Psychology

Addiction can be defined as the persistent behavioral pattern that is marked by physical andor psychological tolerance or dependency which is displayed by a significant interruption of the persons system leading to physical, social and psychological manifestation of the need to take the substance (s).  This could result in social withdrawal, hostility, impaired cognitive ability of physical displays of weight loss or reddening of the eyes. These characteristics vary with substance type, dosage taken and also the individual physiological make up in relation to tolerance levels.  In this essay substance addiction is first discussed, followed by behavioral addiction.

According to Irving, Weiner and Craighead, the addiction to substances could cause neurological injury that could in turn cause cognitive impairment to the patient (2010 pp. 1046).  This results in negative impacts that affect the quality of life of an organism.  Addiction is most often linked to the abuse of substances that act as narcotic stimulants and sedatives, such as psychoactive drugs.  In medical terms, substance addiction is referred to as the chronic neurobiological malfunction that contains psychosocial, genetic, and environmental effects and makes a person continue using the substance despite the negative effects caused by it.  The addict may lose control over the use of the drug, also known as compulsive behavior that makes himher want to practice the continuous application of the drug even when it is not for medicinal purposes but instead due to cravings.

The term compulsive behavior is used in lay mans language to mean addiction or passionate dedication to activities, or even to hobbies by similarity.  An individuals tolerance to a drug, and the consequential physical dependence on it, does not entail addiction as such although the symptoms come with addiction to some drugs.  This is due to the inability of the patients motoreceptors in the brain to respond in such a way that would consequently lead to compulsive ritualistic behaviors, making the sufferer dependent on the substance (Weiner and Craighead 2010 pp. 1113).  Tolerance is a pharmaceutical phenomenon that refers to the need for the dose of the drug to be gradually and continually increased in order to continue to achieve the desired effect.  In his book titled Drugs of abuse neurological reviews and protocols, Wang claims that there is a category of gene called the nac-I, which is a protein of the IEG class whose levels are increased in the body of the addict by increased dosage of the drug hence the resulting tolerance (Wang, 2003 pp. 8).

An example of the above would be where an individual with severe and chronic pain, taking opiate medication such as morphine, will find it necessary to take an increased dosage in order to maintain the ability of the drug to relieve pain.  Physical dependence is also a pharmaceutical term which describes a condition where the individual will experience definite characteristic withdrawal symptoms and signs if a drug is unexpectedly discontinued.  Most drugs of a therapeutic function display distinctive withdrawal symptoms when discontinued.  Such drugs include certain antidepressants, oral steroids, opiates and benzodiazepines (Wang, 2003 pp 243).  Physical dependence is explained by Wang as the change in gene expression of the patient making himher express the behavioral and physiological changes when the substance is withdrawn.

The use of the term addiction had spread widely to include psychological dependence, hence the common correlation of medical phrases like drug obsession and substance abuse issues. This has led to the description of some of the dependence habits with terms that are not recognized in medicine.  These habits or behaviors might include compulsive overeating, addiction to the internet, shopping, exercise and any other such modes of behavior depending on the individual.  Researchers are not fully able to model or explain human behavior based on the characteristics of the form of behavioral addiction.  However, neural circuits that are engaged in various features of alcohol or substance dependence such as tolerance, reward and motivation exhibit positive or negative progress in the level of addiction (Weiner and Craighead, 2010 pp. 1061).

Different professionals describe different forms of dependence differently according to their revelations in their fields of research.  Compulsive repetition in the use of the substance may cause tolerance of the user to the substance and hence the display of withdrawal symptoms should the administration of the substance be stopped.  This condition together with substance abuse is considered to be Substance Use Disorder. As pharmacologists continue to describe addiction from a physiological point of view, referring to it as physical dependence, psychiatrists look at the condition as psychological dependence.  However, Weiner and Craighead explain that physicians refer to the disorder as addiction.  Scientists regard addiction as a brain disease that is associated with physiological and molecular alterations in the brain (2010 pp. 1061).

In such a case, the situation may be termed as compulsive, although to some it may not be considered as addiction.  This makes the two forms of addiction difficult to separate as both may display physical and psychological elements.  A less familiar situation known as pseudo- addiction is a condition suffered by individuals.  In this case, a patient may exhibit drug request behaviors that resemble psychological addiction.  However, some of these patients may experience genuine pain or even other adverse symptoms as a result of not having had the prior ones treated.  The difference between this condition and psychological addiction is that the effects tend to stop if the pain is treated adequately (Haddox  Weissman, 1989 pp. 363).

Some experts explain the scope of behavior that is termed as addictive based on the patterns, compulsion, physical addiction and impulse control (Weiner and Craighead, 2010 pp 1062).  Addictive non-drug habits include dependency on food, exercise, indoor tanning, relationships with others (codependency) and even work.  Compulsion is seen as being triggered by the need to relieve anxiety (Wang, 2003 pp. 77).  In the case of impulse control disorders like overeating, a specific compulsive behavior is seen to provide short term satisfaction from the indulgence but can end up proving to be harmful in the long run.  Physical addiction is seen as being different from compulsive addiction as it involves the reliance of a habit developing substance that leads to its tolerance and consequential, well defined withdrawal affects.

Despite the fact that different classes of activities are rendered as addictive, more often, individuals engaging in them have a tendency to have attitudes and certain behaviors in common.  Studies indicate that indoor tanning by some individuals can be regarded as addictive and similar to being hooked on drugs, alcohol and other addictive substances (Weiner and Craighead, 2010 pp 1062).  A third of college students who frequent tanning facilities could be considered addicted to the practice on the basis of the same criteria used to diagnose other forms of substance addiction.  These tan-o-holics were reported to show a high level of marijuana and alcohol use and displayed more signs of anxiety than the ones who were not seen as addicted to tanning (Expert Rev. Dermatol, 2010 pp. 123).  The results of the study indicate that tanning and the abuse of drugs might have similar characteristics and mechanisms for how people become addicted.

The Ultra Violet light from the tanning beds was indicated as a possible trigger for the discharge of pleasure-inducing chemicals from the brain known as endorphins, which can make people get in a good mood.  Research shows that in the future, tanners may have to be treated for a suppressed mood disorder to reduce the risk of them contracting skin cancer.  This is because neglecting to treat them would lead to continued visits to tanning beds hence increasing their chances of getting cancer (Expert Rev. Dermatol, 2010 pp. 123).  More work is needs to be done, however, to understand the rationale behind tanning addiction and its association with the addiction to other substances.

According to eHome Fellowship (EHF), compulsive shopping addiction is also a form of dependence that is at times referred to as spending addiction (EHF, 2001 para. 1).  According to eHome Fellowship, shopping addicts might not even realize that they have a problem with needing to spend.  Most addicts of this kind are very likely to perceive a problem only when they run out of money, and then would take it for an income problem.  Although this problem may be misconceived as facing women mostly, eHome Fellowship explains that both men and women alike are prone to the problem.  The organization further explains that some addicts tend to spend money in order to compensate for aspects in their lives that are damaged or out of control (2001 para. 1).

As a result of most addicts of this kind thinking that the problem is with their level of income, they will likely mis-identify the root cause as a source other than themselves.  They might pin this on their bosses, spouses, creditors, prices, or even taxes.  This amounts to denial, which may in turn block any kind of solution suggested to them (2001 para. 2).  Spending is usually the key symptom having been triggered by some emotion.  Later on, the addiction runs deeper and may get rooted to the cycle of spending with every pile of goods bought.  EHF reports that the gratification gained from spending, may be overridden when the bills finally arrive, overwhelming the spender and result in sending them back to the emotional feeling of low esteem and emptiness which restarts the cycle all over again (2001 para. 2).

Compulsive shopping addicts may take sanctuary in a form of help that would prove to be of more harm than good to them.  EHF reveals that in looking for help, shopping addicts run the risk of seeking a harmful solution to their problem via companies that promise solutions to their problems with only the intention to make money (2001 para. 2).  Refinancing and debt consolidation companies, credit card companies and companies offering cash advances may only hide the problems but not solve them.  These temporary solutions may also act as a source of other, bigger problems since all they do is offer temporary sources of finance for the addict who has exhausted their source of cash flow.

EFH reveals that shopping addicts may try finding alternative solutions after the failure of substitute sources of money.  Some may decide to replace their spending addiction with other addictions such as drinking, binge eating or turning to prescription drugs (2001 para.2).  In such cases, what should be administered is a method that puts an end to the cycle and empowers the addicts so that they can deal with the problem from the root.

The effects of addiction to shopping are not only reflected on the addicts but also the people close to and around them.  According to Beating Addictions, a UK based organization that tries to assist addicts of shopping, physical, financial and psychological related problems could have adverse effects to the people around the addicts (2010 para. 7).  The financial disparity that arises from over-purchasing of unnecessary goods may take its toll on affected family members due to the financial drain, and ensuing additional tension and arguments within the family unit.

Exercise addiction is a type of dependence that has proven to be an important topic of discussion to many people who have ended up trapped in the habit either with their knowledge or unknowingly.  People setting out to keep fit and live healthy lives may end up addicted to the practice.  According to McGough, a fitness facility may act as a convenient and yet irresistible trap for members of a certain community (2004 para. 1).  Despite the fact that fitness facilities are established partly to act as an intervention to eating disorders, studies indicate that most people, who most of the time happen to be college students, suffer from an eating disorder (Kerr, Lindner  Blaydon, 2007 pp. 55).  With reference to the college students, this might owe to the fact that most of them experience life changing conditions, while they are moving away from home, that could make some feel pushed to be thin and fit due to social pressures. Other non-college attending individuals may also fall victim of society pressures to be fit and end up addicted to exercise.

