Psychology

The goal of this study was to look at significant differences between cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. The current study hypothesised that there are significant coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physical stalked victims. A 2x2 Anova Experimental design has been used. The variables for this study are Gender (female, male) and Stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). The dependent variable is the score on the Coping Questionnaire (Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, 1989). Participants in this study were 100 self identified stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). Participants were invited through networking website Facebook for this study.

What did I found What the findings mean for the real world

Introduction
Stalking behaviour has been explored in many studies. Stalking communication can takes many forms, just some of which include occur in form of letters, cards, internet and faxes. faxes,When stalking moves beyond mere harassment from a distance, its forms include visiting the victim at home, internet, telephoning, following the victim, verbally threatening violence, physical assaults, gifts, visiting places where the victim lives, face-to-face contact, and aggressive behaviour in form of property or object damaging (Sheridan, 2001). Mullen defined stalking as a constellation of behaviours in which an individual inflicts upon another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications. (Mullen, 1999). In recent years with the surge of social networking and information accessibility via websites, the ease with which an individual can track and stalk a victim has also grown exponentially.

Stalking involves obsessive behaviour toward the victim and often starts with mild harassment, often unbeknownst to the victim. This can start from with following a person, described as physical stalking to harassing the victim per email or phone calls.

Most people heard the word stalking first through the Medias media as a result of obsessed fans fixating on celebrities.

Rebecca Schaeffer was one of the first notable cases of celebrity stalking. The former 1980s sitcom star was stalked by her number-one fan Robert Bardo, who took it upon himself on July 18 1989, to visit Schaeffers apartment and put a bullet in her chest after two years of progressively-intrusive stalking. even killed by her stalker, an obsessed fan who had been stalking her for two years, It was this incident that lead that to the laws regarding stalking is now part of the legal system (who said that) (Discovery.com, 1998). Because the address of Schaeffer was given to Bardo by a detective agency that obtained the information from the California Department of Motor Vehicles, legislation giving individuals the right to keep their information from being released by the Department of Motor Vehicles (Discovery.com, 1998). This was just one of the laws that resulted from stalking as it gained national attention, and the need for protection from future acts of this nature was recognized by law officials everywhere.These

Legal issues were not the only areas that expanded because of the tragedy of Schaeffers death. As stalking came into the spotlight, psychologist began work to try to explain the mentality that resulted in this crime. This particular case falls into the category ofcategories of stalking can be categorized such as cases of known as erotomania, which includes behaviour of obsessive, excessive and delusional behaviour  (Howitt, D. (Seemann, 2002).) Erotomania is defined in the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, (1994) as erotomania. Erotomonia is a delusional disorder in which. tThere is almost no contact between the stalker and their the victim. This disorder follows the case of Bardo, butBut not all stalkers are mentally ill.

More celebrity cases of stalking that fuelled the necessary application of further legislation included the mere threat from a distance of actresssinger Madonna. A homeless man by the name of Robert Hoskins.

As with any form of abnormal behaviour, stalking is complex., Mmore than one cause and various permutations of stalking exists - from following somebody to harassing a person online through instant messagingfrom a distance via the web or instant messaging. Stalking is defined as the wilful, malicious and repeated following and harassing of another person. (Meloy, 1998, p2). However people tried to define it e.g.  As the telecommunications world advances every day, this concept has been expanded to include the term known now as cyberstalking.

Mullen classified five categories of stalkers based on motivation and context. These five categories are being rejected, feeling incompetent, being predatory, seeking intimacy, being resentful (Mullen et al, 1999). The most common stalker is called the Rejected . This stalking behaviour arises from formal intimate relationship partner, but can also include a relative, or a friend. This kind of stalker often has the feelings of loss, frustration, anger, jealousy, malevolence, and depression. The next category of stalker is the Intimacy Seeker who seeks an intimate relationship, generally with feelings of love (Mullen et al, 1999).. These are men or women who have the aforementioned erotomania. The third category classified by Mullen is the The Incompetent which contains a group of unintelligent and social unsophisticated individuals (Mullen et al, 1999). These individuals lack the ability to seek an intimate relationship through normal courting methods. The fourth category is The Resentful and it is the first category that turns toward a more malicious intent. The resentful stalker has the goal of distressing and frightening his victim, sometimes seeking revenge for feelings of injustice (Mullen et al, 1999). Finally, the fifth category is called The Predatory and involves the stalker deriving pleasure from the power and control experienced in stalking a victim (Mullen et al, 1999). The victim becomes an obsession  the stalker wants to know everything about the victim. These stalkers usually have sexual offense convictions and paraphilias of some sort (Mullen et al, 1999).

