Psychology

This essay compares and contrasts projective tests from objective psychological tests through the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test (MMPI). Similarities and differences between the two tests were discussed as well as the theories where the said tests are based.

Projective and Personality Tests
Psychological tests are primarily used in measuring behavior.  These tests are usually administered in schools, companies, and mental institutions. The first psychological tests emerged during the nineteenth century and the beginning years of World War I (Gregory, 2003). Since then, a number of tests have followed, which began to measure not just intelligence but personality and behavior as well.

There are two main methods to measure personality. They can either be measured using projective or objective tests. Projective tests are basically unstructured, which relies on the interpretation of the test subjects over a certain stimuli. The first one to develop this type of test was Francis Galton through an experiment in 1897 (Ateel, 2010). He used a number of words and thought of as many words that could be associated with each. Objective tests are structured and are much preferred because of its high reliability and validity, which is ideal in the clinical setting (Lain, 2008).

One of the most popular projective personality tests is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). It was authored by Henry Murray and was first used at Harvard University in the year 1935 (Net Industries, 2010). The test is basically a set of 20 cards with an inkblot on them. The test subject is asked to interpret the inkblot through story telling. Murray s basis for developing this test was the fact that one can reveal his or her personality when he or she interprets a certain ambiguous situation (Woltmann, 1948). This test has certain similarities with the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test (MMPI), developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is usually used for diagnosis of mental disorders. The test consists of ten scales, which correspond to different psychological conditions. One similarity between the two tests is that both are concerned with the expression of the subject s needs. The TAT focuses on aggression, perception, and the expression of the subject s needs through interpretation (Net Industries, 2010). The MMPI also focuses on the client s expression of needs. This is manifested in the scoring of the test. High scores indicate reluctance to admitting moral weaknesses and hesitation to disclose problems (Rich, n.d.).

The main difference between these two tests is that the MMPI makes use of scales to measure personality. It is widely used for identifying psychological disorders. One example of this is the study conducted by Kidner, Gatchel, and Mayer (2010) regarding the MMPI Disability Profile being associated with the degree of opioid use in work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Through the MMPI, they were able to find out that there is a relationship between the dosage of opioid and the production of the disability profile. The TAT, on the other hand, relies on the interpretation of the subject. This test, therefore, can be applied to subjects of different environments. A study was conducted by Gray (1998) on the TAT with Japanese subjects. The results showed that there are a number of cards wherein the themes for Japanese subjects resemble that of American subjects. This is because the TAT does not use language as a primary tool when it is administered to subjects, unlike objective tests.

In conclusion, using projective measures alone may not fully generate a total evaluation of the subject s personality, nor can objective measures. Although there are certain similarities among the two types of tests, there are a lot of differences as well such as the method of administration, scoring, and interpretation. Projective measures, such as the TAT, are more effective in surfacing personality traits though the subject s interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. Objective measures also reveal the subject s inner self, but because it is scaled, it is much effective on diagnosis of psychological disorders.

After discovering that each individual possessed unique qualities, behavior or characteristic traits, mans quest for self-awareness begun and therefore giving birth to a concept which come to be referred to as personality test.  Notable historical figures then devoted there time in the study of the field. An example is Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher physician who lived in the 500 BC. Cited as the first contributor of personality tests, he theorized that, the unique personality is affected by the four body fluids or humors, namely, the phlegm, black bile, yellow bile and blood. As Janda (2001) claims, centuries later, Galen expounded on the theory relating the four humors to temperate sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. He concluded that an ideal personality is a result of balance between the four temperate of the body, (Hart  Sherma, 1992).
 
Over the years, the study and development of personality has been on rampant growth. Various tests seeking to address specified areas of life have been, and still are being developed. Certainly, personality testing has found its full use in the employment environment. Continuously, managers are using the test to assess and project the future performance of there subordinates. To screen a job applicant or determine whether an employee should be promoted, two major approaches namely objective andor projective are being used, (Hart,et al,1992).Objective personality tests, which are based on straight forward multiple questions requiring are yes or no answer should be the preferred method. These kinds of tests have a number of advantages ranging from cost efficiency to easier interpretation of the test and data. Interest inventory tests, are one of types of objective tests designed to evaluate an individual level of interest in a range of activities, (Hart, et al, 1992). A good example is the Occupation personality questionnaire, OPQ or OPQ32 which is widely used to determine the subject, work behavioral style. On other hand, due to the ambiguity nature of proactive tests, they should be least preferred in screening employees. The result derive from them is questionable since there structured in an unclear manner and can illicit a number of response. An example is the Rosarch test, which is used to measure the intellectual level of the subject and his or her control over impulse and emotional stimuli, (Janda, 2001).
     