Eating disorders are caused by different factors. According to McGough, the gym has been used as a tool to promote health and well-being in individuals.  However, some individuals with eating disorders like bulimia take advantage of this as part of their binging and purging cycles (2004 pp. 1).  Bulimia is an eating disorder in which sufferers are obsessed with their weight.  Such individuals drastically overeat then force themselves to purge or get rid of the calories through vigorous exercise (Helpguide.org, 2010 para. 1).  McGough explains that eating disorders could go undetected for a long time because the sufferers may be of a normal weight yet they are suffering serious health risks like dehydration.  Bulimics are mostly prone to loss of potassium and sodium exposing them to heart complications and an added risk of passing out during exercise and then perhaps hitting their heads when they fall (McGough 2004 pp. 1).

The repercussions of this form of addiction are dire and may even lead to death if not acted upon with seriousness and urgency.  The most that fitness-facility staff and management can do is to observe the training habits relative to the needs of their members and weigh them against safe exercise practices in order to ensure the safety of members.  The greatest responsibility, however, lies with the individual.  Before choosing an exercise program, one must ensure to choose a plan which suits their health needs and which will not strain their bodies.  Control should be exercised by setting limits so that individuals do not get addicted to exercising.

Internet is a massive source of information for social, personal and educational usage.  As a source of entertainment, internet provides a broad array of informational and entertainment material from books, journals, movies, pictures, blogs, music and other products. Internet addiction is yet another habit that is captivating with the continuing advancement in technology.  The additional emergence of various online social networks like MySpace, Facebook and Twitter make the internet a favorable place for some individuals to pass time.  Cyber space addiction may be as a result of different products offered on the internet relating to the different needs of the user.  This habit may result in compulsive alcohol use. The two are related since excessive alcohol consumption leads to irrational behavior such as spending a lot of time on the internet without a particular productive reason (Internet Mental Health, 2009 para. 1).

Research conducted by Roberts and Young reveals that internet addiction is associated with significant psycho-social or occupational impairment disorders (1998 pp.1).  Addicts are seen to be able to spend up to 38 hours per week on the internet for non-academic or employment purposes.  Young and Roberts revealed that so many hours on the internet were detrimental to the addicts performance in their schools, and workplaces in the case of employees.  In a comparison against non-addicts, internet usage of approximately 8 hours per week revealed an unavailability of any significant consequences.  Roberts and young discovered that interactive chat rooms and online games were the most addictive.  This kind of behavioral impulse resulted in failure to improve cognitive abilities without the involvement of any intoxicant and is shown to be related to pathological gambling.  As a result, a formal term for this kind of addiction is Pathological Internet Use (PIU) according to Roberts and Young (1998 pp. 1).

According to a research conducted by Block on the topic of internet addiction in South Korea there was revealed a series of approximately ten cardiopulmonary associate deaths that occurred in internet cafs and a non-related game murder (2007 para. 2).  The writer adds that South Korea regards internet addiction as among its most serious issues of public health.  He further points out that the government of South Korea issued a report in 2006 estimating that about 210,000 children in the country between the ages of 6 years and 19 years are affected by internet addiction and require clinical attention (2007 para. 2).  He further adds that among the affected population needing treatment, 80 will need to be placed under psychotropic medication while the rest require hospitalization.

Having revealed the link between psychiatric illnesses such as depression with alcohol and drug abuse, extensive research has also shown that depression overlaps with addictive behaviors like pathological gambling and eating disorders.  The writers further indicate that the concept of internet addiction had been accredited by mental health professionals as a serious form of addiction.  However, limited research has been conducted to determine whether it falls under the category of psychiatric illness (1998 pp. 1).  The results of the research by Young and Roberts reveal that high levels of depression are associated with internet addiction.  This suggests that clinical depression is associated with this form of addiction to a great degree.  Sufferers clinical depression are encouraged by the writers to seek medical diagnosis and help in order to avoid outcomes such as low self esteem, fear of rejection, a constant need for approval and depression which may trigger the need to increase internet use owing to the interactive packages therein that are likely to get users addicted (1998, pp.3).

According to the California State University, drug addiction, a progressive disease, is deeply rooted in human motivations and emotions (1997 para. 5).  The universitys Northridge College further insists that people do not ruin themselves, their families and other relations because they feel the need to but because they are compelled to such actions by the psychological and emotional situations that they might be experiencing at that moment.  Their actions can result in financial ruin, acts of assault, loss of respect by others or even themselves, and could even end up in a state of incarceration - something they did not envisage (1997 para. 5).

Direct neurological effects from substance abuse are seen to be more evident compared to non-substance abuse.  This can be manifested in the form of brain malfunction owing to high levels of stress.  This is because substances are taken into the body by the users which act on the brain to produce a desired outcome.  The National Institute on Drug Abuse reports that cases of stroke and brain injury are likely to occur due to excessive intake of narcotics and other drugs.  The bodys functional ability is damaged due to the excessive presence of these substances in the body (2010 para. 3).

As seen in the case of Internet addiction, excessive emotional or psychological issues associated with non-substance abuse can lead to neurological damage as the brain controls the mental balance of the individual.  Wong explains in his book, Drugs of abuse Neurological reviews and Protocols that there is evidence of inappropriate neural mechanisms that are responsible for behavioral aspects which contribute to drug addiction (2003, pp. 4).   He emphasizes that the neural mechanisms are either goal oriented or lean towards rewards.  Dense patterns of plasticity in synapses are also blamed for poor neural adaptation that results in unfavorable practices like drug compulsion (Wang, 2003 pp.13).

Substance and non-substance abuse may result in neurological injury that may be manifested in behavioral activities that suggest abnormality in code and conduct. These neurological changes, resulting from both substance and non-substance abuse, may result in chemical alterations in DNA that may end up making the individuals dependent on the substance or the habit.  The cause of neural damage is direct in substance abuse as the substances affect the neural systems directly to create the desired effect. In the case of non substance addiction, the habits affect the mind of the addict indirectly by motivating emotions that satisfy the addict.  The resulting behavioral characteristics are more or less the same. Addicts end up gaining short term satisfaction from the indulgence or being dependent on the habit or substance.

Similarities between substance and behavioral addictions are drawn owing to the fact that in most of them, initial indulgence is motivated by emotional or psychological factors like low self esteem, external pressures and feelings of self-pity and worthlessness.  The difference is seen in the different ways addicts tend to deal with their shortcomings.  Some will deal with them through binge-eating, exercising too much, alcohol and drug abuse, etc.  Variance in the ways in which individuals deal with their situations may depend on their location, availability of the substances and practices they can indulge in, and also the availability of external support groups such as families and friends who can help them deal with their problems.

The aim of the study was to determine whether making eye contact with an audience while rendering a speech directly increase the anxiety level of a person as manifested by physical changes.  The level of sweating, anxiety and speech performance were recorded in 105 participants while they maintained an eye contact with the observant and while they faced a wall upon delivery of a speech. 

The participants were grouped into four and took turns to be subject and experimenter.  A rating sheet was also used to determine the physical changes specifically sweating and anxiety level.  Both subjects and experimenter filled out the rating sheet and was handed over to a tutor for further evaluation.

Findings were measured using Biopac MP35 to record electrodermal activity and to measure skin conductance and the Acqknowledge v3.9.2 software a fully automated electro dermal response score tool was used to locate skin conductance responses visually identifies them in the record and measures them.

Physiological response in the form of anxiety was greater in eye contact than in no eye contact.  The level of anxiety was found to be greater in the eye control group as opposed to the no eye control group.    As a conclusion, there is a significant increased anxiety among people who have eye contact during a public speech compared to people who did not have eye contact.  Both groups responded that direct eye contact augmented their fear of a negative evaluation of the other person as well as becoming self-conscious. 

Introduction
The fear of public speaking is linked to the effect of negative evaluation on the levels of anxiety felt by a person when giving a speech.   Anxiety is typically perceived as a response to recognized threat (Beck  Emery, 1985) The information-processing models of anxiety have inspired cognitive theories of social phobia. They propose that cognitive biases can partially explain the etiology and effects of negative evaluation to level of performance. Research paradigms adopted from experimental cognitive psychology and social psychology had been used to investigate these hypotheses. Studies of similar area of interest were done in the past.    For instance, socially anxious people report experiencing greater anxiety in formal situations and opposite sex interactions (Dodge et al., 1987 Turner et al., 1986a).  It was also found that the size and perceived importance of the audience influence the degree of anxiety (Latane, 1981). 

A diagram of the model of anxiety in social evaluative situation starts with a notion that people with social phobia (Rapee and Heimberg, 1997, p. 744) assume that other people are inherently critical thus are more likely to evaluate them in a negative way (Leary, Kowalski  Campbell, 1988). 
Based on the findings of the past studies, it has been found out that anxiety and negative evaluation is closely associated.  This study seeks to determine whether eye contact or no eye contact play a role in increasing anxiety levels.

Methods

Participants
The participants in the study were chosen based on the following criteria students who were enrolled in PSY452 at Deakin University, who are male and female. Participants were required to take part in the study as a component of their course requirement.

Apparatus
Two different conditions were applied in the current study. One condition entailed subject and experimenter to establish a direct eye contact while the other condition was where subject and experimenter had no eye contact during the speech.

The Biopac MP35 was used to record the electro dermal activity. The MP35 uses a constant voltage technique to measure skin conductance. Acqknowledge v3.9.2 software a fully automated electro dermal response score tool was used to locate skin conductance responses visually identifies them in the record and measures them.

