore, the study will also be looking at the stages of development and see whether human beings go through these stages at a certain order and do all life span stages have the same end.

The study will be using the stages of human development as written by Erikson (1959). The study will be focusing on the United States society and will be looking at the context of the lives of the people as embedded in the American society.

Children in their childhood stage are to be the focus of the study. Interviews with the parents of the children will be utilized in the case study. The children going through the different sub-stages of childhood are going to be the basis of the study in answering the research questions.

Theoretical Framework
Development is the changes that human beings go through from being conceived until death. The study of development seeks to find answers as to how and why human beings to change throughout life. Life span or human development does not only cover biological and physical developments but also includes emotional, intellectual, perceptual and personality development. Development studies not only the physical development of human beings but also the social and cognitive changes they go through (Cherry, 2010, p.1).

Development has three different but overlapping domains. The first domain is the biological domain which includes the bodily changes, maturation and growth that human beings go through. The second domain is the cognitive domain which refers to mental processes such as knowing, imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving. The third domain is the psychosocial domain which refers to the emotions, personality and social interactions and expectations of individuals among other human beings (Learner.Org, 2010, p.1).

Many theorists have provided stages of human development but this research will utilize Erik Eriksons theory and focus on the psychosocial domain of human development.

For Erikson, human beings develop by meeting a series of personal and social tasks that must be conquered for further development. These tasks are crises that the individuals must learn to cope with. These challenges are met in the life course thus making development a process that is discontinuous because they appear in stages but are life long (Hendry  Kloep, 2002, p.8).

Erikson provided eight stages of human development. These stages are characterized by the primary aim that the individual must develop. The first stage is the infancy stage which covers conception until one year of age. In this stage, the child aims to develop trust instead of mistrust towards others. The second stage is the early childhood which encompasses one to three years of age. In this stage, the child must learn self-control and autonomy and overcome shame and doubt on ones abilities. The third stage is the play stage which covers three to six years of age. The task in this stage is to develop mastery of the environment the ability to balance ones desires or interests over others needs. In this stage, the child must develop this sense of balance instead of feeling guilty about conflicting interests. The fourth stage is the school age which encompasses ages six to twelve. In this stage, the task of the child is to develop self-assurance and industry. In this stage, the child must conquer inferiority towards others (Hendry  Kloep, 2002, p.8).

The next stage that Erikson stated is the stage of adolescence. This stage encompasses ages twelve to twenty years. In this stage the individual must develop social, sexual and occupational identity. In this stage, the individual must resolve issues with conflicting roles and must overcome role confusion (Hendry  Kloep, 2002, p.8).

Adulthood is composed of four sub stages. The first among the stages of adulthood is young adulthood. This stage covers individual ages twenty to forty years of age. In this stage, individuals must learn to form intimate relationships with other people. The individual must learn to have intimate and mature friendly and love relationships with other people. She must overcome social isolation. The next stage is middle adulthood which ranges from forty to sixty five years of age. In this stage, the individual must overcome stagnation and must do something to impart to the next generation. This may be done through raising children or making contributive works for the succeeding generations. The final stage of the life span development and also adulthood is old age which encompasses individuals ages sixty five and above. In this stage, the individual must achieve integrity through evaluating hisher life positively. In the stage of old age, the human being must overcome the challenge of despair and bitterness (Hendry  Kloep, 2002, p.8)

Statement of the Research Problem
 Are the stages of development purely linear
Is it possible for a person to skip one stage and head to another
Is regression  going back to the previous stage  possible in human development
Is it possible for a person to go through the stages in a different order
Do all the stages have on end goal

Research Objectives
The study aims to answer whether the stages of lifespan development is purely linear. More specifically, the research aims to
Determine the possibility of a person skipping one stage of development and heading to another.
Identify if regression is possible in the stages of development.
Unravel whether it is possible to go through the stages in a different set of order
Determine if all the stages have on and only end.

Scope and Delimitation
The study will be covering one out of the three domains of development. The research will only look into the psychosocial domain of development. The biological and cognitive domains of development will not be tackled so much in the study. These two other domains will only be mentioned in passing for the psychosocial domain of human development will be the primary focus of the study. In addition to this, Eriksons stages of psychosocial human development is the theory that will be used in referring to the stages of development. Eriksons stages are the only one to be used in the study regardless of the vast theories that provided stages of development.