There is nothing wrong with applying objective or any other personality tests in human resource management. However, there legality should be backed by the fact that they are applied according to the directions and specification of their developer. For example, testing a marketer using a math problem design for an accountant is discriminatory and therefore  should not only be considered as illegal but also unethical. Again there use should consider the situation of the subject. If this is compromised the employer runs the risk of coming into conflict with law provisions and acts such as the disabilities act. Finally it should be noted that, preferring a certain type of quality can be looked upon as not appreciating the uniqueness of each individual, (Janda, 2001).

No doubt, the use of personality test is progressively increasing. Particularly in employment, managers believe that the tests minimize the chance of making wrong hiring decisions. However, Concerns of both employees and job applicant should trigger the need of improving the current existing tests andor reduce employer reliance on the tests. By doing so, it is not only the employees who are due to benefit but also, employers will benefit from advantages that come along with a diverse workforce.

The two terms prototype (as formulated by Eleanor Rosch) and stereotype (as formulated by Hilary Putnam) are two immensely vast areas in cognitive psychology.   These two semantic-based cognitive linguistic theories, although inter exchangeably used, are very different and distinct from one another.  A Prototype essentially is the archetype or the original model after which other similar collateral items are developed.  Out of a single prototype are born many members or stereotypes and one actually never comes across anything identical to their prototype.  (As cited in chapter 2, Semantics a course book, 2007)

Stereotyping, on the other hand is ones generalized concept of things that develop over the course of time and are resultant of ones environmental exposure and cultural interaction which has resulted of a particular list of typical characteristics that the item brings into mind once the word is uttered.  However, a prototype would always be the original unbiased entity whereas a stereotype is the result of overgeneralization of a particular group which is predominantly biased and can be negative in character.  Both the terms are related to one another and can be explained by the example of the word elephant.  When we talk about the prototype of elephant it would essentially be the elephant itself.  However, when stereotyped, elephant would be associated with attributes like large, grey, big ears, deaf, thick-skinned etc. (As cited in chapter 3, Semantics a course book, 2007)

There are numerous instances of our stereotypes going awry and leading to situations where one has undermined the essential capabilities and personality of certain people, things etc.  I would like to highlight this fact by an incident that changed my perception of the gypsies.  Having grown up in an environment that has constantly prejudiced and chided the Gypsy community for their vices, I, for one also unknowingly developed a set of preconceived generalized notionsattributes about the people without actually acknowledging the prototype of gypsy.  My sense of fear of mingling or developing any verbal contact with them was a result of my stereotypical and superficial knowledge of gypsies of being poor, uneducated and lazy with criminal tendencies.  I grew up associating gypsies with theft, pick pocketing, crime, prostitution, distrust and beggary.  These features become synonymous to the entire community, although there were gypsies who were trying to break out of the mould.  However, we must make way for exceptions to our negative stereotypes or mismemory and come up with a more realistic approach towards our wrong preconceived notions.  The mainstream media have played a crucial, negative role in perpetuating the stereotypes of the gypsies which have resulted in fear, hatred and ethnic racism against them.

However, it has become exceedingly difficult to think of prototypes, as we end up associating it with various features that we deem appropriate and end up with stereotypes, which may either be negative or positive, good or bad but not the original thing.  We start generalizing and forming conceptions (or misconceptions) once a prototype is formed and subsequently forget the original idea.

However, in order to avoid negative stereotypes, we must not indulge in over-generalization and polarized thinking.  One must try to achieve a balance i.e. explore the positive and negative aspects for a holistic view.  This will reduce stereotyping and we will be much closer to a more realistic view.  However, in our daily activities, stereotypes making cognition a simpler process, as the information is easier to access and we can respond much faster as attributes to stereotypes are deeply manifested within our minds, unlike a prototype.  It is important to achieve this balance in sensitive issues where we may unknowingly categorize a whole group as negative hence we must try to reduce negativity in order to come closer to the prototype.  Furthermore, the role of the media is also instrumental in creating false stereotypes and is pulling us away from the reality (prototype) to something that is self-created and biased (stereotypical).  Certain measures for containing media slander against a particular racecommunitygroup should be advocated, as sensationalism has a higher impact on minds. It therefore becomes pertinent for us to gain more meaningful knowledge of aspects that have biased our judgments and come closer to the prototype. (As cited in Stereotype Accuracy Toward Appreciating Group Differences, 1995)

According to medical-dictionary.com, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a categorical system of classification of mental disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association that explains objective criteria to be used in diagnosing patients. Further, the website explains that each classification contains a code which provides a reference to World Health Organization (WHO) International Classification of Diseases which offers significant criteria as vital and associated features of the disorder, age at onset, course, impairment, complications, predisposing factors, prevalence, sex ratio, familiar patterns, and differential diagnoses.