Procedure
Participants were organized into group of four and took turns to be the subject and experimenter.   Experiment was conducted in a cubicle of a classroom. An electrode was spread over with electro dermal gel then was affixed and taped around the second finger of the participants hand to record changes in electro dermal activity.

Subject and experimenter were required to fill in a rating sheet before the experiment pertaining to subjects sweating and anxiety level.

The observant pressed the event marker and participant was asked to relax quietly and was told to stay still for a period of 5 minutes.  After which, the following 2 minutes was when the baseline record was taken. At the end of 5 minutes, the event marker was pressed again to start the speech.

Experimenter then started to ask questions from selected topics.  The subjects were instructed to either look at the experimenter or face the wall during the speech and experimenter was required to take note on the subjects physical changes (sweating and anxiety level).  Each of the subjects was given 2 minutes to give a speech in relation to the topic.   The observant then pressed the event marker after 5 minutes to stop the speech.

Immediately right after the speech, experimenter and subjects were asked to fill in the rating sheet again to rank their level of sweating, anxiety and speech performance. Subjects were also required to indicate what they expect the experimenter would rate them in terms of sweating and anxiety what evaluation they think the experimenter would give their speech and whether the experimenter would judge them positively or negatively. Experimenter was also required to rate on the rating sheet having the same set of questions.

After all groups finished the experiment, every participant was asked to fill out the Negative Evaluation questionnaire. All data gathered were handed in to tutor for further analysis.

The mean for electro dermal activity during baseline and speech was obtained through the reading from Acqknowledge v3.9.2 software.

Results
Participants
The study was conducted based on a total of 105 participants wherein 69 are female and 36 were male as shown in Table I.  Table 2 shows participants grouped into two namely the no eye contact group with 53 subjects and the eye contact group with 52 subjects.  The number of participants was considered valid with a valid percent of 65.7 for female and a valid percent of 34.3 for male shown in Table 3. 

Table 1.  Frequencies
FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValid     Female
Male
Total69
36
10565.7
34.3
100.065.7
34.3
100.065.7
100.0

Table 2.  Between Subjects Factor
Value LabelNCondition        .00
1.00No eye contact
Eye contact53
52
Based on Table 3 below, a mean of 1.0189 was gathered for the no eye contact group while the other group had a mean of .8077.    It is known that the standard deviation of .72032 (female) and .74198 (male). 

Table 3.  Descriptive Statistics

ConditionMeanStd. DeviationNBl_eda_abs          no eye contact
Eye contact
Total1.0189
.8077
.9143.72032
.74198
.7353053
52
105Spe_eda_abs         no eye contact
Eye contact
Total.0000
1.5385
.7619.0000
1.86255
1.5160953
52
105
Table 4.  Multivariate Tests
EffectValueFHypothesis dfError DFSig.Period     Pillais trace
Wilk Lambda
Hotellings trace
Roys Largest Root.007
.993
.007
.007.699a
.699a
.699a
.699a1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00103.000
103.000
103.000
103.000.405
.405
.405
.405Period cond Pillais trace
Wilks Lambda
Hotellings Trace
Roys Largest Root.200
.800
.250
.25025.765a
25.765a
25.765a
25.765a1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00103.000
103.000
103.000
103.000.000
.000
.000
.000
Table 5.  Group Statistics

95 confidence intervalAnxiety RatingsMeanStd. ErrorLower boundUpper bound13.313.2182.8803.74525.012.1754.6655.360
Table 5 reflects an increase of the level of anxiety during the speech.  The baseline mean of 3.13 increased to a level of 5.012 upon delivery of the speech. 

Table 6
t-test for Equality of MeansdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean differenceDiff_Exp_Anxiety_prepost      Equal variances assumed 103.002-1.23149Equal variances not assumed75.160.002-1.23149

Table 6 shows that there is a difference of anxiety between before and during the speech.  A mean difference of -1.23149 resulted in comparison of the eye contact and no eye contact groups.  The eye contact group experienced a higher level of anxiety compared to no eye contact group.

Table 7
95 Confidence IntervalConditionMeanStd. ErrorLower boundUpper boundNo eye contact.509.081.349.670Eye contact1.173.0821.0111.335

Table 7 indicates that the direction of the main effect of condition of the eye contact group had a higher mean EDA (exploratory data analysis) than the no eye contact group.  The direction of the condition eye contact group demonstrated a higher anxiety rating than the no eye contact group.

Discussion

The research hypothesis of the effect of eye contact and negative evaluation to a persons anxiety level was supported in the study.  Participants reported a significant escalation of anxiety when eye contact is established during the speech as manifested by sweating and ratings of performance.  It is noted on the findings that both eye contact group and no eye contact group reported anxiety by the mere fact that an experimenter is observing them. 

Several tables in the findings showed differences during the pre-test and post-test ratings.  Both groups showed that there was a moderate positive correlation between the anxiety before and after the speech.  When subjects and experimenters were asked to rate their anxiety during the speech, the eye contact group reported higher rate of anxiety compared to the other group.  Vast majority of patients reported that eye contact impacted their anxiety and had identified eye contact as a

On the basis of the findings, we would suggest that subjects speech performance measured in the clarity, spontaneity, and impact of the speech and monitoring of heart rate for cardiac accelerations should also be considered.  Anxiety can greatly affect the delivery of a public speech hence further studies should be done based on this recommendation.  This finding indicates that eye contact may be a fear-related feature for socially anxious individuals in social interactions.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist and a Nobel Prize winner who lived in the years between 1849 and 1946 made major contribution in the field of learning by association. He is known as the scientist who discovered and theorized classical conditioning. Over the years, despite the fact that the initiator of this concept was a physiologist and not a psychologist, the concept has developed to the point that it is now a necessity for almost every psychologist regardless of whether practicing or studying to be aware of. Proponents argue that it is a practical approach of studying human behavior. A point of note however is that, in order to make a conclusive deduction of the findings either in a positive or critique point of view, it is wise for to have clear understanding of its history and development, (Hurwitz 17).

In several years of his successful career, Ivan Pavlov made great use of dogs in his studies. However it was not until the late1880s that he made landmark discoveries from dogs which he was studying at that the moment (Freidan Thomas Isodero 25). During that particular study in which he aimed to establish the relationship between salivation and digestive system, he noticed a peculiar tendency from the dogs which had been familiarized with the feeding routine. A mere presence of the assistant who used to feed the dog caused them to salivate. This intrigued Pavlov because, apart from the fact that saliva is used in aiding digestion, salivating in the absence of a meal indicated that there were other conditioning factors that elicited the kind of reaction. A piece of meat and bell was all that was required to exhaustively confirm his observation. The first clear observation was that when a dog saw and sniffed a piece of meat, the immediate reaction was to salivate. In another kind of situation where a piece of meat is not involved but sound, through the ringing of a bell, is used to stimulate the dog, the reaction was nothing to write home about. The dog would just simply turn its head towards where the sounds come from. However, if a habit of ringing a bell was developed and immediately there after feeding the dog, a more tangible reaction was observed, the sound of bell would then instantly trigger salivation from the animal. This indicated that the subject associated the sound with an on coming meal and therefore setting the whole digestive system in a preparation mode. Pavlov concluded that sound, a stimulus that has little to do with food or smell, elicited a reflexive or involuntary modification in the digestive process, (Freidan Thomas Isodero 145).

This kind of results could not be achieved unless certain situations were created and applied in ways which depended on the level of conditioning the subject was at. Before starting the classical conditioning process, an unconditioned stimulus or UCS, which is a kind of stimulus eliciting reflexive or involuntary response, had to be present. The stimulus did not involve any learning process as the subject would automatically know its outcome. In this particular situation, the piece of meat was the UCS. Another important stipulation was the presence of a stimulus which did not elicit any specific response but only an orienting or neutral response, such as the mere turning of the dogs caused by the sound of the bell. During the conditioning process, it was essential for the neutral stimulus to be presented and right after that present the unconditional stimulus, such as in the of Ivan Pavlov dog experiment, first the bell had to be rung and immediately thereafter a meal was presented. Over time the subject learned or was conditioned to associate the two (Hurwitz 43).

Finally Pavlov concluded that, the Neutral stimulus stirred a response similar to that elicited by UCS. This he validated by citing the ringing bell caused a drooling effect on the dogs. He now referred the neutral stimulus as the conditioned stimulus because, after it is paired by UCS, it provoked the dogs to salivate. The new response created by the conditioning was also given the name conditioned response. Although the conditioned response and unconditioned response look similar, there stimuli were entirely different (Freidan Thomas Isodero 147).Pavlov quickly learned that, It was important to periodically positive reinforcement the impact caused by the conditioning. If neglected or negatively reinforced then it slowly wears out (Putney 45). An example is, when the dogs regularly heard the ringing bell and for prolong period of time no meal was presented, the drilling effect that had been created gradually disappeared.

To further expound on his study, Ivan Pavlov investigated the difference that could result from varying the time procedure used to present the stimuli to his subjects. He established that by doing so different result were derived. Delayed conditioning, was his first test directed towards that mission. It was a basic procedure involving presenting the conditioned stimulus, which was the ringing bell, before the unconditioned stimulus. On same test, he continued to investigate the different impact that could be created by varying the delay either to be short or long. In the short delay, a conditioned response was presented about five seconds earlier before the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus. It was only removed after the unconditioned stimulus was presented. Long delay on the other hand involved presenting the conditioned stimulus in a relatively longer time of about thirty second before presenting the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov established that conditioning is effective when the delay is shorter, (John and Lavond, 145). However, according to Hubert, consequent studies have contested this rule citing that effects of conditioning vary depending on the state which the respondent under scrutiny is at. Trace conditioning was the other test he conducted with a procedure almost similar to that of delay conditioning. However, unlike in the delay conditioning, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus do not overlap, instead are conditioned stimulus is presented briefly for about one second and withdrawn without presenting any other stimuli. A gap referred to as trace interval is created before an Unconditioned stimulus is presented. The conclusion was this kind of conditioning is less effective as compared to the delayed one.