The research will be studying adult American males and females. Their childhood and their experiences in their childhood stage are to be the subject of the study. Only American children are to be studied such because development is culturally determined. Since Eriksons stages of development, and almost all other theories in psychology, is Western based, using the theory on an American context is found to be apt.

Significance of the Study
The study mainly challenges the prevalent view on human development. The research questions the existing theories of human development by posing a challenge on its linearity and its universality. Human development theories are challenged by posing the question on the possibility of skipping a stage or going back to a stage. In addition to this, the theories are challenged because the nature of the order of the stages is questioned and with life span theories being linear, the nature of the end or the goal of these stages is questioned.

In sum, the study aims to challenge the existing human development theories by questioning the linear nature of these theories. In addition to this, the research aims to make a contribution in the understanding of human development by doing a study that proves or disproves existing knowledge on life span development.

Research Methodology
The research will utilize an interview with the respondents. The respondents must be adult Americans and they will be picked randomly. These adults should be normal and are not diagnosed of any disorder. These adults will be subject to an interview and they will be asked about their childhood. From the interview regarding the childhood stage of these adults, the researcher will determine whether these adults skipped, regressed, went through the stages of Eriksons human development in a different order through the stages of childhood. In the analysis, the trends in their development from childhood to adulthood will be used to analyze their behavior as adults. The interview, the analysis and theories on development are to be triangulated such in answering the research questions.

Development theories in psychology are known to provide a structure for thinking about the growth, learning and development of an individual or human being.  Three well-known development theories in psychology include Freuds Theory of Psychosexual Development, Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development and Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development. Sigmund Freud introduced the theory of psychosexual development which states that the development of personality of a human being is focused or centered on the impacts of the drive of sexual pleasure on the mind or the psyche (Ewen, 2003). He claimed that an individual is specifically perceptive to erotic and sexual stimulation.

Meanwhile, Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development is composing of eight stages through which a human being must undergo from infancy to late adulthood. In every stage, the individual is known to confront and eventually masters new challenges (Hutchison, 2003). The challenges faced on every stage by an individual, if not successfully accomplished, could reemerge as a problem in the future.

The theory of cognitive development initiated by Jean Piaget has four stages and was primarily aimed at studying the development of intelligence of human beings. According to this theory, intelligence is considered as the fundamental mechanism of maintaining the balance of relationship between a person and his environment (Kail and Cavanaugh, 2008). The theory has four stages or periods to attain the cognitive development of an individual. Child development is also outlined in these three theories through their stated stages. As such, these theories can be considered to be interrelated since they affect various aspects of development of a child like physical, emotional and cognitive development.

The Course of Human Development
Development is defined as the regular changes occurring in an individual between his conception and death. The course of human development covers three aspects namely (1) Physical Development  which refers to the development of the body including its organs, the performance of physiological systems, aging, transformation of motor abilities and other changes that would be attributed to the growth of an individual (2) Cognitive Development  refers to the changes in the manner of speaking a language, memory, perception, learning, problem solving skills and other processes related to mentality and (3) Psychosocial development  Evident changes in a persons interpersonal aspects like personality traits, motives, relationships, interpersonal skills and roles played in the immediate family and in the society. Meanwhile, the periods of a typical life span of a human being starts at the prenatal period, infancy, preschool period, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood.

