Psychology

Canadian psychological ethics on carrying out research with human subjects have clear definitions on how to carry out researches with reference to preservation of human dignity and professional ethics. All research supervisors undergo training that enables them to carryout research with respect to their subjects.  Below are examples of such work professional ethic used by the supervisors.

Work ethics in psychological activity dictate that there should be respect for human dignity thus both the supervisee and supervisor ought to respect one another as well as respect those in their surrounding during the psychological researches.  According to the ethics, the supervisor and supervisees ought to avoid situations of discrimination on whatever grounds and work along clearly defined goals and expectations in their relationships (Canadian Psychology Association, n d).  Supervisory relationships ought to expose personal preferences that may result in biased researches.  Differences between the supervisee and supervisor, on the bases of Professional and interpersonal relationships should be addressed harmoniously with a third party involvement if possible.

The second principle deals with responsible care which should be delivered to interacting parties such as the supervisor and the supervisee.  Learning psychology can only be effective if the supervisors and supervisees agree on respect of roles ensuring that they perform them effectively. Competence should be exhibited by the two parties in their service delivery. The supervisees need to work under self motivation so as to work under minimum or no supervision. They should be updated with the current levels of competence as required for service delivery. 

Supervisors and supervisees are expected to monitor the limitations surrounding their work relations with the core aim of advancing in leadership.  In their psychological, duties the supervisors need to keep updated records of performance to assist them in advancing in the services.   Appropriate supervisory services need be readily available for consultation purposes and effective communication especially during emergencies.  Also, appropriated site selection for possible supervision is necessary to ensure success.

The third principle of psychological research and supervision seeks to ensure relationship integrity. In this case, it is a requirement that trust, openness, honesty and objectivity is adhered to in the psychological supervision sessions to avoid conflicting individuals in the group.   There is need for openly and coherently solve any conflict in supervisory work of a Canadian supervisor and supervisee.  Exploitation of any kind like gossip and blackmailing should be avoided. Competent officers should be given credit for what they have done to their best and discouraged from doing wrong (Canadian Psychology Association, n d).  Within the supervisory roles, one should strive to be professional enough not to compromise their roles for social matters like sexual relationships.  More so there should be good standards of evaluating to professional competence of individuals in the service to get feedback of their performance.

Another Canadian psychological rule states that supervisors and supervisees should take societal responsibility such that their collective participation ensures promotion of the societys well being.   In this case, the authority should ensure that these officers are fully equipped with quality service delivery skills that will benefit the society.  Appropriate ethics and standards are requiring ensuring quality management and handling of society.  The provision of good advocacy services by psychologist is important to ensure justice and satisfaction of the society.  In other words, appropriate legal procedures are required in service delivery to the society (Canadian Psychology Association, n d).

Finally, in leadership it is important for leaders to exhibit trust and confidence for their service. Competence is also a vital tool of organization and psychological developments.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner(1904  1990)
Burrhus Frederic Skinnerwas an American psychologist born on March 20, 1904 inSusquehanna, Pennsylvania. He finished his Bachelor of Arts degree in English Literature at Hamilton College in New York and received his PhD in Harvard University. He taught at theUniversity of Minnesotaat Minneapolis. He served as Chair of the Psychology Department atIndiana University from 1946 to 1947. He then returned to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained at Harvard for the rest of his career.

B.F. Skinners Contribution to Psychology
Three of the most important perspectives in psychology are the behaviorist, cognitive, and biological perspectives (Rowland, 1981).  The study of learning  as much as any area in psychology  involves all three of these perspectives. However, much of the early works on learning, particularly conditioning, were done from a behaviorist perspective.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, popularly known as B.F. Skinner, invented the operant conditioning chamber to observe and measure behavior of nonhuman organisms such as rats and pigeons in relation to their environment. Researchers who employed this method wanted to study how these organisms learn an association between stimuli and responses in keeping with the behaviorist dictum that behavior is better understood in terms of external causes than mental ones (Rowland, 1981).

The Behaviorist Approach
Behaviorist approach emphasizes the importance of environmental, or situational, determinants of behavior. This approach presents behavior as the result of a continuous interaction between personal and environmental variables. It also argues that environmental conditions shape behavior through learning. Conversely, a persons behavior shapes the environment. Behaviorist perspective maintains that persons and situations have influence on each other. Also, in order to predict behavior, one needs to learn how the characteristics of the individual interact with a situation (Bandura, 1986 as cited in Clayton, 2008).

One of the key assumptions of the behaviorist approach to learning is that simple associations of the classical or instrumental kind are the building blocks of all learning. Going by this assumption, something as complex as acquiring a language is a matter of learning many associations (Staats, 1968 as cited in Clayton, 2008). Another important key assumption in the behaviorist approach, as pointed out by B.F. Skinner, is that the basic laws of learning operate regardless of who is learning and what is being learned.

Instrumental Conditioning
B.F. Skinner was a pioneer in the study of instrumental or operant conditioning. He was responsible for the changes in how researchers conceptualize and study instrumental conditioning. His method of assessing responses using instrumental conditioning was simpler than E.L. Thorndikes method in which Skinner only examined one response at a time (Schlinger, 2009).