Another analysis on the impact of varying stimulus presentation time was referred to as simultaneous conditioning. In the test he presented both the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus at the same time. The main challenge faced was determining whether drooling was caused by the ringing bell or presence of food. Later however, when he opted to present the conditioned stimulus alone, he established that the kind of conditioning is ineffective. He explain this ineffective, by describe that, for the center of response or the dog to generate a conditioned response it had first to be excited by the anticipation of a unconditioned stimulus which for this particular test was missing. In Backward conditioning, another type of time variation test, the reverse happens. In this experiment the Unconditioned stimulus is the one which is presented about 5 second earlier than the conditioned stimulus. Ivan quickly established that this procedure, just like simultaneous conditioning, is weak and ineffective, (John and Lavond 148). He explain the weakness of this procedure by outlining that unlike in an ordinary forward conditioning, where the conditioned stimulus precede the unconditioned stimulus, the arrangement serve as warning to the subject that the unconditioned stimulus, the food, is about to be withdrawn and therefore leading to the absence of  conditioned response or the salivation.

The effect created by timing in stimulus presentation made Pavlov query whether time should be considered as stimulus on its own. He observed that if a response centre is familiar with the routine of presenting the unconditioned stimulus, without a doubt, a conditioned response occur even without there being a presence of any type of stimulus. For example the dogs, having gotten used to the feeding routine, when the time of feeding approached, they begun to salivate regardless of whether the bell was rung or not, (Freidan Thomas Isodero 155). This he described as temporal conditioning, which is a procedure requiring no formal conditioned stimulus but instead unconditioned stimulus is supplied at regular interval such as 30 seconds causing the respondent to adapt the routine. This is according to Hubert and Putney is evident in our day to day life, Take for instance, if an athlete get used to drinking water every thirty minutes, then automatically after half an hour failure to repeat the routine will render him or her restless.

Other than studies involving examining the impact stimulus timing has on the conditioning result, there other set of studies examined by Pavlov. One of a kind included him trying to establish the events that would lead to the disappearing of a successful conditioning. A good case in point is the one describe earlier, whereby the conditioned dog regularly induced to the ringing bell without being presented thereafter with there used to meal, resulted in the conditioned response slowly diminishing and eventually altogether disappearing. This procedure he referred to it as extinction, (John and Lavond 155). As he continued to test this effect, he noticed that persistence application of conditioned stimulus in the absence of Unconditioned stimulus might at a point provoke the initial conditioned response however at smaller magnitude and if not reinforced quickly disappears. Again he observed that when a complete extinction has occurred, conditioned response can be regain at faster rate as compared to when the conditioning was first being initiated. This is what he referred to as spontaneous recovery.

In a test which Pavlov referred to as Generalization conditioning, it was brought to his attention that, the relationship between conditioned stimuli and condition response is very essential. This he concluded after noticing his dog did not only salivate to the particular noise created by his ringing bell but also to other familiar noise. However, it was vital for the second conditioning stimuli or the familiar noise to resemble the original one. The degree of likeness determines the effectiveness of conditioning, with higher similarity producing more positive result (John and Lavond 159). An example of the application of this principle in our day to day experiance is observed in the case of a child whom, previously having been attacked by neighbors dog, from there on likely be terrified by the sight of any other dog.

Discrimination conditioning is the opposite of generalization. This is whereby the organism responds differently or does not respond at all to conditioned stimulus that has no resemblance to the original one which created the conditioning effect. An example is when Pavlov dog respond only to the ringing bell and those similar to it but not to a whistling sound (Putney 30-34).

Ivan Pavlov did not stop by presenting his conclusive study, instead he opted to dig deeper and establish how this new school of thought could be applied in the daily life outside the laboratory walls. He aimed to prove that problems associated and caused by conditioned response exist and therefore to address them principles describe in the classical conditioning could be very appropriate. Subsequent studies later on develop even a more practical application of the principles he had elaborated. The works of John .B. Watson, who lived between 1878 and 1958, is a good example. To show empirical evidence of classical conditioning, Watson used Albert who was eleven year old at the time, as the subject of the study. He presented white rats, the conditioned stimuli, paired with loud noise, the unconditioned stimulus, to the subject. From thereon Albert was not only afraid of the white rats but also showed sign of fear towards resembling white objects such as cotton wool. At the end of the study, not only was Watson successful in elaborating the process involved in behavior formation but also backed the principle of generalization conditioning. Armed with this knowledge, Watson went on to become a respected figure in the American advertising world. With his understanding he could easily pair the right set of stimulus to appeal to consumer attitudes. In modern times, businesses have found there way in the application of the works of Pavlov and the significant contribution of Watson. An example is when Toyota uses supermodels to pose on there latest luxury car hence creating a desired appeal (John and Lavond 120-130).

Another arena where the principles of classical conditioning have been broadly applied is in the development of therapy programs. By understanding the basic paradigm of classical conditioning, psychologists have been able to outline how addictions and phobia emerge (Putney 25). Desensitization, aversion and counter conditioning therapies, all based on the principles of classical conditioning are used in the modification of human behavior. Condition taste aversion is an application of Pavlov classical conditioning which is evident in our day to day life. John Garcia, through his experiment with rats brought this concept to light. In the specified study, a group of rats after drinking water were subjected to a beam of x-ray light, the conditioned stimulus, which produced a feeling of sickness, the unconditioned response. After a period of time the rats under observation refrained from drinking the water, the conditioned response, since the associated it the sickening feeling. (Putney 20-30)

One of the more profound outside the lab application of the Garcias concept is that of predator control. Tussle between environmentalist and sheep farmers over what to do with preying coyotes led to the exploring of this Pavlovian therapy as basis of solving the problem in an ethical manner. The farmers placed carcasses which were poisoned with thiamine, a tasteless but sickening drug, on the predators path. After the coyotes ate the carcass the effect of the drug took its tall on them. Even though the feedback of the farmers differed, some of them claiming that coyotes after the first attempt refrain from eating carcasses again but still continued to kill sheep while the other lot saying the prey avoided sheep meat all together, they indicated that taste aversion conditioning cause the animal to be choosy in its meal (Putney 28). The execution of aversion therapy involves pairing undesirable stimulus to the targeted habit with the intention of making the subject associate the unpleasant experience to the action. It has found common ground in both adult and children. In adult the therapy is used to combat drug addictions. For example conditioned stimuli such as are nausea producing drugs are accompanied with alcohol (UCS), with the hope the discomfort effect caused on the victim will create an aversion. In children it has been used to combat habit such as bed-wetting (Putney 30-34).

Systematic desensitization which was developed by Joseph Wolpe is another type of Pavlovian therapy that is used to counter anxiety or fear using the principle of extinction (John and Lavond 85). The process is widely applied in the treatment of phobias. Predominantly, it is used in treating the fear of open andor public places commonly referred to as agoraphobia that is associated with people suffering from anxiety disorder. An effective execution of systematic desensitization would involve replacing the phobia which is being wiped out with a positive stimulus through a classical conditioning process described as counter conditioning. By doing so, the respondent not only eliminates an unwanted response but also acquires a new response to the specific conditioned stimulus. In the deployment of systematic desensitization several successive stages are followed. First and foremost, the respondent is train to relax using a relaxation technique, progressive relaxation according to Putney being the most preferred. Secondly, the cause of fear is listed down. The idea here is to direct the respondent to face his fears in hierarchy, starting from the least fearful stimulus to the most feared one. For example, a respondent who is afraid of heights can start by merely imagining being on top of roof to climbing and eventually standing on top of a real cliff. Throughout the process the relaxation technique taught is used to elicit parasympathetic responses which are incompatible with fears. Pavlov conditioning have also proved handy in the process of improving the immune system. Various studies have shown that continuous pairing of unconditioned stimulus such as epinephrine with conditioned stimulus such as a placebo of a distinct taste and smell elicit an increase in immunity as the response conditioned (Putney 40).

The process of discovering and developing the concept of classical conditioning has however been a subject of controversies. Right from the start, the environmental situation that Pavlov subjected his dogs to was questionable. For example, claims of starving and inserting surgical tubes on the dogs for the purpose of measuring the saliva have raised issues. Watson experiment of inducing fear on baby Albert, a less than a year old infant, if applied in modern time will definitely raise eyebrows. Also hardliners environmentalist finds Garvin method of investigating the rats as infuriating. Another angle used by critiques is based on the claim that Pavlov therapy based programs such as taste aversion are short-lived and might have side effect. Perhaps the most significant and cited criticism is that, although classical conditioning claims a response is adapted from prior experience, certain respondent suffering from phobia cannot easily trace any historical event that might have triggered this. (Freidan Thomas Isodero 180-183).

The significance contribution in understanding how a behavior is formed played by Pavlov classical conditioning cannot be overemphasized. According to Putney, his studies and other ensuing studies which either aimed at validating or criticizing his works provides psychologist with bases of examining, developing and administering diagnosis to various challenges. His outstanding record in the field of physiology and psychology did not however go unnoticed as he was a warded A Nobel prize. Even with the ever changing environment, one certain thing is that the fundamentals that make us humans are highly unlikely to change and therefore studies such as this cannot be dismissed but only investigated further and improved upon.