MENTAL DISORDER DEFINED
Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation (CPR) defines mental illness or mental disorder as a broad range of mental and emotional conditions. However, it does not cover the broad term mental impairment as it is different from other illness such as mental retardation, organic brain damage, and learning disabilities. According to CPR, the word psychiatric disability is used when mental illness distorts the usual activities a person does everyday such as learning, working and communication among others.

MAJOR DISORDERS
The most common examples of mental disorders are anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and Somatoform Disorders. Central for Psychiatric Rehabilitation explains each disorder and the causes that contribute to having one. 

Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are the most common group of mental disorders illustrating intense fear or anxiety associated with particular objects and situations. People with Anxiety disorder usually avoid exposure to the factors that triggers anxiety.

In an article written by Paul Maclver, Overcome Your Anxiety, he discusses the components of Anxiety disorder such as cognitive, emotional and behavioral. He also includes somatic components. According to him, cognitive components refer to the fear of uncertain danger. Emotional, on the other hand, causes a sense of panic, nausea and chills. Lastly, behavioral components would lead to both voluntary and involuntary behaviors, and sufferer could intentionally avoid the sources of anxiety, as what Maclver explained. Morever, about.com explained that although some researches suspect that anxiety disorder, still, the complete cause is still unclear. Environmental and cultural factors are still thought to be the major factors that contribute to the development of this disorder.

Several kinds of Anxiety disorder are Panic Disorder, Phobias, Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, and Post-Traumatic stress orders (PTDS).

CPR discusses Panic Disorder as the abrupt onset of paralyzing terror to impending doom. In addition, National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) website says that this disorder is characterized by unexpected and frequent episodes of intense fear accompanied by physical symptoms that may include chest pain, heart palpitations, and shortness of breath, dizziness, or abdominal pain which resembles a heart attack. People with panic disorder may feel sweaty, weak, faint or dizzy. One may also have nausea, chest pain, a sense of unreality, or fear of impending fate or loss of control.

Phobia, on the other hand, is an illogical and constant fear of certain objects, activities or people (socialanxietydisorder.about.com). CPR distinguishes the different kinds of phobias such as fear of particular objects (Simple Phobias), events that expose a person to the possible judgment of others (Social Phobias), andor situations where escape might be difficult (agoraphobia).

The next kind of Anxiety disorder is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder which shows distressing thoughts or obsession on certain thing that would cause a person to perform actions that are unintentional and could cause harm to others. It is an illness that drives people to have unwanted thoughts and to repeat certain behaviors (Familydoctor.org). People with OCD are aware that their obsessions and behaviors are senseless but they cannot stop them.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the last kind of disorder that falls under Anxiety.
As the name connotes, the disorder happens after experiencing a traumatic or painful situation that was not able to surpass by a person. The factors which attribute to PTSD could be the result from exposure to terrifying, life-threatening trauma such as an act of violence, war, or natural disaster.

Mood Disorders
According to wrongdiagnosis.com, mood disorders or affectivedepressive disorder is characterized by a disturbance of mood. The disturbance could either be mild or sever, and may include depression, mania or hypomania or any combination of these.

According to Patrick Marinos Biological Rhythms as a Basis for Mood Disorders of Rochester Institute of Technology, certain factors influence the biological rhythms of our body. One of these factors is circadian clock which is responsible for controlling sleep pattern. However, depressed people experienced various types of sleep disorders. Henceforth, lack of sleep per night comes before the beginning of depression. Meanwhile, there is also what he calls as Seasonal Affect Disorder. Based on this article, patients with this kind of disorder experienced highly response to the total amount of light available in the environment. Cognitive symptoms include pessimistic views of the self and of the future ( HYPERLINK httpwww.uwmc.uwc.edupsychology309_unit_8.htm httpwww.uwmc.uwc.edupsychology309_unit_8.htm) which further leads to selective perception, and a self-fulfilling prophecy effect. Based on Anxiety and Depression Center website, behavioral symptoms include withdrawal, avoidance of other people, and not doing the usual activities in the past. Emotional aspects also contribute to the development of this disorder. Some events like death of loved ones may lead to a loss of identity or self-esteem.

The two major categories of mood disorders are bipolar and depressive disorders. Some signs of mood disorders include personality changed, depression, agitation, aggression, and anxiety.

Major Depression is an extreme or prolonged episodes of sadness in which a person loses interest or pleasure in previously enjoyed activities (CPR). Pyschology Information Online website added that this disorder can occur once, as a result of a significant psychological trauma, and if treated properly, will never occur again within ones lifetime. 

The second type is bipolar disorder. It is alternating episodes of mania (high) and depressions (lows). Hence, the other term manic-depressive illness. Common symptoms of bipolar disorder include mood swings like feeling on top of the world, inappropriate elevated
mood, distractibility, irritability, rebelliousness, and grandiosity.