Key Concepts of the Three Developmental Theories
Freuds theory of psychosexual development was presented by means of explaining the stages that outline the psychological requisites in the development of an individuals sexual attitudes and behaviors. The theory was considered a crucial factor in the later theories of Sigmund Freud like the sexual drive theory which stated that from the birth of a human being, he or she have innate sexual appetites or libido which can be unfold through a number  of stages. By strongly believing that sexuality and personality are developed simultaneously, the following stages were created by Freud to represent his theory (1) Self-love  This is the first stage of the theory of psychosexual development introduced by Sigmund Freud which is described as the concentration of an individual to his or her own self that starts from infancy until reaching four to five years. Individual attitudes are formed in this stage of development such as involvement, tenderness and self-concern. This stage of development is also characterized with the constant need of a child to experience love by means of frequent physical contact with people close to him or her that highly contribute to the development of the attitudes mentioned earlier. In this sense, love can be express to a child by means of showing him or her feelings of security and comfort which will develop positive emotional attitudes. These attitudes, will, in the long run, allow the child to express and feel love and show concern for other people (2) Parental Identification  Roles on sexuality were identified in this stage which normally begins between the ages of five and six. Close relationship or contact with an adult of similar sex is vital during this stage of development according to Sigmund Freud. The adult becomes a role model for the child by means of demonstrating the proper sexual role of a man or woman in the society or thinking of a child. A number of theorists believed that the failure to recognize the task associated with this stage of psychosexual development result to homosexuality and (3) Gang  This stage of psychosexual development is easily identified throughout the elementary school years of a child wherein each sex have a tendency to avoid the other. Sigmund Freud coined this stage as the latency period because of his belief that few things occurred in the sexual life of a child at this time but they are increasingly engage in more experiments related to sex. The gang period also supports a child in terms of learning to cooperate and reinforce feminine and masculine roles (Bruess and Greenberg, 2004). These are the key concepts associated with the psychosexual development theory represented by its various stages introduced by Sigmund Freud.

Unconscious motivation is playing a crucial role in the theory of human behavior of Sigmund Freud. According to Sigmund Freud and his avid followers, majority of the behavior of humans are a result of impulses, memories and desires that are known to be repressed in the unconscious circumstances but still influence human actions. Freud highly considered the human mind as consisting of a tiny, conscious part available for direct or human observation including the larger portion of the human mind that is subconscious that is playing a more fundamental role in the determination of human behavior (Greenwood, 2008) The term known as Freudian slip is referred to as the demonstration of these unconscious impulses. For instance, an individual who replies Bad to meet you instead of the normal Glad to meet you could be revealing his or her true feelings. The replacement of the word bad for the word glad is more than a slip of the tongue as it is considered a human expression or unconscious feelings of dislike or fear (Person, Cooper and Gabbard, 2005).  In the same way, a gifted athlete who plays an unexpectedly poor showing on a game could be acting on an unconscious desire to punish inattentive parents. Unknown to the athlete, the inferior performance is actually communicating an imperative message. Freud also argued that desires and memories that are repressed are the sources of majority of mental disorders. Psychoanalysis was developed as a way of giving assistance to patients in addressing their unconscious thoughts to consciousness. The assistance will then be delivered to the patient by way of guiding the patient in altering aspects of his undesired behavior.

Some psychologists argued that a significant part of the behavior of humans is driven and stimulated motives that are unconscious. Abraham Maslow, for instance, stated that psychoanalysis has often disclosed that there should not be any connection between an eventual unconscious aim and a conscious desire. Putting this perspective differently, established motives do not always need to conform to those assumed by expert observers. For example, an individual can probably be prone to accident because of his or her unconscious desire to harm himself and not because of being unaware to safe rules. To be specific, most people who are obese are not really hungry for food but for love and attention. As such, eating is known as a defensive response to the lack of attention. Everything that is happening in the mind of an individual and every action of an individual has an identifiable and specific cause known as psychic determinism (Greenwood, 2008). Psychoanalytic theory provides no room for free will, miracles or accidents. Accordingly, all known contradictions of behavior and mind can be resolved as psychoanalysts believed that nothing is accidental (for instance, it is not accidental when an individual forget the name of someone, drop something, do things and say things). As such, psychoanalysis was introduced to be able to give meanings to the hidden causes of human actions, provide conscious understanding and find resolutions to the cause of these unconscious behaviors.

Freud utilized the method of free associations during the period of 1892 to1898, beginning from a number of criteria. The technique was to change the use of hypnosis in the investigation of neurotic antecedents in his patients.To be specific, this process relied on the idea ofpsychic determinism (Cox, 1988). According to this perspective, psychic activity is not subordinated to free choice instead all our mind generates an root that is unconscious which people can achieve by means of free associations, following the model offered by the saying all roads lead to Rome. The theory ofpsychic determinismis sufficiently debated upon in the works of Sigmund Freud entitled ThePsychopathology of Everyday Life. It is in the same place that people find a number of instances offree associationsassociated to a variety of faulty and symptomatic acts (like Freudianmistakes and slips), proving that unintentional psychic acts are determined by specific causes too. Returning tothe idea of free associations, it can be said that this technique is the main standard of the psychoanalytic therapy.