This essay explores several realities about marriage and family counseling in order to shed light on the purpose of having therapeutic counseling specifically intended for these social groups. Marriages and families are the most important basic unit that a person can belong to. Issues that arise from these units are sensitive and even harmful to many people. In dealing with them, therapists have to be careful in assessing each members contribution to the problem while also not forgetting to deal with the potential implications of the problems to them individually. Aside from this, the significance of spirituality is also covered in this essay. Spirituality is different from religiousness. Incorporating it in the therapy of families and marriages help ease the relationship of counselors to their clients. The essay also reviewed what essential characteristics should counselors have in order to be efficient future therapists and what kind of training should they go through in order to sufficiently prepare them.

Therapeutic Counseling is a prominent and necessary reality that helps solve or address many of the problems faced by people today. In counseling, clients are given by professional counselors certain treatments and therapeutic help to guide or advise them according to whatever troubles they are going through. But many people of do not recognize or in constant denial that they need help or intervention in order for all the people involved to have a sense of understanding about their situations. Relationships among couples, marriages, and families are among the commonly focused units by counselors because most of the hardest problems a person may encounter comes from these intimate relationships. But aside from solving disputes, counseling in families and marriages also helps improve and develop the currently existing relationship too. Therapeutic counseling help evaluate and reestablish families and marriages that have been separated or are continuously being tested by difficult circumstances.

Approaches in Counseling
Family issues are sensitive realities that should be addressed by all close family members.  The marriage enrichment field is often traced to the early 1960s  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.314). As the years passed, different improvements and developments have been introduced to the process of counseling of marriages and family relationships in order to accommodate all the emerging problems of the society. Many scholars believe that  the gateway to all couple and family therapy (CFT) is a systematic formulation of the presenting problem of an individual, couple, or family  (Celano, Smith, and Kaslow, 2010, p.36). Systematic formulations specifically deal with familial issues regarding intimacy, sociocultural issues, family routines, and family strengths. These types of therapies target understanding the interactions of couples and family members in relational context.

Along with the changing of times, the main operation of families have also significantly evolved and changed.  Formerly family and marriage were often characterized by an autocratic relationship one is in charge and the rest follows  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p. 315). This kind of mindset have been dramatically reformed along with the world wide advocacy of equal roles in the society. Therefore, there cannot be just one standard approach in counseling the different problems that may arise in families and marriages.  An open, congruent marriage system is often not the result of chance but rather systematic education and movement toward this goal  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.317). The importance of formulating  an effective marriage education program is definitely important or necessary for the achievement of ideal or lasting marriages. Dinkmeyer introduced in his work a system-based, structured approach on educating people about marriages. Training in Marriage Enrichment (TIME) is a psychological approach wherein counselors would be required to study individual behavior as it is incorporated together with how the people participate in their external human relations.  TIME teaches the necessary skills for a happy, healthy marriage in a group setting and can be applied to couples individually in couples counseling  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.317).

Alliance of Counselors to their Client
Counseling families is a very sensitive task not only because of the intimacy that the relationship is expected to have, but also because families are the societys most basic unit. To be a professional therapist is not an easy task. Counselors are expected to work on understanding and presenting complex aid to intimate relationships experiencing sensitive issues.  Focusing on relationships requires that therapists have a broad knowledge base as exemplified by the requirements for coursework in theoretical foundations, couple and family therapy, human development and family studies, ethics, and research (Becvar, 2008, p.181). Presence of mind, proper training, and rich education are important for every person who wants to become psychology practitioners.

The kind of relationship that should be formed between therapists and clients should be one that is established in honesty and trust. This is essentially difficult for the therapists of family issues because they are subjected to face all members of the family.  Therapeutic alliance is the quality and strength of the collaborative relationship between family members and therapist, and includes a shared commitment to the goals of therapy in the context of a positive emotional bond  (Celano, Smith, and Kaslow , 2010, p. 37). This alliance is a necessary factor for all therapists who needs to understand each family members individual problems as well as participation or role in the family.

Generally, people are purposive in their behavior. Therefore  counselors look for the purpose of behaviors within the marriage system which help or hinder the enrichment of the marriage  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.316). This is crucial for counselors to understand and always consider what possible intentions each individual may have for all their certain actions. Aside from assessing what particular purposes do people have for their actions, counselors also need to address the problem of how the differing point of view between partners makes a single action possible within two interpretations  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p. 316). This human trait usually causes the most prominent disagreements in relationships. When this happens, counselors can understand that the couple have underlying more important issues to address like their failure to communicate openly or when one partner harbors mistrust towards any action the other would do. What is essentially important in a marriage counseling is that counselors encourage  an awareness and dedication to the idea that the relationship is the number one priority for both individuals  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.317). Facilitators or the leading therapists have the important task of making couples realize this and put into significant action this reality.

Teaching and Training how to be Counselors
To be an effective counselor, one would need to be educated with the proper values and knowledge in the practice of psychology. Counselors need crucial scholastic background in order to become significantly useful in the action of counseling familial problems. Also,  as with every profession, the field of marriage and family therapy is characterized by a unique training and socialization process for those who desire to attain full membership (Becvar, 2010, p. 1). Knowing the basic theories from scholastic inputs is not sufficient for one person to effectively address all the problems that may arise. Also,  family therapy instructors should employ a plethora of teaching techniques to guarantee the retention of critical theoretical constructs and therapeutic techniques  (Maynard, 1996, p.203). Keeping the attention of students through constantly new methods would and allow them to learn faster and for the retention of information to be easier. This would be very beneficial for students in the future when they have to face important counseling projects already.

Proper training in the form of internships are also important for would-be counselors.  Many will continue to focus on generating knowledge relative to both the training and supervision of family therapists and the practice of family therapy  (Becvar, 2010, p. 1). The program of internship is conducted to efficiently train graduates of the psychology courses.  Based on observations from the group of successful interns,  internship strengthened their career decision making, bolstered their confidence in their ability to handle the demands of faculty life, and strengthened their clinical skills  (Miller et. Al, 2010. p.77). Having a direct, first-hand experience prepares future counselors by allowing them to see the scenarios they should expect to deal with. This practice also allows them to prepare what kind of lessons they would most likely find most outside schools and how to properly address each one of them.

Aside from classroom learning and practical application through internship, students of therapy and psychology also learn immensely through their observations of their instructors or professors.  by demonstrating dedication and attention to teaching, family therapy instructors can model for future therapists the importance of thoroughness and professionalism (Maynard, 1996, p. 195).

Spirituality in Counseling
One of the most prominent idea circulating in counseling families is a theory that was often overlooked before is the application of spirituality in assessing truths about counseling. Spirituality is so important but it is  neglected in counseling practice  because not all counseling professors see the significance of this reality in dealing with intimate relationships and other related factors (Ellison, 2009, p. 190). Spirituality offers an important contribution to marriage and family therapeutic counseling, though it is often also minsunderstood. Incorporating spiritual approaches to family counseling is important because this makes the exchanges between the clients and the counselors much easier and  meaningful. Several literature have been devoted to the evaluation of spiritualitys importance especially to therapeutic counseling in marriages and family life.

The term spirituality is often misinterpreted with religiousness. But the truth is  a person can be spiritual without belonging to a religious community or participating in religious rituals (Grams, Carlson, and McGeorge, 2007, p. 150). And in its particular application to counseling, the emphasis in the intervention of the counselors would be more significantly focused to the spiritual values of their clients. Some examples of pathways to connection are through the body, through nature, through the arts, or through a Higher Power  (Ellison, 2009, p. 190). Spirituality is not always confined the definitions of religious figures, but there are times that it is.
 
Minus religious factors, spirituality can be defined as  the choice to move toward personal growth, responsibility, and relationship with others  (van Asselt and Senstock, 2009, p. 412). When one person improves his spiritual condition, he is also increasing his hope that his problems would be solved. This helps counselors to penetrate and condition the minds of their clients faster. Spirituality can also be defined as  an experience or meaning system that allows people to find connection, values, and purpose, which can be related to nature, art, meditation, prayer, religion, or a relationship with a higher power (Grams, Carlson, and McGeorge, 2007, p. 150). Counselors can gain vast information from their clients because of spirituality, and this would help them in understanding how to rightfully address whatever problems they may consult them with.

According to van Asselt and Senstock (2009),  there is evidence that more awareness and training can have positive rewards for clients when sharing their experiences, especially spiritual ones  (p. 418). This means that enhancing the abilities of counselors to deal with spiritual issues elevate their chances of understanding their clients faster. Also, clients give in faster and wholeheartedly to their therapists after feeling that they do more than listening to their problems, but actually see them from their own personal spiritual level. Clients  self-perceived competence was influenced by the counselors spiritual beliefs and spirituality training  (van Asselt and Senstock, 2009, p. 417). This boosts their minds to become more participative to whatever activities their counselors may give them. Also,  all of us have some sense of spirituality in some form and clients have the right to be able to address these issues in their therapeutic work  so therapists should learn how to deal with this in a  respectful, non imposing, and emphatic way  (Ellison, 2009, p. 190).

In addition to spirituality as an aid to counseling, some counselors also shares the existence of pastoral counseling. This type of counseling  involves acknowledging that the counselor is not the healer but that a healing energy, which is both inside and beyond the client and counselor, is present and available to be tapped into  (Davis, 2008, p. 668). Through this type of counseling, family members or married couples become more involved the spiritual and theological growth they could gain from their immersion, through the help of course of their pastoral counselors. This type of counseling aims for goal of transformation for the client from a trouble state to one characterized by well-being and just and loving relationships  (Davis, 2008, p.668).