It is clearly demonstrated in many studies that women are much more likely to be stalked and attacked by a formal sexual partner than by a stranger (Sheridan, 2003) The reason could be in the perception -, how males perceive stalking behaviour compared to females. The public perception of a common stalker is generally thought as ato be male and common victim is thought of asto be a female. In comparisonDespite public perception,  Novell, (1999) found in a study that more males are being stalked via the internet than females., this Some consider this to be a result ofis result may associated with males using the Internet usually on differentfor different purposes basis than females. Male victims who are stalked by female stalkers perceive the female more as a positive riskperceive little or no danger in interacting with women via the Internet, whereas female victims perception ofn male stalkers is more negativecommon, causing an immediate distrust that men simply dont exhibit.

In most studies the majority of stalkers are male. There is still less awareness given to female stalkers. A study of 190 female stalkers found the majority met the criteria for a mental disorder. For the majority of female stalkers the reason for their behaviour included the break up of their relationship. Also it is noticed that men are less likely to define himself as a victim of a female stalker (Sheridan, 2005). This may result in the numbers being skewed, as many of the unreported cases of female stalking lead the numbers to be misrepresented. In addition it has been reported that the police are considerably more likely to arrest and report incidents involving female victims (Sheridan, 2002 (Tjaden  Thoennes, 1998)) 

Study of Sheridan, 2005 found that among 1,051 participants have been 86 female victims and 14 male victims. This study includes that 72 of stalking behaviour was through phone calls and 67  include spying on the victim. 50 of the participants had intimate relationship with their stalker. Another study between 1700 pupils has shown that there is a strong correlation between bullying in school and online bullying (Katzer, Fetchenhauser, Belschak, 2009) 

Cyber stalking is the use of internet or other technical electronic methods to harass or stalk an individual. It can include telephone calls, unwanted text messaging, internet bullying. Online stalkers harass their targets by using online communities, chat rooms or social network sites. There are many network communities such as Facebook, Netlog, and Myspace to create a personal profile with personal information. A study on  by  Hinduja  Patchin, (2005) shows that 34  of US-chatters have been claimed to be a victim of aggressions in online chartrooms (Hinduja Patchin, 2005).

Cyber stalking is defined as seeking and compiling personal information on the victim in order to harass, bully, threaten or frighten the victim via use of electronical methods. These methods include such as repeated unwanted e-mailing or electronically harassment as spamming or sending online viruses to the victim, identity theft, signing the victim up to receive services which might be chargingcould result in money being charged, buying goods and other utilities and services on victims behalf behalf, and finally, posting materials or vulgarize misinformation. Studiesy haves concluded that cyber stalking does not significantly differ from physical stalking in terms of the trauma inflicted on the victim (Sheridan  Grant, 2007).

Another questionnaire study demonstrates that 3.7  of 756 participants have been identified as cyber stalked victims. The Mmajority of stalkers have been identified as mates or formeral intimates of the victimsparticipants. And Iit was also likely that these participants have been stalked physically (Alexy, Burgess, Baker, Smoyak, 2005) Much cyber stalking behaviour can develop into physical stalking. 

Internet offers broad opportunities for stalking. A cyber stalker can easily find out personal details about their target with anonymity, including personal details such as home address, phone numbers, personal details and work place. The iInternet can provide anonymity for the stalker, allowing them to falsely identify themselves to an unsuspecting target.. Stalkers can present themselves different to their targets
(Cooper, 1998).