Key concepts of Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development include the theorys eight developmental stages, that psychosocial development is supported by resolving crises and the view that the development of an individuals identity is significant in his or her overall development. This theory created a structure for the purpose of understanding the usual patterns of psychosocial development. In the like manner, the theory asserted that development is evident throughout the lifespan of people. Erikson clearly established eight developmental stages to effectively describe the theory of psychosocial development that is summarized by the resolution of a crisis in a given stage to be able to move up to the next stage of the theory. During the stage of infancy or the first year of life, Erikson theorized that trust versus mistrust is the main crisis to be resolved by the individual. Meanwhile, the second year of life or the toddler stage (2 to 3 years of age) was primarily labeled as autonomy versus shame and doubt and the preschool stage (3 to 5 years of age) as initiative versus guilt. The elementary school or childhood stage was known as the battle between competence and inferiority. As the child move to the adolescent stage, he or she face the conflict between identity and role confusion, the senses of intimacy versus isolation in the young adulthood stage, the clash between generativity and despair and finally, the sense of integrity versus despair in the senior age. According to Erik Erikson, individual strengths and virtues emerge when an individual passed the crisis associated with each stage. As a result, the psychologist was also able to offer eight fundamental virtues that he believed will arise out of emerging from the crisis related to each stage of the theory of psychosocial development and they are hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care and wisdom, in that order (Cross, 2005).

Erik Erikson was known as a psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist known for his theory on social development of human beings. He was a follower of Freudian theory but extended his particular emphasis on the ego as the main component on the functioning of an individual. The psychosocial theory pioneered by Erik Erikson had provided a significant impact on the study of the processes of development because his theory was formulated to address development across the entire life span of an individual (Greenwood, 2008). As a result, Erikson is regarded as the first life-span developmental psychologist in his time. He begun by expanding the network of factors behind human development without regressing from the primary assumptions developed by Sigmund Freud. According to him, psychological development is a result of the interaction or relationship between or among biological needs and maturational processes including the demands of the society and the social forces experienced in everyday life (Salkind, 2004).

Cognitive development theory proposed by Jean Piaget specifically stressed the significance of knowledge and how it is transforming an individuals logic, problem solving and reasoning skills. According to the theory, each organism endeavors to be able to achieve equilibrium or the balance among organized frameworks whether sensory, motor or cognitive. Consequently, disequilibrium subsist every time changes in the organism or the environment necessitates the revision of the basic structure. Jean Piaget exerted efforts for the theory of cognitive development by turning its focus on the establishment of schemes (referring to the organization or framework of action in thought) and operations (which are the mental manipulations of concepts and schemes) which are combined to generate logical and systematic structures for the comprehension and analysis of experience and on how equilibrium is realized within the operations and schemes. Achieving equilibrium is appreciated by means of process called adaptation (Newman and Newman, 2008). This process has the power of altering existing operations and schemes with the goal of accounting to changes or differences between what is known and what is being experienced by an individual. In effect, the theory of cognitive development was able to generate four stages where every stage has the distinctive capacity of sorting and interpreting information. The first stage, known as sensorimotor intelligence, begins at the time of birth of an individual and lasts until the 18 months of age. This initial stage is described by the establishment of increasingly complex motor and sensory schemes allowing an infant to exercise and organize control over his or her environment. Preoperational thought is the second stage of the theory of cognitive development stating that the child starts learning a language and ends at approximately the age of five and six (Newman and Newman, 2008). This stage is characterized by the development of the tools needed by children to represent schemes with the use of a language, imagery, imitation, symbolic drawing and symbolic play which evidently suggest that their knowledge is still dependent to the way they view the world or their perceptions. Meanwhile, the concrete operational thought or the third stage begins at around the age of 6 and 7 and ends in the early adolescence stage of a child. This phase of the theory of cognitive development is depicted by the appreciation of children of the coherent necessity of definite causal relationships with their capacity of manipulating classification systems, categories, and hierarchies in teams. Lastly, formal operational thought is the fourth and final stage of the theory stating that the level of thinking of a person allows him or her to conceptualize simultaneous and interacting variables which begin when reaching adolescence and persists through adulthood.