Types of Negative Issues faced by Therapeutic Counselors
The types of problems that marriage and family counselors are supposed to deal with  are vast and very sensitive. Domestic violence, child maltreatment, homicidal ideation, and suicidal ideation are  four types of clinical crises that most novice as well as seasoned therapists find challenging  (Hodgson, Lamson, and Feldhousen, 2007, p. 36). These types of relationship problems are among the most sensitive but highly occurring problems that specifically needs the careful attention of counseling groups.

The problems in families and marriages are different per situation, but are more often rooted from the same mistakes. To deal with the most harmful realities happening to day, first we should acknowledge that  the causes of human evil are complex, largely because human beings are complex and live in complex societies  (Davis, 2008, p.665). Therapeutic counselors should be aware of how the evils of the world affects each family directly and indirectly.  Through engaging and transforming our inner systems, we also can access the insight, compassion, and courage to name and engage the external systems of our world that are sources of evil and suffering  (Davis, 2008, p. 680). Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to what effects evil realities may have to each family member is crucial and significant for the counselor to understand just what their client may need.

Sometimes, because of the large amount of negativities that one person may experience, he may feel a part of himself to get disconnected or removed from his world. Logically,  recapturing this disconnected piece can be done via introducing compassion both toward others and toward oneself  (Ellison, 2009, p. 190). Not all if us could help do this or answer to this plea immediately and only well-trained counselors can help address this dilemma of being disconnected faster and more efficiently.

How Counseling Helps
Counseling groups that are specifically made for marriages and families should be equipped with the sufficient strength and knowledge to rightfully address all types of issues that may reach them.  The first consideration is that core competencies create a path, and the direction is determined by the organizations core values (Miller, Todahl, and Platt, 2010, p. 67). Counselors should be sensitive and knowledgeable of the essential factors that are important on how to counsel problems in families and marriages.

Therapy and counseling sessions are proven to be highly successful in majority of the cases that have undergone it. Counseling helps because highly negative and conflictual family interactions may be reduced by carefully timed therapist interventions  (Celano, Smith, and Kaslow, 2010 p. 38). Therapists are given enough education and training to professionally and expertly deal with their clients concerns. Present curriculum are still being continuously improved to make the education for therapeutic counseling easier and more fitting in todays time. Marriage and family counselors play important roles in the society today. In fact,  the marital therapy will ultimately save taxpayers money through reduced divorce rates and health care costs associated with individuals experiencing divorce  (Miller, Todahl, and Platt, 2010, p. 60).

Conclusion
Therapeutic counseling, especially in the sectors of families and marriages is crucially important and necessary amidst all the growing cases of family problems that our world today faces. Marriages and families should be the most safeguarded and well taken care of basic units of the society because they are also potentially the most powerful. Counseling in family and marriage therapy requires great discipline, sensitivity, and knowledge in the part of the counselors in order to efficiently determine and address what the family or the couple just needs. There are several systems formulated to educate people about marriages and family life. But the inclusion of spirituality in the relationship of the client to their respective counselor helps immensely for the two parties to understand each other better and form positive and productive relationship in the future.

The goal of this study was to look at significant differences between cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. The current study hypothesised that there are significant coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physical stalked victims. A 2x2 Anova Experimental design has been used. The variables for this study are Gender (female, male) and Stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). The dependent variable is the score on the Coping Questionnaire (Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, 1989). Participants in this study were 100 self identified stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). Participants were invited through networking website Facebook for this study.

What did I found What the findings mean for the real world

Introduction
Stalking behaviour has been explored in many studies. Stalking communication can takes many forms, just some of which include occur in form of letters, cards, internet and faxes. faxes,When stalking moves beyond mere harassment from a distance, its forms include visiting the victim at home, internet, telephoning, following the victim, verbally threatening violence, physical assaults, gifts, visiting places where the victim lives, face-to-face contact, and aggressive behaviour in form of property or object damaging (Sheridan, 2001). Mullen defined stalking as a constellation of behaviours in which an individual inflicts upon another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications. (Mullen, 1999). In recent years with the surge of social networking and information accessibility via websites, the ease with which an individual can track and stalk a victim has also grown exponentially.

Stalking involves obsessive behaviour toward the victim and often starts with mild harassment, often unbeknownst to the victim. This can start from with following a person, described as physical stalking to harassing the victim per email or phone calls.

Most people heard the word stalking first through the Medias media as a result of obsessed fans fixating on celebrities.

Rebecca Schaeffer was one of the first notable cases of celebrity stalking. The former 1980s sitcom star was stalked by her number-one fan Robert Bardo, who took it upon himself on July 18 1989, to visit Schaeffers apartment and put a bullet in her chest after two years of progressively-intrusive stalking. even killed by her stalker, an obsessed fan who had been stalking her for two years, It was this incident that lead that to the laws regarding stalking is now part of the legal system (who said that) (Discovery.com, 1998). Because the address of Schaeffer was given to Bardo by a detective agency that obtained the information from the California Department of Motor Vehicles, legislation giving individuals the right to keep their information from being released by the Department of Motor Vehicles (Discovery.com, 1998). This was just one of the laws that resulted from stalking as it gained national attention, and the need for protection from future acts of this nature was recognized by law officials everywhere.These

Legal issues were not the only areas that expanded because of the tragedy of Schaeffers death. As stalking came into the spotlight, psychologist began work to try to explain the mentality that resulted in this crime. This particular case falls into the category ofcategories of stalking can be categorized such as cases of known as erotomania, which includes behaviour of obsessive, excessive and delusional behaviour  (Howitt, D. (Seemann, 2002).) Erotomania is defined in the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, (1994) as erotomania. Erotomonia is a delusional disorder in which. tThere is almost no contact between the stalker and their the victim. This disorder follows the case of Bardo, butBut not all stalkers are mentally ill.

More celebrity cases of stalking that fuelled the necessary application of further legislation included the mere threat from a distance of actresssinger Madonna. A homeless man by the name of Robert Hoskins.

As with any form of abnormal behaviour, stalking is complex., Mmore than one cause and various permutations of stalking exists - from following somebody to harassing a person online through instant messagingfrom a distance via the web or instant messaging. Stalking is defined as the wilful, malicious and repeated following and harassing of another person. (Meloy, 1998, p2). However people tried to define it e.g.  As the telecommunications world advances every day, this concept has been expanded to include the term known now as cyberstalking.

Mullen classified five categories of stalkers based on motivation and context. These five categories are being rejected, feeling incompetent, being predatory, seeking intimacy, being resentful (Mullen et al, 1999). The most common stalker is called the Rejected . This stalking behaviour arises from formal intimate relationship partner, but can also include a relative, or a friend. This kind of stalker often has the feelings of loss, frustration, anger, jealousy, malevolence, and depression. The next category of stalker is the Intimacy Seeker who seeks an intimate relationship, generally with feelings of love (Mullen et al, 1999).. These are men or women who have the aforementioned erotomania. The third category classified by Mullen is the The Incompetent which contains a group of unintelligent and social unsophisticated individuals (Mullen et al, 1999). These individuals lack the ability to seek an intimate relationship through normal courting methods. The fourth category is The Resentful and it is the first category that turns toward a more malicious intent. The resentful stalker has the goal of distressing and frightening his victim, sometimes seeking revenge for feelings of injustice (Mullen et al, 1999). Finally, the fifth category is called The Predatory and involves the stalker deriving pleasure from the power and control experienced in stalking a victim (Mullen et al, 1999). The victim becomes an obsession  the stalker wants to know everything about the victim. These stalkers usually have sexual offense convictions and paraphilias of some sort (Mullen et al, 1999).

It is clearly demonstrated in many studies that women are much more likely to be stalked and attacked by a formal sexual partner than by a stranger (Sheridan, 2003) The reason could be in the perception -, how males perceive stalking behaviour compared to females. The public perception of a common stalker is generally thought as ato be male and common victim is thought of asto be a female. In comparisonDespite public perception,  Novell, (1999) found in a study that more males are being stalked via the internet than females., this Some consider this to be a result ofis result may associated with males using the Internet usually on differentfor different purposes basis than females. Male victims who are stalked by female stalkers perceive the female more as a positive riskperceive little or no danger in interacting with women via the Internet, whereas female victims perception ofn male stalkers is more negativecommon, causing an immediate distrust that men simply dont exhibit.

In most studies the majority of stalkers are male. There is still less awareness given to female stalkers. A study of 190 female stalkers found the majority met the criteria for a mental disorder. For the majority of female stalkers the reason for their behaviour included the break up of their relationship. Also it is noticed that men are less likely to define himself as a victim of a female stalker (Sheridan, 2005). This may result in the numbers being skewed, as many of the unreported cases of female stalking lead the numbers to be misrepresented. In addition it has been reported that the police are considerably more likely to arrest and report incidents involving female victims (Sheridan, 2002 (Tjaden  Thoennes, 1998)) 

Study of Sheridan, 2005 found that among 1,051 participants have been 86 female victims and 14 male victims. This study includes that 72 of stalking behaviour was through phone calls and 67  include spying on the victim. 50 of the participants had intimate relationship with their stalker. Another study between 1700 pupils has shown that there is a strong correlation between bullying in school and online bullying (Katzer, Fetchenhauser, Belschak, 2009) 

Cyber stalking is the use of internet or other technical electronic methods to harass or stalk an individual. It can include telephone calls, unwanted text messaging, internet bullying. Online stalkers harass their targets by using online communities, chat rooms or social network sites. There are many network communities such as Facebook, Netlog, and Myspace to create a personal profile with personal information. A study on  by  Hinduja  Patchin, (2005) shows that 34  of US-chatters have been claimed to be a victim of aggressions in online chartrooms (Hinduja Patchin, 2005).