The third type is Dysthymia which is the continuous low-grade symptoms of major depressions and anxiety. A sufferer usually feels restless, thus, losing the interest in life and feelings of fatigue. Common signs consist of persistent depressed mood, chronic prolonged depression, and lack enthusiasm for life.

Seasonal Affective disorder (SAD) is the last illness included in mood disorders. It is a form of major depression that happens in the fall or winter season, and maybe related to shortened periods of daylight. Based on Wrongdiagnosis (WD), it is a mental illness that follows climate changes. Sufferers experience intense depression during the long, dark, cold days of winter and resolution in spring. SAD is believed to be associated with the levels of melatonin which promotes sleep.

Somatoform Disorder
The usual characteristic of somatoform illness is the appearance of physical symptoms or complaints of such without any organic basic (Purgatory.com). Based on an article Dissociation and Disorders in a website, Dr. Bessel van der Kolk explains that traumatic memories are stored at the implicit memory level which changes a persons biological stress response to those memories (Van der Kolk, 1987). In the same article, emotional response could cause the patient to keep himself from feeling the pain while defending himherself. Meanwhile, behavioral enactments consist of compulsive verbalizations, recurrent expressions of the traumatic experience and artistic production, to name few. Based on the discussion of Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders in a website, when anxiety is transmuted into a cognitive symptom like loss of memory, then it is already considered as dissociative disorder.
Four major somatoform disorders exist (1) Conversion disorder also known as hysteria (2) hypochondriasis (3) somatization disorder (4) somatoform pain disorder.

Conversion disorder is the primary symptom often lacking or changing in physical functioning. This may include serious ailments such as blindness, amnesia and paralysis which the person could use as a defense mechanism to escape from a stressful situation.

Hypochondriasis differs from conversion disorder in a way that it has no real illness, but is just overly obsessed with normal bodily functions. Symptoms may include afflicted small irregularities in bodily functions, real or imagined, and then express concerns over their general health (Purgatory.com).

Wrongdiagnosis.com explains somatization disorder as multiple somatic complaints.  Patients with this disorder usually undergo repeated medical examinations and diagnostics testing that can be dangerous. Factors like genes and environment contribute to the development of somatization disorder. Sufferers usually complain physical pain shown in a dramatic, vague, or exaggerated way. As how the website elaborates, patients are usually anxious and depressed because of physical complaints such as psychosexual problem (sexual indifference).

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), worldwide association dedicated to the remedy of
alcoholics founded 1935 by two alcoholics, one a New York broker, the other an Ohio physician. They evolved a 12-step program that has made contending with alcoholism likely for countless people. It encompasses psychological values that have long been utilized in the reorganization of personality. The association purposes through localized assemblies that have no constitutions, agents, or dues. Anyone with a consuming difficulty may become a member. There are presently over 99,000 localized assemblies in the United States worldwide members are roughly 2 million.  (Emrick, 2005)

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded in 1935 by a stockbroker entitled Bill, and a surgeon Dr. Bob who were both impossible alcoholics. The two had primarily both belonged to the Oxford Group, a nonalcoholic fellowship going by an Episcopal clergyman, Dr. Samuel Shoemaker. Dr. Shoemaker and a vintage ally Ebby simultaneously assisted Bill to get sober. Bill was furthermore assisted by employed with other alcoholics. Dr. Bob although did not have the identical primary achievement, but when he eventually contacted Bill, he notified him what he had wise from Dr. Silkworth that alcoholism was a malady of brain, strong sentiments and body (Alcoholics Anonymous). Dr. Bob answered well to these ides presented by Bill he shortly got sober, and not ever drank again. (Emrick, 2005)

The two men started work with other alcoholics at the City Hospital in Akron, Ohio, and one persevering became sober right away. Together these men made up the first assembly of A.A., and soon then assemblies formed in some distinct locations.

Early in 1939, the Fellowship released its rudimentary textbook, Alcoholics Anonymous. The text, in writing by Bill, clarified A.A.s beliefs and procedures, the centre of which was the now well-known Twelve Steps of recovery. The publication was furthermore strengthened by case past notes of some 30 retrieved members. From this issue, A.A.s development was fast (Alcoholics Anonymous).