In instrumental conditioning, there are certain responses which are learned because they affect the environment. In addition to classical conditioning in which organisms react to a certain stimuli, instrumental conditioning studies how an organism learns to react or behave in specific manners in order to produce certain changes in its environment (Schlinger, 2009).

In Skinners experiments, typically a rat or pigeon inside a Skinner box or operant chamber learns how to make a response, by pressing a lever for instance, to obtain reinforcement such as food pellet. After learning that pressing the bar produces food pellets, the rat or pigeon would learn that pressing the bar reinforces food. If the food reinforcement is discontinued after the rat or pigeon presses the bar, the rate of bar pressing diminishes. The instrumental response will then undergo extinction (Ribes-Iesta, 2003). Reinforcement refers to the process whereby the delivery of an appetitive stimulus or the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probability of a behavior (Ribes-Iesta, 2003).

One should note that reinforcement is either positive or negative. Positive reinforcement refers to a behavior that produces an appetitive stimulus (Ribes-Iesta, 2003), such as when a rat or a pigeon learns to press a lever in order to obtain food. Negative reinforcement on the other hand refers to a behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus (Ribes-Iesta, 2003), such as when a rat or a pigeon learns to press a lever in order to stop experiencing electrical shock.

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement, in contrast to the common misconception that it is a kind of negative reinforcement. Punishment refers to the process by which delivery of an aversive stimulus or removal of an appetitive stimulus decreases the probability of a certain behavior (Ribes-Iesta, 2003). Positive and negative contingency between the behavior and punishment also exist such as pressing a lever terminates electrical shock or pressing a lever stops food delivery.

Bearing in mind these concepts, instrumental conditioning has many applications  ranging from teaching your pets to learn some tricks to child rearing and other day-to-day human applications  focusing on the relationship of response and its reinforcer. 

Verbal Behavior
In 2007, B.F. Skinners book, Verbal Behavior, marked its 50th year. This book, according to Skinner, was his most important work (Schlinger, 2008). Verbal Behavior is an interpretation of the behavior of the speaker, given the contingencies of reinforcement around his or her environment. It uses principles drawn from the experimental analysis of nonverbal behavior (Skinner, 1987 as cited in Schlinger, 2008). The book became controversial following reviews upon its publication, including a review done by Noams Chomsky in which he faulted Skinner for extrapolating principles from the experimental laboratory with nonhumans to human language, a domain that was in his view taboo for a behavioristic analysis (Schlinger, 2008, p. 331).

Other Contributions
B.F. Skinner discovered and developed therate of responseas a dependent variable in psychological research. He is behind the invention of thecumulative recorder to measure rate of responding as part of his work on schedules ofreinforcement (Alexandra, 2007). Skinner, according to Schlinger (2008), was arguably the most eminent scientist in the field of behaviorist perspective (p. 336).

Carl Rogers (1902  2002)
Carl Rogers was born in Oak Park, Illinois, Chicago. His parents, Walter and Julia Rogers, were Protestant Midwesterners. Rogers had few real friends outside the family. He was a sensitive child, easily hurt by the familys teasing. The expression of feelings was not encouraged in the Rogers family, so Carls emotions and imagination were often expressed in creative school papers and childhood games (Kirschenbaum, 2004).

He enrolled in the University of Wisconsin at Madison, where he switched majors from agriculture to history. Following an international Christian youth conference in China, he applied to the liberal Union Theological Seminary in New York City (Kirschenbaum, 2004).

Career development
In addition to studying at the Seminary, Rogers also took psychology courses at the Teachers College of Columbia University, where he later on pursued his doctorate degree in clinical psychology. At the Columbia University, he was exposed to the testing and measurement movement of E. L. Thorndike. He also had his clinical fellowship at the Institute for Child Guidance, where he encountered Freudian thought, lectures by Alfred Adler, Rorschach testing, and other psychoanalytic and psychiatric approaches. Seeking to integrate psychological measurement with clinical practice, Rogers came to appreciate the importance of understanding clients inner world while also objectively assessing the outcomes of their treatment (Kirschenbaum, 2004, p. 116).

Rogers (1931a) doctoral dissertation, in which he created a test for measuring personality adjustment in children 9 to 13 years of age, combined both subjective and objective measures, from childrens self-reports of their feelings to assessment by outside observers. On the basis of his dissertation, Rogers (1931b) came up with his Personality Adjustment Inventory, published by the YMCAs press, and sold half a million copies in 50 years.

The Nondirective Approach
Rogers book, Counseling and Psychotherapy Newer Concepts in Practice (1942), challenges the field of psychotherapy to its core (Kirschenbaum, 2004). Although he was not the first author to use the term client for the recipient of therapy, Rogers popularized the term. He emphasized that all people could be helped by counseling and that professionals from many fields could be trained to provide this help with the use of counseling methods. His nondirective method or the client-centered therapy was based on a core hypothesis about human growth and personality change.

