Psychology

Abstract
The paper provides a review of the article from the Development Psychology journal. The summary and research design are discussed. The article adds to the current state of knowledge about human emotional and cognitive development.

Dearing, E., Wimer, C., Simpkins, S.D., Lund, T., Bouffard, S.M., Caronongan, P.  Kreider, H. (2009). Do neighborhood and home contexts help explain why low-income children miss opportunities to participate in activities outside of school Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1545-1562.

Children who grow in poor communities often experience the lack of educational and social opportunities and thus tend to lag behind their peers in emotional, social, and cognitive development (Dearing et al, 2009). In their article, Dearing et al (2009) explore the impact of social contextual factors on childrens participation in activities outside of school. For the purpose of their study, the authors integrate developmental theory on family income, neighborhoods, and out-of-school activities (Dearing et al, 2009). The authors do not provide any specific hypothesis but aim to explore neighborhood and home contexts as potential mechanisms helping to explain why low-income children miss opportunities to participate in activities outside of school (Dearing et al, 2009). Dearing et al (2009) investigate available out-of-school opportunities, neighborhood explanations of poor childrens involvement in out-of-school activities, and home explanations to low participation of low-income children in activities outside of school. The two primary research questions are (1) do lower-income children participate less than affluent children and (2) do affluence, neighborhood, and home support explain involvement disparities associated with family income (Dearing et al, 2009). Because childrens participation in school and out-of-school activities contributes significantly to their cognitive and emotional development, Dearing et al (2009) seek to link childrens social status to their emotional and knowledge capabilities and skills.

The study involved child and family data from the PSID-CDS  a longitudinal study of family economic and employment issues with the two large samples included and initiated back in 1968 (Dearing et al, 2009). Wave I of data collection was completed in 1997, when children eligible for participation were between 1 day and 12 years old (Dearing et al, 2009). In 2002-2003, Wave II was completed, to collect data on childrens activity participation (Dearing et al, 2009). The authors of the present study focused their efforts on children from elementary school, creating a sample of 1,420 children (Dearing et al, 2009). For inferential and descriptive analyses, Dearing et al (2009) used a poststratification factor, the inverse of a familys probability of selection for the PSID, and the inverse of a childs probability of selection (Dearing et al, 2009). Demographic information was gathered via parent or primary caregiver report (Dearing et al, 2009). Family PSID reports on income were accessed and analyzed (Dearing et al, 2009). Cognitive and emotional support at home was measured via the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment  Short Form during Wave II (Dearing et al, 2009). Tract-level data from the 2000 U.S. Census was used to create an indicator of neighborhood affluence (Dearing et al, 2009). Parents were asked to report whether their children participated in seven chosen activities during the past year, while additional child, parent, and home characteristics, including parents propensity to invest in their children and their self-efficacy, were assessed (Dearing et al, 2009).

The authors found the direct link between the level of income and childrens participation in out-of-school activities children from low-income families were exceptionally unlikely to participate in out-of-school activities and thus missed significant growth-enriching opportunities (Dearing et al, 2009). In poorer children, income was much more strongly associated with their participation levels than in more affluent families (Dearing et al, 2009). In its turn, living in affluent neighborhoods and having high family income was the basic predictor of high participation, while affluent neighborhoods proved developmental benefits for children in terms of their achievement (Dearing et al, 2009). The unexpected finding was in that children from less affluent neighborhoods were more likely than their wealthier peers to participate in church activities (Dearing et al, 2009). These results contribute to better understanding of how human development occurs and how childrens propensity to use enriching resources can be limited by preexisting conditions and disadvantages (Dearing et al, 2009).

I cannot say that the results of this study became a revelation to me that childrens development opportunities are influenced significantly by their socioeconomic status and financial abilities is not new. However, the study is interesting and useful in the sense that it emphasizes the role of home support and home cognitive investment in childrens cognitive and skill development. Regardless of the level of income and affluence, parental support and encouragement specific to a particular activity is more important than generalized emotional support, and can foster motivation regarding out-of-school activities in children (Dearing et al, 2009). This information contributes to the knowledge about emotional and moral development of children presented in class. As future professionals, we must be aware of the role which parental and home support plays in the social, emotional, and cognitive development of school children and their participation in out-of-school activities.