The heart of Alcoholics Anonymous is in The Twelve Steps, which is a program of individual recovery. New constituents do not have to accept or pursue them as an entire until they are prepared and willing. It takes time for a one-by-one to arrive to periods with their difficulty, and that by going to meetings and hearing to A.A. constituents they too may start to heal. The one prerequisite for new constituents is that they should halt drinking. Only then, cans a new life, an alcohol-free life can begin. The significance of anonymity is furthermore worried as part of the Fellowship. An individuals persona is not revealed to outsiders. (Emrick, 2005)

The Preamble of Alcoholics Anonymous
Alcoholics Anonymous is a fellowship of men and women who share their know-how, power and wish with each other that they may explain their widespread difficulty and help other ones to retrieve from alcoholism. The only obligation for members is a yearn to halt drinking. There are no amounts be obliged or charges for AA membership we are self-supporting through our own contributions. AA is not akin with any sect, denomination, government, association, or institution does not desire to enlist in any argument, neither endorses neither resists any causes. (Horn Wanberg and Foster, 2002)

Our prime reason is to stay sober and help other alcoholics to accomplish sobriety (AA Forum). There are no amounts be obliged or charge for constituents of Alcoholics Anonymous. A head covering is passed at meetings for voluntary assistance utilized to counteract the cost of rental for gathering locations, coffee, etc. Income is increased from the sale of publications and literature. An one-by-one is permitted to, but not anticipated to contribute. However, assistance is not acknowledged from non-members because the assembly strives to be completely self-supporting. (Horn Wanberg and Foster, 2002)

In 1946, in the Fellowships worldwide periodical, the A.A. Grapevine, these values were decreased to composing by the founders and early constituents as the

Twelve Traditions of Alcoholics Anonymous. They were acknowledged and endorsed by the members as a entire at the International Convention of A.A., at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1950 (Alcoholics Anonymous). These guidelines were conceived in alignment to double-check the achievement of the group. They can help particularly because of the groups casual structure. (Gorski, 2003)

Recovery is split up into three stagesphysical, emotional, and spiritual. Physical recovery is the first step and the one in which Twelve Steppers are most hardworking in the AA outreach system. A call arrives for help from somebody who is still sobering up. A employee at Central Service will converse with him on the phone for a while or communicate a constituent on call for Twelve Step work and make direct individual contact. (Montgomery Miller and Tonigan, 2005)

The Twelve Step employee generally gets a new constituent to a gathering inside 24 hours if possible. He understands that the yearn to drink is very powerful in the early phases or personal recovery and boosts the newcomer to proceed to as numerous meetings as possible. (Gorski, 2003)

Meetings are either openanyone who likes to arrive is welcome or shut to non-alcoholics. A new constituent generally has a sponsor, the individual in who he selects to confide early in his membership. (Gorski, 2003)

Alcoholics Anonymous groups out to do three things
1. A.A. constituents share their know-how with any individual searching help with a consuming problem they give person-to-person service or sponsorship to the alcohol-dependent approaching to A.A. from any source.

2. The A.A. program, set forward in our Twelve Steps, boasts the alcohol-dependent a way to evolve a persuading life without alcohol.

3. This program is considered at A.A. assembly meetings (AA Forum). There are some distinct kinds of meetings. There are 2 kinds of open meetings. One is open speaker meetings which are open to both alcoholics and nonalcoholic. In this kind of meetings the constituents of A.A. share their tales, their difficulties with alcoholic beverage, what conveyed them there, and how their life has changed since assisting A.A. The other kind of open gathering is consideration meetings. A constituent talks about succinctly their knowledge with alcoholic beverage, and then directs a consideration on recovery or another alcoholic beverage associated difficulty conveyed up by somebody at the meeting. Closed consideration meetings are the identical as open consideration meetings, but are for alcoholics and potential A.A. members persons who may have consuming difficulties only. There are furthermore step meetings, which are commonly closed. At these meetings one of the Twelve Steps are discussed.
Alcoholics Anonymous has amplified its positions to encompass retaining meetings in both correctional, and remedy facilities. By doing this they are adept to continue help to persons who are in need, but incapable to proceed to meetings. Obviously persons in prison or jail will not depart to join frequently arranged meetings. Patients in remedy amenities are furthermore assisted by these meetings. They are in remedy and retrieving, but furthermore are obtaining therapy andor treatment along with being adept to join meetings. The Alcohol Safety Action Project (A.S.A.P.) and Driving While Intoxicated (D.W.I.) may have Alcoholics Anonymous constituents carrying out informational meetings as part of their programs. These are not normal A.A. assembly meetings, but informational meetings about A.A. 

Also, the composing of the Big Book took some months to accomplish. Drafts were dispatched back and forward to and from New York and Akron. After the New York constituents had reconsidered each section, Akron constituents were granted a possibility to give their input.  Dr. Bob had chosen a couple of constituents to help in this reconsider process. Even before the tales were advised, section after section went through some revisions. The Mid-West assembly in Akron worried the religious facets and the New York assembly liked to hold it to the personal aspects.  As one AA constituent asserted, AA doesnt educate us how to handle our drinking it educates us to handle sobriety. Most of us knew before we came through the doorway of the first gathering that the way to handle our consuming was to quit. People notified us so. (Horn Wanberg and Foster, 2002)