Cyber stalking is defined as seeking and compiling personal information on the victim in order to harass, bully, threaten or frighten the victim via use of electronical methods. These methods include such as repeated unwanted e-mailing or electronically harassment as spamming or sending online viruses to the victim, identity theft, signing the victim up to receive services which might be chargingcould result in money being charged, buying goods and other utilities and services on victims behalf behalf, and finally, posting materials or vulgarize misinformation. Studiesy haves concluded that cyber stalking does not significantly differ from physical stalking in terms of the trauma inflicted on the victim (Sheridan  Grant, 2007).

Another questionnaire study demonstrates that 3.7  of 756 participants have been identified as cyber stalked victims. The Mmajority of stalkers have been identified as mates or formeral intimates of the victimsparticipants. And Iit was also likely that these participants have been stalked physically (Alexy, Burgess, Baker, Smoyak, 2005) Much cyber stalking behaviour can develop into physical stalking. 

Internet offers broad opportunities for stalking. A cyber stalker can easily find out personal details about their target with anonymity, including personal details such as home address, phone numbers, personal details and work place. The iInternet can provide anonymity for the stalker, allowing them to falsely identify themselves to an unsuspecting target.. Stalkers can present themselves different to their targets
(Cooper, 1998).

Study of Sheridan, 2005 found that among 1,051 participants have been 86 female victims and 14 male victims. This study includes that 72 of stalking behaviour was through phone calls and 67  include spying on the victim. 50 of the participants had intimate relationship with their stalker. Another study between 1700 pupils has shown that there is a strong correlation between bullying in school and online bullying
(Katzer, Fetchenhauser, Belschak, 2009) 

Another study explored that sex perpetrators have used the Internet to easily find their targets. There are few information how these stalkers are selecting their victims  (Malevsky, Alvin, L. 2007 (Armagh, 1998) )

Stalking has become one of the fastest growing crimes. UK first anti stalking legislation was legitimised in 2000 by Jack Straw to overcome the increasing behaviour of stalking crime (Howitt, 2009). There is still no clear legal definition of stalking. Stalkers want to make their victims fearful.  Many Western countries passed laws after the death of Rebecca Schaefer, in 1989. Schaeffers death increased the media attention. The term stalking is used to explain a behaviour that describes the unwanted and repeated communicating or following of a person in a way in which the person find this behaviour distressing or fearing. In addition the term stalking is also used in association with harassment to describe this behaviour. The stalking law is comparatively relatively new. Law is still requiring a foothold on this field. For all types of stalkers, for the certain types of psychiatric disorders, the relationships between the victim and stalkers can help to build on the legislation and to distinguish the stalker within categories. The UK government approved the protection from Harassment Act in 1997.

This Act has a criminal and civil regulation to deal with stalking behaviour. And every state in America has also passed anti-stalking legislations. There is no reason for stalking or any specific psychological profile in case on stalkers personality. Stalking alone is very complex and cannot just organised eradicated by set of laws. There is almost no physical contact between the victim and stalker, therefore difficult to prove their actions to the police. Therefore it is suggested the legislation could gain additional insight into stalking by evaluating the literature and by categorizing the different types of stalking behaviour, with more specific empathy on classifying characteristics and various types of such offenders. 

Stalking can have severe psychosocial impact on victims and can cause psychological and physical effects on victims such as post-traumatic stress disorder following a post-intimate stalking. A study conducted by Kamphius aimed to find out the affective and cognitive responses following formal intimate stalking. 131 Dutch females were participants in this study. Affective responses were found including fear, shame, loss and liability. Post traumatic stress was associated with stressor-related and person-related variables, involving violence and passive coping (Kamphius etc al, 2003).

Stalking has been categorized as a crime because of the seriousness for the victims. Victims normally describe their feelings of violation, and as a loss of control over their private environments. Victims explain their perceptions with words such as emotional rape or psychological terrorism. The impact of stalking are is often experienced over a long period even after the stalking has been stopped.

Treatments are available for victims. Effective support for victims at the earliest stage reduces long term stress. (diseasedness). Support for stalking victims will lead the significant relaxation of the victims distress, social and occupational effective operation. Treatments with stress related symptoms are available.

Study 2x2 Anova Experimental design has been used. The variables for this study are Gender (female, male) and Stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). The dependent variable is the score on the Coping Questionnaire (Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, 1989)

It is hypothesized that there are significant differences in coping styles between physical and cyber stalked victims. Coping explains a set of responses how to deal with everyday hassles and stressors. It involves though processes and actions how victims in this case responding to their situations. There are many events of stressful situations which can influence the way of coping styles. In a previous study it was concluded that cyber stalking does not differ significantly from physical stalking (Sheridan  Grant, 2007)

Method
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of East London. (See attached application form for the ethical approved in Appendix A)
Participants were informed about the Procedure of this study. Participants who were willing to take part in this study received a consent form and an information leaflet (see attached in Appendix B) which they had to sign in before receiving the questionnaire. The consent form informed them that they could withdraw at any time during the study (see attached in Appendix C) 

Participants
Participants in this study were 100 self identified stalking victims (self identified cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). Participants (72 Female, 28 Male) took part in this study. 50 participants are used in each group. Participants were garnered recruited via the Internet by posting a request for participants on Facebook for self-identified cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. Participants ranged from 17-59 years of age. (M    , SD .)

Materials
A questionnaire developed by Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, (1989) was used to compare the coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. A questionnaire was used to explore the coping skills after the stalking has been stopped for the victims. The questionnaire consists of 60 items, about how participants respond and deal with stressful and difficult life events. Participants needed to respond to the items by choosing one number for each item. 1 I usually do not do this at all 2 I usually do this a little bit. 3 I usually do this a medium amount. 4I usually do this a lot (see attached in Appendix D)

The questionnaire Cope is made of 15 scales (four questions for each scale). The scales are Active coping, planning. Seeking Instrumental Social Support, Seeking emotional support, Suppression of Competing Activities, Turning to Religion, Positive Reinterpretation and Growth, Restraint Coping, Acceptance, Focus on and Venting of Emotions, Denial, Mental Disengagement, Behavioural Disengagement, AlcoholDrug use, Humour.

Procedure
Participants were invited through networking website Facebook to participate in this study. A group site was placed on the social networking site Facebook to request victims of stalking (cyber stalked and physically stalked victims to take part in this study). The group was named VICTIMS OF STALKING. A group invitation was posted to all other victims of stalking groups which exist on Facebook. Announcements were made requesting participants for this study. Interested members had been members of the group which was created by the researcher. Group members who confirmed their participation received an invitation leaflet and were asked to take part in this study and to send their email address via Facebook.  This was to send via email the consent form ( see attached in Appendix ). They were asked to sign and scan the consent form and send it back either via post or email back to the researcher. Once they had completed and returned the consent form (signed) participants received the questionnaire with detailed information regarding the study. Again they were reminded to complete and return the completed questionnaire. Participants were informed that the data would be kept confidential, and that participants could withdraw at any time during the study, in addition participants were reminded to contact the researcher at any time if help was needed either through Facebook or via email. Participants are identifiable on Facebook as a group member of the created victims of stalking. Once participants had completed their questionnaire and consent form their data werenot kept together, therefore nobody will able to identify any participant from their completed questionnaire. Participant were also reminded that they will not be identifiable in this study in any way.

In addition participants were directed to a website  HYPERLINK httpwww.stalkingvictims.com www.stalkingvictims.com (see information leaflet attached). Participants have the ability to receive support and further detailed information about stalking in general. The website contains information about their legal right as a stalking victims and participants have also the possibility to join into communities where they can share their emotional feelings about their experiences anonymously and also have the opportunity receive support from other stalking victims.

Participants who are returned the completed questionnaire received a debriefing sheet which was posted via email. This is part of the ethical procedure. The Psychology Departments Ethics Committees, ethics code dictates the treatment of human participants in psychological research design. The main reason is to minimize the level of distress or anxiety that participant may feel during the study. Researcher has to be responsible and fully aware of the British Psychological Societys (BPS) Ethical principles and need to be approved before conducted by the BPS.

Results
Scores of each scale are calculated by adding the scores on the four questions that make up each scale. The scores for each scale range from 4 to 16 and indicates the extent to which each type of coping was used. First the average age of those who claimed to be the victims of different forms of stalking was approximately 28 years.

Out of the fifty individuals who claimed to be cyberstalked, the average age was 27 years out of the fifty individuals who claimed to be physically stalked, the average age was about 28-years.

Using a questionnaire developed by Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, (1989) was used to compare the coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physically-stalked victims.

One-Sample Statistics
 NMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanGender1001.2800.45126.04513Age10028.42006.73177.67318

One-Sample Test
Test Value  0 tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean Difference95 Confidence Interval of the Difference LowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperGender28.36599.0001.280001.19051.3695Age42.21899.00028.4200027.084329.7557

Group Statistics
VictimsNMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanAgeCyber stalked victims5027.90006.51607.92151 physical stalked victims5028.94006.96759.98537

Independent Samples Test
Levenes Test for Equality of Variancest-test for Equality of Means  FSig.tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean DifferenceStd. Error Difference95 Confidence Interval of the Difference  LowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerAgeEqual variances assumed.057.812-.77198.443-1.040001.34912-3.717291.63729 Equal variances not assumed  -.77197.563.443-1.040001.34912-3.717441.63744

Discussion
The aim of this study was to explore whether there is a significant coping style differences between the physical stalked and cyber stalked victims.