Study of Sheridan, 2005 found that among 1,051 participants have been 86 female victims and 14 male victims. This study includes that 72 of stalking behaviour was through phone calls and 67  include spying on the victim. 50 of the participants had intimate relationship with their stalker. Another study between 1700 pupils has shown that there is a strong correlation between bullying in school and online bullying
(Katzer, Fetchenhauser, Belschak, 2009) 

Another study explored that sex perpetrators have used the Internet to easily find their targets. There are few information how these stalkers are selecting their victims  (Malevsky, Alvin, L. 2007 (Armagh, 1998) )

Stalking has become one of the fastest growing crimes. UK first anti stalking legislation was legitimised in 2000 by Jack Straw to overcome the increasing behaviour of stalking crime (Howitt, 2009). There is still no clear legal definition of stalking. Stalkers want to make their victims fearful.  Many Western countries passed laws after the death of Rebecca Schaefer, in 1989. Schaeffers death increased the media attention. The term stalking is used to explain a behaviour that describes the unwanted and repeated communicating or following of a person in a way in which the person find this behaviour distressing or fearing. In addition the term stalking is also used in association with harassment to describe this behaviour. The stalking law is comparatively relatively new. Law is still requiring a foothold on this field. For all types of stalkers, for the certain types of psychiatric disorders, the relationships between the victim and stalkers can help to build on the legislation and to distinguish the stalker within categories. The UK government approved the protection from Harassment Act in 1997.

This Act has a criminal and civil regulation to deal with stalking behaviour. And every state in America has also passed anti-stalking legislations. There is no reason for stalking or any specific psychological profile in case on stalkers personality. Stalking alone is very complex and cannot just organised eradicated by set of laws. There is almost no physical contact between the victim and stalker, therefore difficult to prove their actions to the police. Therefore it is suggested the legislation could gain additional insight into stalking by evaluating the literature and by categorizing the different types of stalking behaviour, with more specific empathy on classifying characteristics and various types of such offenders. 

Stalking can have severe psychosocial impact on victims and can cause psychological and physical effects on victims such as post-traumatic stress disorder following a post-intimate stalking. A study conducted by Kamphius aimed to find out the affective and cognitive responses following formal intimate stalking. 131 Dutch females were participants in this study. Affective responses were found including fear, shame, loss and liability. Post traumatic stress was associated with stressor-related and person-related variables, involving violence and passive coping (Kamphius etc al, 2003).

Stalking has been categorized as a crime because of the seriousness for the victims. Victims normally describe their feelings of violation, and as a loss of control over their private environments. Victims explain their perceptions with words such as emotional rape or psychological terrorism. The impact of stalking are is often experienced over a long period even after the stalking has been stopped.

Treatments are available for victims. Effective support for victims at the earliest stage reduces long term stress. (diseasedness). Support for stalking victims will lead the significant relaxation of the victims distress, social and occupational effective operation. Treatments with stress related symptoms are available.

Study 2x2 Anova Experimental design has been used. The variables for this study are Gender (female, male) and Stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). The dependent variable is the score on the Coping Questionnaire (Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, 1989)

It is hypothesized that there are significant differences in coping styles between physical and cyber stalked victims. Coping explains a set of responses how to deal with everyday hassles and stressors. It involves though processes and actions how victims in this case responding to their situations. There are many events of stressful situations which can influence the way of coping styles. In a previous study it was concluded that cyber stalking does not differ significantly from physical stalking (Sheridan  Grant, 2007)

Method
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of East London. (See attached application form for the ethical approved in Appendix A)
Participants were informed about the Procedure of this study. Participants who were willing to take part in this study received a consent form and an information leaflet (see attached in Appendix B) which they had to sign in before receiving the questionnaire. The consent form informed them that they could withdraw at any time during the study (see attached in Appendix C) 

Participants
Participants in this study were 100 self identified stalking victims (self identified cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). Participants (72 Female, 28 Male) took part in this study. 50 participants are used in each group. Participants were garnered recruited via the Internet by posting a request for participants on Facebook for self-identified cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. Participants ranged from 17-59 years of age. (M    , SD .)