Lifespan Characteristics based on the Three Theories
The three theories of development presented in this paper are similarly affecting the overall development of a child. To be specific, children are known to develop cognitively by progressing through the several developmental stages presented by Jean Piaget through the theory of cognitive development while a childs social development is intimately tied with his emotional development which is the main theme of both psychosexual and psychosocial theories of development of Freud and Erikson, respectively. In other words, the three theories interact on every stages of life of a person in a simultaneous or in a separate manner that determines his or her overall development. The interactions of these theories provide a positive environment for the child as they learn the importance of trusting their family members. Since every theory has several stages, the cognitive, emotional and physical aspects of a child are expected to develop in the long run when considering the factor of following the process of development of each phase of life of a typical human being. In particular, the theory of cognitive development itself could affect the performance of a child in school with the improvement of his or her intelligence. Likewise, the theory of psychosexual development affects the emotional and physical development of a child which can be achieve in the long term lifespan of an individual since physical improvements are expected to be generated. Finally, the psychosocial development theory provides the needed emotional maturity of an individual throughout life periods wherein the experiences faced by a person shaped overall development. These set of interactions of the mentioned theories highly influence the cognitive, physical, and emotional development of a child.

Learning is a very important process in the development of the intellect of any being. Learning manifests itself in varied ways at varied stages. However, the stages that were formally appreciated never so learning as a process that would be effective before birth. The invention of the baby plus technology is so timely and progressive. If the technology would be embraced on a wider spectrum, then it will be such a big boost on the learning prospects of children particularly now that most learning is initiated during the very formative stages of development.

Literature Review
The learning process is always at its best during the early stages of child development. The psychological implication here is that a learner who is nurtured adequately during the early stages of growth stands higher chances of developing substantively (Baby plus Prenatal Education System). On the other hand a learner, whose development in the formative stages is not adequate, may not develop this cognizance as adequately.

The advent of baby plus therefore offers a supplementary option for the formative developmental stages of children (Fox A M, 2000 p 132). While this innovation saliently addresses the developmental prospects of the child, there is more to it that may just render it retrogressive.

The cognitive theory of development is quite comprehensive on the nature and subsequent development of the human intellect. Piajet referred to this as the development stage theory. The theory deals with knowledge and the general acquisition of the knowledge by human beings. Further, the theory addresses the construction and the use of the very knowledge that is acquired thereof. Within this theory, language is quite contingent in the development of the cognitive abilities of the human development.

Coherently, Piajet felt that for human intelligent to be adaptive, then it should be representative of both static and transformational aspects of veracity. Within his argument the operative intelligence had a hand in the manipulations and the representation of dynamic aspects of the validity. Besides, figurative intelligent was largely responsible for the reality exhibited in the static aspects. 

The most active aspect in intelligence is operative intelligence. Within this aspect are covert and overt actions. These actions are undertaken to recover, follow and anticipate transformation of objects.  Inherently, the process involves imitations, perceptions, drawing, mental imagery and language. According to Piajet (Fox A M, 2000 p 78) representational aspects were subservient to dynamic and operative aspects and that subsequently understanding was derived from operative aspects of intelligence.
 
At conception, the child starts developing in the mothers womb. Subsequently the child develops some feelings and is able to detect stimulus. Apparently, according to Piajet the process of change and understanding has two basic functional components accommodations and assimilation (Baby plus Prenatal Education System). The active transforming of information into mental schemes through integration is termed as assimilation. While the fetus is in the mothers womb, communication is literally analogous and food is absorbed through .diffusion.

Accommodation on the other hand, Piajet argues, takes into consideration the particularity of persons, objects and events that fetus would be interacting with (Murphy, M. Mazzocco, M, Hanich, L B). Within Piajets preposition, both accommodation and assimilation are quite dependent on each other. Within the fetus, the processes are interactive. This is ardently learning. Furthering this cardinal course through the use of baby plus is a most welcome though with a little disguise.