Many AA constituents approach Twelve Step work with an open brain and are arranged to be flexible. Greater Power, for numerous, stands for AA itself. God may be an emblem for the secret of the cosmos other than a customary deity. All AA assemblies supply constituents with a defended natural environment in which they are treated as identical, despite of the span of their alcoholic beverage problem. They are set free from the worry that besets new connections in accepted humanity, that ones alcohol-dependent annals will be found out and one will be turned down because of it. (Montgomery Miller and Tonigan, 2005)

The film Ray depicts several disorders.  Ray Charles at five years of age watched his four-year-old brother drown in a washtub.  This was an extremely traumatic event for the child and I believe that he developed acute stress disorder that eventually led to posttraumatic stress disorder.  This disorder in itself would affect adult decisions and behaviors.  A behavior of ASD (Acute Stress Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder) is that of increased smoking and drug and alcohol use.  Other disorders Ray suffered from were Heroin addiction, and Borderline Personality Disorder. 

Diagnosis Criteria
The first step in establishing treatment for acute stress disorder is to receive a professional diagnosis.  From within the guidelines of the DSM- IV-TR, a psychiatrist will look at the following criteria in determination of the disorder.  Relevant data such as background, series of events, and proposed emotional status play a role in the process.  Medications and addressing of other mental and physical issues are factors considered.  These determinations based on chemical imbalances of the brain produced by psychological problems (Axelrod, 2007). 

Symptomology
Mulhauser (2010) advises to reach a diagnosis of acute distress disorder the factors evaluated consist of

There is a dual primary indicative relation consisting of having witnessed a traumatic event in which death or severe injury occurred and of having an overwhelming response of horrification leading to a state of helplessness.  It was evident to me through the film that Ray was horrified in the realization that he was helpless to save his brother.  His addiction to Heroin, and alcohol was like self-treatment for his Borderline Personality Disorder. 

He may even have had feelings of guilt haunting him throughout his life.  I believe this would have a big effect on his emotional affect.

Emotional
ICBS (2007) provides the emotional signs and symptoms of stress.  These symptoms
allude to an emotional disorder that could, depending on severity and time constitute a diagnosis of acute stress disorder apparent within a month of the event and short lived, or that of a posttraumatic  disorder which is chronic.  I think that Ray exhibited the following emotional signs irritation, anger and hostility, depression and withdrawal (which was evident in his blues music), restlessness and anxiousness, self-deprecating, nightmares, and weak reflexes of emotional responses. 

Behavioral
According to Aetna (2007) the most common behaviors associated with acute stress
Disorder and easy to recognize is the frequently exhibited increase of these behaviors if intervention does not occur nail biting, increased smoking, or use of alcohol and drugs, neglect of responsibility, poor job performance, and bad hygiene.  I see that Ray suffered from several of these behaviors at one time or another during the film.  These behaviors were indicative of a severe stress disorder, in addition to the mood swings, which stemmed from the Borderline Personality Disorder a result of a tumultuous childhood.   

Indicators
Primary indicators are those associated with life and death or serious injury response that is against the norm.  Acute stress disorder generalized as to occurring within 4 weeks of the event.  If the symptoms persist, the individuals assessment for PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder) this indicates that the disorder may be deep rooted with a history of events, which may have stemmed from childhood.  I feel that Ray possessed all of the Symptomology of acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder, which led to his smoking and heroin use, with an increase of these symptoms and behaviors over time as advised within the prognosis of the DSM IV TR. 

Ray knew that his addiction was overtaking his life, and his frustrations in dealing with the addiction as it threatened to destroy his dream of music, was pushing him over the edge mentally.  It seemed to me that Ray was self absorbed, and incapable of loving anyone, even himself.  The choices he made for himself, and the way he treated those who professed love for him depicted emotional detachment.

The effect of the Disorder on those around Ray
Those who were around Ray were privy to his many mood swings resulting from his drug usage, and Borderline Personality Disorder.  They lived with pain and heartache in watching him endure his addiction on top of everything else he had been through and was going through.  The nine women who had children by Ray, with no commitment on his part to them, save the one he was married to for 22 years, which ultimately ended in divorce. 

I understand that drug addiction and alcoholism take their toll on loved ones and friends of those afflicted.  It does not matter what race, rich, or poor a person is.  The impact is the same.  Ray was a responsible man, and did have a relationship with all twelve of his children.  He also gave them one million dollars each, he was responsible for his children and did take care of them (Jet, 2004).

Those around him needed to understand that a person who is under the influence of drugs is not seeing things as they are.  They continuously dwell in the past, reliving, and reinventing it.  They do not have a firm hold on current time.  Those closest to Ray blamed his drug addiction on others who assisted him in getting, and administering the drugs to him.  A quote I respect is (about his addiction to heroin) I did it to myself. It was not societyit was not a pusher it was not being blind or being black or being poor. It was all my doing.  Ray Charles (Joi, 2008).