Materials
A questionnaire developed by Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, (1989) was used to compare the coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. A questionnaire was used to explore the coping skills after the stalking has been stopped for the victims. The questionnaire consists of 60 items, about how participants respond and deal with stressful and difficult life events. Participants needed to respond to the items by choosing one number for each item. 1 I usually do not do this at all 2 I usually do this a little bit. 3 I usually do this a medium amount. 4I usually do this a lot (see attached in Appendix D)

The questionnaire Cope is made of 15 scales (four questions for each scale). The scales are Active coping, planning. Seeking Instrumental Social Support, Seeking emotional support, Suppression of Competing Activities, Turning to Religion, Positive Reinterpretation and Growth, Restraint Coping, Acceptance, Focus on and Venting of Emotions, Denial, Mental Disengagement, Behavioural Disengagement, AlcoholDrug use, Humour.

Procedure
Participants were invited through networking website Facebook to participate in this study. A group site was placed on the social networking site Facebook to request victims of stalking (cyber stalked and physically stalked victims to take part in this study). The group was named VICTIMS OF STALKING. A group invitation was posted to all other victims of stalking groups which exist on Facebook. Announcements were made requesting participants for this study. Interested members had been members of the group which was created by the researcher. Group members who confirmed their participation received an invitation leaflet and were asked to take part in this study and to send their email address via Facebook.  This was to send via email the consent form ( see attached in Appendix ). They were asked to sign and scan the consent form and send it back either via post or email back to the researcher. Once they had completed and returned the consent form (signed) participants received the questionnaire with detailed information regarding the study. Again they were reminded to complete and return the completed questionnaire. Participants were informed that the data would be kept confidential, and that participants could withdraw at any time during the study, in addition participants were reminded to contact the researcher at any time if help was needed either through Facebook or via email. Participants are identifiable on Facebook as a group member of the created victims of stalking. Once participants had completed their questionnaire and consent form their data werenot kept together, therefore nobody will able to identify any participant from their completed questionnaire. Participant were also reminded that they will not be identifiable in this study in any way.

In addition participants were directed to a website  HYPERLINK httpwww.stalkingvictims.com www.stalkingvictims.com (see information leaflet attached). Participants have the ability to receive support and further detailed information about stalking in general. The website contains information about their legal right as a stalking victims and participants have also the possibility to join into communities where they can share their emotional feelings about their experiences anonymously and also have the opportunity receive support from other stalking victims.

Participants who are returned the completed questionnaire received a debriefing sheet which was posted via email. This is part of the ethical procedure. The Psychology Departments Ethics Committees, ethics code dictates the treatment of human participants in psychological research design. The main reason is to minimize the level of distress or anxiety that participant may feel during the study. Researcher has to be responsible and fully aware of the British Psychological Societys (BPS) Ethical principles and need to be approved before conducted by the BPS.

Results
Scores of each scale are calculated by adding the scores on the four questions that make up each scale. The scores for each scale range from 4 to 16 and indicates the extent to which each type of coping was used. First the average age of those who claimed to be the victims of different forms of stalking was approximately 28 years.

Out of the fifty individuals who claimed to be cyberstalked, the average age was 27 years out of the fifty individuals who claimed to be physically stalked, the average age was about 28-years.

Using a questionnaire developed by Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, (1989) was used to compare the coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physically-stalked victims.

One-Sample Statistics
 NMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanGender1001.2800.45126.04513Age10028.42006.73177.67318

One-Sample Test
Test Value  0 tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean Difference95 Confidence Interval of the Difference LowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperGender28.36599.0001.280001.19051.3695Age42.21899.00028.4200027.084329.7557

Group Statistics
VictimsNMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanAgeCyber stalked victims5027.90006.51607.92151 physical stalked victims5028.94006.96759.98537

Independent Samples Test
Levenes Test for Equality of Variancest-test for Equality of Means  FSig.tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean DifferenceStd. Error Difference95 Confidence Interval of the Difference  LowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerAgeEqual variances assumed.057.812-.77198.443-1.040001.34912-3.717291.63729 Equal variances not assumed  -.77197.563.443-1.040001.34912-3.717441.63744

Discussion
The aim of this study was to explore whether there is a significant coping style differences between the physical stalked and cyber stalked victims.