As the fetus develops in the womb, the use of the baby plus assists in the building and rebuilding of the model of the world. This tickling of the mental action of the fetus increases the subsequent coordination of the fetus before and after birth. Besides, these vital processes lead to the development of mental operations. Arguably, illusions are reduced within the fetus and reduces the exposure of the fetus both before and after birth to mental errors ultimately the key objective of the development of the baby plus will be inherent attained.

Baby Plus and the Learning Process
Experiment Design
In carrying out a plausible experiment on the effectiveness of the baby plus two pregnant mothers that conceive at the same time are monitored. One of the mothers uses the baby plus while the other mother does not. After birth, intelligence tests are carried out on both children after they reach the age of six. Apparently, the intelligence of the child who was exposed to baby plus before birth is six month ahead of the other child. This is sufficient proof that the baby plus technology is a worth course.
The mother who does not use the baby plus is a control for mother who uses the baby plus. The environment is supposedly maintained at similar conditions before and after the babies are born except for the baby plus. 

Baby Plus and the Learning Process
Accordingly, the cognitive development theory is a core basic mechanism for ensuring equilibrium in relation to the environment and persons. Presumably, the environment assimilates the scheme of action that is inherently available. Practically so, the baby plus have been introduced to the environment of fetus. This is introduction of the baby plus formatively facilitates the starting process of learning.

The development of the intellect is quite continual. The field of applications that is achieved through accommodation and assimilation is largely coordinated leading a to an increased interiorisation and increased abstraction (Fox A M, 2000 p 64). Gradually, the reflecting abstraction translates to rejection of outer action attributed to the sensorimotor operations of any objects. The mental processes anticipatory and planning components are largely enhanced through the process. Given that the baby plus works on this principle of learning it scientifically and psychologically provides sufficient redress for formative learning before delivery.

The sensorimotor stages of development is of important particularly given that it does precedes the other three stages of development as a postulated by Piajet (Vachha B., Adams R C). During the stage infant do construct a lot of meaning from coordinated sensory experiences to make meaning of the world. At this stage the infant progressively moves from reflective to instinctual acts at birth to symbolic thoughts.

The introduction of the baby plus takes advantage of this characteristic behavior of the infant relative to the fetus. Apparently, the environment plays a central role in the development of the learner. The baby plus is introduced as part of the component of the fetus environment to facilitate prenatal cognitive learning.

Baby plus Products
During pregnancy the child has a very sentimental, symbiotic, mutual and meaningful attachment to the unborn child. Within the mandate of this relationship, the introduction of the baby plus provides another of the many opportunities of bonding between the mother and the unborn. In the prenatal stage, the brain is ardently at a most sensitive point of learning. The enrichment of the auditory environment is tidal in the learning of the infant. Subsequently, the capabilities of the infant to learn are improved.
The early learning advantage implies that the learners are sufficiently able to appreciate their postnatal environment if they are appropriately introduced to the environment before birth. The principle basis for the introduction of the baby plus is to acclimatize the fetus to some artificial learning environment before the natural environment (Lewis R B., Kass, C E). Ardently, babies who are exposed to the baby plus are intellectually, socially, creatively and emotionally advantaged compared to those that are not exposed to this cardinal service.
 
Ideally, baby plus offer a very profound gadget for tickling the fetus to start learning before birth. According to Mikhail, the gadget has only one basic demerit it is a preserve of the rich (Gail R, Evelyn L, Peter A. M). Or else it offers the way forward in converting a few averagely destined fetuses to geniuses and hence has a contribution to the transformation of the learning capabilities of the children. 
It is also argued that the babies who use the baby plus are attached compassionately to baby plus and they love the use of the gadget. When mother who had used the gadget were interviewed it emerged that the use of baby plus offered a comforting environment for the babies. Besides, the mother argues that the babies fetuses seem to appreciate, recognize, anticipate and enjoy the activity. The fetuses ordinarily respond with repeated, soft movements that normally accompany the baby plus lesson. Virtually all the mother who have made use of baby plus admit that the baby plus learning system offers tremendously bonding experience and opportunity for the fetus.