The support provided to Ray from those around him who were concerned for his well-being was the direct approach to his problem, and support in getting him to understand what drugs were doing to his life and to his dream of music.  In my opinion, I agree with Ray.  No one can make us do anything that we do not want to.  We must take responsibility for our actions and avoid playing the blame game.

Identify Dominant Treatment Modalities
Modalities in place in attribution of treatment of ASD are psychotherapy and pharmacology, prescribed separately, or a combination of both may apply. It all depends on the individual diagnosis and response. There have not been many studies on the effects of pharmacological treatment on patients, but from those conducted it is known that the administration of serotonin reuptake inhibitors prove invaluable in providing quality of life to those who need treatment (Seedat, 2006). 

Ponniah and Hollon (2009) speaks on Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as efficacious and specific for PTSD it has made monumental progress in going forward, in addition to stress inoculation training, hypnotherapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, and psychodynamic therapy introduced as having great possibilities in treatment of PTSD (Ponniah  Hollon).

The movie displayed the arrests of Ray for drug use and possession.  When someone who cared what he was doing to himself, and what drugs were doing to his dream of music, expressed this to him, he listened and realized that he was out of control.  It took a third arrest for him to finally take action and seek help. 

Ray went into rehab at a sanitarium and kicked his addiction to Heroin in ninety-six hours.  During the 50s and 60s alcoholism and drug addiction, were new additives in the scope of treatment, and were treated the same as schizophrenia, or any other mental disorder (that is why today alcoholism and drug addiction are so closely tied to mental health programs). New psychotropic drugs of Thorazine and tranquilizers were developed and proved effective.  This led to decreased need of electric shock treatments, restraints, and seclusion rooms (NYSED, 2010). 

Todays treatment in relevance to the DSM IV TR for psychological disorders is indicative of pharmacological, and counseling combined in respect of individual need and capacity. 

Perspectives Conveyed
The film criticized for focusing on dramatic episodes while other parts of the film provided vague connotations, was unbalanced in its representation.  It left many unanswered questions in relevance to actual clarity in parts of Rays life such as the movie depicted he had only two children, when he actually had twelve. 

They attempted to cover up less desirable incidents of Rays life to describe him as this icon of soul music history, which was disabled and persevered against all odds, because he could do no wrong.  I saw through the faade to the realization this man for all his talent and genius was still, simply a man with faults and imperfections the same as the rest of us.

Mental Illness Attitude
The film captured the essence of mental disorders prevalent to Ray in light of the extreme poverty or socio-economic standing, the witnessing of the death of his brother, then going blind soon thereafter.  The loss of his parents was very dramatic as it left him alone at such a young and vulnerable age.  The lack of the father in the household was another transition he had to make, even though he never really knew his father.  Each of these factors set a foundation of mental disorder to develop, in addition to his recognition as a star and grueling schedule that left little time for self.  The movie provides a positive message in relaying that through all of the hardships Ray faced he was able to persevere and that his drug usage was enhancing his music.  On a negative note, it also depicts the price he had to pay.

The film did not really point out the mental illness in itself, but stayed more on the lines of drug and alcohol addiction and its effects.  Consequentially Rays demeanor, mood swings, and sexual inappropriateness led to the belief that he was not operating on a level of awareness in respect to making good decisions for his life. 

In Conclusion
Ray was a great adaptation of the development of mental illness and its effect on lives without proper treatment.  It also depicted the extreme pressures endured by celebrity status, and in the wake of all this, Ray Charles already had a full plate of disorders before he became famous.  Through it all, he lived his life the way he saw fit, without being encumbered by his shortcomings, or acknowledging that he exhibited behaviors thought of as inappropriate in societys eyes.   

This is a paper on cognitive psychology. The first part of the paper is a definition of cognition. Provided on this section is background information on cognitive psychology. The second part of the paper is an explanation on the interdisciplinary perspective as it relates to cognitive psychology. The section reveals the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive psychology. The third past is a description on the emergence of cognitive psychology as a discipline. The last section provides an assessment of the effects of the decline of behaviorism on the discipline of cognitive psychology.

The term cognition originates from the Latin term cognoscere whose meaning is to apprehend. Chambers English Dictionary defines this term as to be conscious (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994). From the most basic level, this term refers to intellect. Cognition is the scientific terminology that refers to the process of thoughts. This term is concerned with the mental processes. It is used in a variety of disciplines including psychology and cognitive science. Cognitive science is the study of information presentation and transformation in the brain. It refers to information processing perspective of humans psychological processes (Ellis, 1993).