Society has often brought on major influences on people that comprise it.  An individual s actions are sometimes instigated by what society dictates so does an individual s inaction. The Bystander effect is one example of the ability of society to affect a person s willingness to act in the presence of an emergency situation. The Bystander effect is a phenomenon wherein the presence of a greater number of people as onlookers lessens the likelihood of a person who is in distress to receive help from them. Moreover, with fewer people present, a person in distress is more likely to get help. The Bystander effect is also called the Genovese Syndrome (Mcshane, 2007) which is attributed to the murder of Kitty Genovese outside her Queens apartment. She allegedly called for help and was heard by 38 witnesses however, none of them came to her aid. One of the witnesses was said to have called the police 30 minutes after the assault, at which at that time, Kitty Genovese was already dead. This incident raised an alarm in the United States as to the inability of people in the society to help other people in emergency situations. Studies have tried to come up with explanations regarding this inaction and some have come up with the main reason of diffusion of responsibility. A person may fail to engage in prosocial behavior in the presence of other people due to the belief that someone among the other onlookers will help the distressed individual. People also fail to act if among the onlookers, there is no immediate reaction, which gives them the idea that a situation may not be a possible emergency. Others are afraid to help since they are afraid to get caught up in the situation. Prosocial behavior is defined as the actions done for the greater good or benefit of an individual or a group of individuals. In other words, it could also mean the deeds done in order to help other people.

Mammals are said
to have innate qualities of helping each other however, human actions at some point, are affected by their environment and thus, the people around them.

Participants
In this study, 12 people were interviewed. The subjects were a 25-year old female, a 27-year old male, a 34-year old female, a 31-year old male, a 47-year old female, a 43-year old male, a 54-year-old female, a 56-year old male, a 62-year old female, a 66-year old male, a 71-year old female and a 72-year old male.

Methodology
The interview is set to understand what worries people and how they cope with those worries. Two people from each age range of 20   30, 30   40, 40   50, 50   60, 60   70, and 70 years old and above were interviewed. Of the two people from each age range, one was female, the other male. The participants were interviewed on a one on one basis with the interviewer taking careful notes and accounts of the interview. The participants were also selected randomly with no other qualifications except age and gender.

Results
On an average, the subjects  worries composed of 5 things. The most frequent things that worry the subjects are pain due to injections, with the most unusual worry being failure. The subjects state that the most frequent coping mechanism they do include staying away from the sources of their worries. The most unusual coping mechanism includes immersing themselves with their worries. The number of worries seems to be greater with the younger ranges (20   30, 30   40 and 40   50 years old) with a slight difference with the older age ranges in the types of worries. The younger age ranges seem to be worried more about pain and crawling insects while the older age ranges worry most about their health and dying. Coping methods also differ among the age ranges in that the younger age ranges are more engaged with their worries than doing something about it.  Gender differences on the other hand affect the types of worries slightly. Men are more afraid of injections while women are more afraid of pain not necessarily induced by injections. As for coping methods, male and female of some age ranges share the methods (20   30) while the others differ.

Conclusion
In conclusion, age differences affect the types of worries and coping methods more than gender differences. The younger participants seem to be more attached to their fears so that they stay away from activities that could bring about these worries. The older generation (60 years old and above) seems to think that they are helpless with their situation especially those who worry most about their health but they say they do the best they can to maintain a good health and thus, lessen their worries. In connection to the Bystander effect, younger people should be able to help more than older people. However, depending on the abilities of older people, they can also help in emergency situations though physically, some of them won t be able to. Also, due to inexperience, younger people sometimes fail to help due to fear of getting involved. In relation to gender, men should also be able to help actively compared to women since men s physique allows them to be stronger than women therefore, they should engage more in helping people in distress. This happens most of the time though, men helping women.

The Kitty Genovese incident has raised awareness in society so that more and more people are becoming proactive hence, engaging in prosocial behavior. However, older people or people with experience tend to understand the situation of a person in distress more than younger people so, at young ages, children should be educated regarding prosocial behavior in order that when
they grow up, they will be able to understand people who are in distress so that when they witness one, they will be able to help, either actively or passively.

The bystander effect (Genovese effect or syndrome) is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals fail to assist in an emergency situation where other people are present. In the past, the probability of help has been thought to be inversely proportional to the number of bystanders, thus the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that one will help you. The people around assume nothing is wrong because nobody else looks concerned. Observers are more likely to take action if there are a few or no other witnesses. The opposite of bystander effect is bystander intervention, which states that if a person requires help, another person, unaccompanied by friends or witnesses is much more likely to offer help.

When a group of people witnesses a person in need of help, confusion begins to arise about who should assist and most people assume that another person will intervene thus ending up not assisting the one in need (Christensen, n.d). In their research, Latane and Darley found out that the amount of time it takes the participant to take action and seek help varies depending on how many other observers are present (1969). They found out that the bystanders go through a five steps process during each of which they can decide to act or not.

The first step is where they notice the event or they are in a hurry and pretend not to notice. The second step is where they realize the emergency or assume that because others are not acting it is not an emergency. In the third step they assume responsibility or assume that others will help. The fourth step is where they know or do not know what to do. And in the last step they act i.e. they worry about danger, legislation or embarrassment (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d)

There are two major factors that contribute to the bystander effect. The first one is the presence of other people which creates a diffusion of responsibility. Because there are other observers, individuals do not feel much pressure to take action. The responsibility to take action is thought to be shared among all the present individuals. The observers assume that the other party will intervene and as a result they feel less responsible. Secondly, there is the need to correctly and in a manner that is socially acceptable. When other observers fail to intervene, individuals in the scene take this as a signal that a response is not needed or not appropriate. The onlookers may also fail to intervene if the situation seems ambiguous (Baron, Branscombe  Byrne, 2008).

There are several reasons why people may choose not to help. To begin with, individuals assuming other bystanders are more qualified to help in times of need for example presence of police officers or doctors. As a result, they feel as though their intervention would be unhelpful and therefore unnecessary. The other reason why people fail to act is as a result of evaluation apprehension, where some people feel self conscious about the image they portray to other bystanders. To avoid losing face, the individuals choose not to respond to a person in need of aid. Other factors that lead to one not offering help are fears associated with perception, which include fear of being superseded by a superior helper, fear of offering help that is unwanted, or fear of facing legal consequences as a result of offering inferior and perhaps dangerous assistance. There is also fear of victimization where people avoid conflict because they dread being attacked if they help.

The most frequently cited example of the bystander effect by psychologists is the brutal murder of a young woman whose name was Catherine kitty Genovese, on Friday march 13, 1964 (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d). The young lady was returning home after work. While at her entrance she was attacked and stabbed by a man who was later identified as Winston Moseley. Despite her repeated cries for help, none of the witnesses called the police early enough to save her life. It was not until after 30 minutes that the first person contacted the police. If anyone intervened immediately, maybe Genoveses life would have been saved (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d)

There is a five step cognitive model for avoiding the bystander effects as developed by the psychological community. The steps include, noticing something is happening by basically paying attention and knowing what is going on. Try to asses the situation as best as you can from your own knowledge and do not turn to others to see what they are doing.  Interpreting the situation if it is an emergency, then, taking responsibility and lastly choosing a form of assistance and implementing it immediately (BBC, 2001).

In order to overcome the bystanders effect, there are some things that you need to do when you witness an attack. First, use your cell phone or any other phone and dial whatever the emergency number is in your region you can do it at a distance from the attack and you can remain anonymous if you want. Secondly follow your gut instincts if you sense that something is not right, it probably isnt. The third thing is to suppress your what if I am wrong, what if I embarrass myself inside voice. The effects caused on the victim as a result of the attack might be worse than the effect of a little embarrassment on you. The fourth thing is to empathize with the person being attacked. One should be able to help irrespective of whether you share the same social group or if you have connection with the victim in some way. You should see the victim as another student, sister, brother, or in fact another human being just like you.

The fifth thing you need to do to overcome this effect is to get training. This is because the major reason making bystanders not intervene in times of emergency is quite simple, they do not know. Bystanders know very well that they should do something but have no clue what course of action to take and are scared of doing something wrong or make things worse. So if for example you want to stop sexual assault, you should research on how to identify and stop such situations. This will prepare you and also make you confident on what to do when the right time comes. Then you should know that your intervention will help no matter what. Some actions like yelling, shouting loudly, or calling the police do not need special training. The more you are knowledgeable about something, the more you are capable be of dealing with it in the right manner. If you convince yourself that the reason you cannot help is because this effect is distorting your judgment, then, you are more likely to overcome it and take action.       

While it would appear like a person in a public place is relatively safe from an attack, it might not be the case as proven by research on the bystander effect. To counter this effect, if you are attacked in front of a crowd, you should appeal to one person in the crowd only, eye contact with that person may also be helpful in gaining help. The other thing that may help is to make people understand that the bystander effect exists. Being aware of this means that when you see a crime occurring you should possibly try to offer some help (Baron, Branscombe  Byrne, 2008). Shouting at other people watching the crime with you might also be very helpful as this will motivate others in the crowd to intervene. The other thing is that if you see a crime happening do remember to call the police, do not just assume that another person might have called already.

Anyone on the street has the power to intervene when we see something wrong happening. More often than not, all it takes is just a single word or gesture to show the perpetrator that people can notice. The only problem that people face, is overcoming the social forces and tiny voices that run through our heads telling us that we cannot for one reason or another. In other words, we should not be afraid or insecure to take action no matter how difficult it is since the little action you take can save a life.