The use of baby plus are multi pronged. The prenatal education curriculum offers the fetus a relaxed and alert condition ate birth. The infants who are subjected to baby plus before birth tend to be interactive and responsive to the environment. Besides, they are visibly prepared to appreciate and absorb the environment (Sullivan, K J., Kantak, S., Burtner, P A.). This is a tidal condition for any cognitive learning process. The consistence of the sleeping pattern of the infant is defined for the children who are exposed to baby plus prenatal learning program. The sleep and wake cycle is regulated through the use of baby plus.

While there exists sufficient substantive scientific that the immune structure of a newborn that sleeps in good health and sleeps habitually is actually stronger. Besides, an obvious side benefit is that a baby who is well rested translated to a well rested parent. Research further shows that babies who undergo the prenatal learning program develop their cognitive senses ahead of their cronies in terms of their ability to walk, talk and movement of their body parts.

The utilization of Clinical and Linguistic Auditory Milestone Scale Test and the Vineland Social Maturity Scale test show an increased attention extent and extensively  improved school behavior a combination of genetically and environmentally enriched setting. Given the strength of the thinking in the children, the learners tend to perform better. During these stages the foundation of learning is laid and subsequently strengthened.

The baby plus technology is based on the principle the childs dependence on the heartbeat of the mother in understanding the environment. Ardently, the developing child finds the spoken language pretty challenging to decipher. The language of the heartbeat therefore comes in quite handy and offers literal communication with the unborn. The differentiation of rhythmic patterns emanating from the mother heartbeat gives a foundational basis for initiating learning during the prenatal stages of the fetus.

The baby plus children time and again demonstrate very high sense of fine and gross motor skills, early developmental prospects and have subsequent prolonged attention spans. Pediatrics finds the baby plus learning programs and infant activating and boosting the alertness of the learners (Hayes N, Orrell S 1993, p 139). Subsequently the baby plus are seem as strengthening the learning skills and improving the retention memory of learners.

The brain waves of the child become detectable at about 13-16 weeks after conception. Through the formative periods of development, the connection-building process persists. At the second trimester the child is able to get the sounds from the external environment. Learning, or cognitive growth, is simply the structuring of the thinking processes, which include perception, recall, language abilities, solving of problem and making of decisions.

Given that society has embraced the cognitive development theory advanced by Piajet, then the subsequent embrasure of learning from the formative developmental stages should be most welcome. The confirmation that cognitive stimulation is possible in the womb gives leeway to exploit this possibility.

The only unfortunate part about the baby plus is that we cannot plausibly observe behavior of the fetus in the womb. Research on the activity of the brain of the fetus the electrical signals of its brain showed that there was some communication.

Through electrodes, the researchers measured electrical brain signals. Several variants of a basic rock rhythm were delivered through adhesive ear-couplers worn by the newborns. When the rhythm was changed to miss the down beat, the babies brains produced an electrical response indicating that they had expected to hear that missing downbeat, but had not.
Adopted from Lewis R B., Kass, C E
From the study, simple sounds that are rhythmic in nature such as those that are the same to the mothers heartbeat - are very easy for the child to understand, are inherently innate. It can be inferred through the study that the baby who is developing has a brain that is responsive to beats. The baby can subsequently comprehend the heartbeat this is effectively utilized in the designing of baby plus.
Appreciably the idea of baby plus is preserve of the affluent though its timing would offer added value to the formative learning process of the neonate and the infant. The development of the baby plus technology, given its essence in society, should be subsidized to ensure that it can be accessed by all.

Conclusion
Piajet offers the cardinal developmental grounding for the introduction effective and evaluative stages of learning. The theory by Piajet concerning the importance of the interaction between the environment and the development of the child  plays a central role in the learning process. Consequently, the interactions between the mother and the child have critical implication to the learning process of the learner.

If the baby plus are introduced to the fetus, it gives the fetus a chance to commence the learning process long before birth (Hayes N, Orrell S 1993, p 146). Subsequently, the implication would be that at birth the infant is a number of learning stages ahead of the other infants not exposed to the baby plus before their birth.

Within the strength of the effectiveness and the vitality of the baby plus learning process I content that the initiative ought to be most welcome. However, the usage should be universalized to facilitate accessibility. This would be achieved through the subsidization of the baby plus gadgets. The full adoption of the baby plus learning approach will leverage the entire learning process.