Cognitive psychology is a field in psychology that is concerned with psychological processes. The process in question includes visual, reminiscence, thoughts, emotions, problem-solving as well as language. The school of thought that originates from this field is referred to as cognitivism. Cognitivism is concerned with the ways through which human beings process information. Cognitive psychology is a part of cognitive science. It is a branch of psychology that has relationship with other fields like neuroscience, linguistics and philosophy. Regardless the fact the cognitive psychology derives from past psychological approaches, it is basically differs from them in two ways. The first one is that cognitive psychology utilizes scientific methods. This field of psychology refuses introspection as a suitable method of analysis. This makes it different from fields like Freudian psychology. The second way that cognitive psychology differs is that it accepts the existence of innate mental states. This makes it different from behaviorist psychology (Berkeley, 1997).           
 
Cognitive psychology is an interdisciplinary field. This is because it crosses the conventional Bounderies between academic fields as well as schools of thoughts. Cognitive psychology is a field that has obtained its methods and processes from conventional schools of thoughts like cognitivism and behaviorism. Cognitive psychology was broke off from psychology. It also derives from traditional theories like computational theory of mind. Since the development of Cognitive psychology as a discipline, cognitive theories have become very common in other psychological disciplines like social psychology, abnormal psychology, personality psychology as well as developmental psychology. Cognitive psychology has been linked to the field of psychology that used to be referred as experimental psychology. All the aspects discussed reveal the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive psychology (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994). 

The emergence of cognitive psychology is believed to have taken place between 1950 and 1970. The major motivating factor to the development of modern cognitive psychology was the Second World War. This is due to the emphasis ob studies on human performance and attention. It was necessary to research on the functioning of the human mind in order to gather information on performance during the war. The other factor that contributed was the development of computer technology mostly that involved in AI. The last factor that might have an impact on the development of cognitive psychology is the renewed interest linguistics.   

The word cognitive psychology was coined by Ulric Neisser in 1967 (Berkeley, 1997). This means that cognitive psychology is a recent discipline in psychology. Cognitive psychology developed as a different field of study towards the end of the 1950s and the beginning of 1960s. This makes it one of the most recent areas of research in psychology. Cognitive psychology developed as a distinct field of study following the cognitive revolution. Up to the 1950s, behaviorism has been the well known theory in psychology. Between the 1950s and 1970s, the focus in psychology began to move from behaviorism to things like attention reminiscence, and problem solving (Ellis, 1993). This is what is known as cognitive evolution. The revolution was started by the appraisal behaviorism and empiricism by Noam Chomsky. However, the origins of cognitive thinking like computational theory of the mind dates back to the 17th century, from the work of Descartes. This theory continued up to the 1940s and 1950s with the work of Alan Turing. Nevertheless, during that period it was not recognized as a distinct branch of psychology that could be studied as an academic discipline. The popularity of cognitive psychology was motivated by Donald Broadbent in his book Perception and Communication since then the field began to expand with a leading paradigm of information processing model. This model of cognition that was invented by Broadbent has been in use since that time in the study of cognitive psychology. This way of thinking can be associated with the development of computers. In the model, information processing in the mind is related to information processing on the computer (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994). Hypothesis in this area refers to information input, representation, processing and output. Related to language as the basic mental information representation system, this discipline has used tree and network psychological schemes. The discipline has singularly contributed to artificial intelligence this makes it general in the idea of semantic network. One of the pioneers of cognitive psychology, George Miller is famous for dedication in his profession to the establishment of WordNet. This is a semantic network for English as a language. This way of understanding psychological processes has permeated psychology in the last few years. It is currently the dominant method in the study of psychology (Berkeley, 1997).
            
The decline of behaviorism made the attention to be shifted to cognitive psychology. Behaviorism is a branch of psychology that is based on the study of behaviors. In psychology, this school of thought holds that behavior can be defined scientifically without a relation to innate psychological actions or theoretical constructs like the mind. This school of thoughts holds that all the processes are observable. There is thus no difference between observable processes like actions and processes like emotions and thoughts that cannot be seen. From the 19th century, this was the school of thought that was so popular in psychology.  This school of thought began to differ with others like mental psychology in considerable ways (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994).

Towards the end of the 20th century, behaviorism began to fade as a result of the start of cognitive psychology. Despite the fact that these two theories differ considerably hypothetically, they have complemented each other practically in therapeutic procedures. One of the procedures where they have complemented each other is cognitive-behavioral therapy. This is a famous procedure that utilizes both cognitive and behaviorist processes like systematic desensitization and contingency management (Ellis, 1993). This is a therapeutic treatment for such conditions like phobias and addiction. Nevertheless, these two fields of psychology are very different, while behaviorism is concerned with the observable characteristics, cognitive psychology deals with the innate mental states. With the increase in understanding of the mental processes, behaviorism could not hold grounds. Psychologists got more interested in cognitive psychology with the demise of behaviorism. The other effect was that there was a fresh need to research on cognitive psychology and find out how it could be developed to incorporate the aspects of behaviorism that were still applicable in psychology (Berkeley, 1997).