His hypothesis is that the client or an individual has an innate capacity to understand those aspects of his or her life and of him- or herself which are causing him or her pains, and the capacity to move toward growth and positive change to bring a greater degree of internal comfort. An organism may seek to fulfill its potential within its biological constraints, but Rogers saw that these biological constraints or needs are inferior or subservient to the organisms motivation to self-actualization. Thus, the therapists function is to facilitate a psychological atmosphere that will allow this innate capacity and strength to become an active agent of change (Rogers , 1950, p. 443).

It can be noted that Rogers method of creating the therapeutic psychological atmosphere is radically different compared to the psychoanalytic and behaviorist therapies. Rogers nondirective approach avoided questions, interpretation, suggestions, advice, or other directive techniques. Rather, the therapists role is to act as a sounding board, carefully listening to the client and accepting the client for who he or she is  no matter how confused or antisocial that might be at the moment. The therapist is also responsible for skillfully reflecting back the clients feelings, determining the problem, and devising a course of remedial action (Kirschenbaum, 2004).

Also, Rogers nondirective method blurs the boundary between counseling and psychotherapy (Kirschenbaum, 2004, p. 123). Before Rogers introduced this method, counseling applied to little problems of adjustment or career guidance, whereas psychotherapy was employed for more tough psychological problems. Rogers suggested that the same nondirective method of helping could be applied to all problems along the adjustment continuum in counseling and psychotherapy.

The Humanistic Approach
During the first half of the 20th century, the psychoanalytic and behaviorist approaches were dominant in psychology. However, a group of psychologists in 1962 founded the Association of Humanistic Psychology as an alternative to the other kinds of approaches. Humanists believed in the dictum Man is the measure of all things (American Psychological Association APA, 1957).

To summarize its mission
The experiencing person is of primary interest.
Human choice, creativity, and self-actualization are the preferred topics of investigation.
Meaningfulness must precede objectivity in the selection of research problem.
Ultimate value is placed on the dignity of the person.

The central concept in Rogers theory is the self, or self-concept. The self, or real self as he often calls it, includes the awareness of who am I and what I can do. This will lead to the perceived self. The perceived self influences both the persons perception of his world and his or her behavior. However, self-concept or perceived self does not always necessarily reflect reality (Rogers, 1950).

Further, Rogers suggested that each one evaluates his or her experience according to his or her perceived self. Thus, people will naturally want their behavior to be consistent with their self concept and ignore experiences and feelings that are threatening to their self concept. In Rogers view, the more experiences a person denies because they are inconsistent to his or her self concept, the more he is predisposed to maladjustment. People whose perceived self is too inconsistent to his real self will experience severe anxiety or other forms of emotional disturbance. In contrast, a well-adjusted person, whose perceived self and real self are consistent with each other, is not rigid and is even open to new experiences and ideas (Rogers, 1950).

Rogers most importantly believe that people are likely to function more effectively if they are brought up with unconditional positive regard. People will function and realize their ultimate potential if given the sense that they are valued by their parents, friends, and others even when their real self are far less than their ideal self (Rowland, 1981).

Lessons
In many ways, every person is just like any other person. In psychology, each and every one of us undergoes the same processes explained by biological or physiological processes. Our development, consciousness, perception, learning, and emotions are basically the same for all of us when faced with certain situations. However, all of us also have our own distinct patterns of development, consciousness, perception, learning, and emotion. This, I would point out, is the essence of psychology by which in trying to understand the basic commonalities in human thinking and behaviors, we come to understand our own uniqueness and in turn, understand others.

Instrumental conditioning is important in trying to answer the question To what degree are our developments, consciousness, perceptions, learning, and emotions free and how are they controlled On the other hand, humanist perspective helps in making a patient not feel that he or she is actually a patient, but instead, an equal partner of a researcher or a therapist, and that actually can become an active agent in his or her own betterment rather than just a sick patient waiting for prescriptions. Humanist approach  though widely criticized because of its methods  in my opinion is one of the best approaches in psychology when in comes to understanding the peculiarities of human beings.

Introduction
Depression is a very common mental disease nowadays in which person feels sad, hopeless worthless and is unable to come out of these feelings. Depression has many types and phases. Sometimes a person becomes depressed due to some circumstantial changes in his life and at other times the whole life of the patient is spent under the spell of depression.

Developmental Perspective
Case facts
Here we are presented with the case of a 32 year old woman Chantel of Guyanian descent who has gone through a delivery of a stillborn child. Her husband has a low income job which is being neglected now because of her recent illness. Also her husband goes for training in the army camps which does not make her happy. She herself is an assistant at the local university hospital but she feels unsupported and uncomfortable in her job and thinks of not joining back. This would further detoriate her financial condition.

Taking a look at her background we find that her mother died in her infancy and she was raised by a loving grandmother who died a few years back. She does not have a very positive relationship with her father. Before she married Jack, she had married a man whom she divorced and she has a 12 year old daughter from that marriage who visits her occasionally. She has a number of cousins and aunts in the extended family circle but she is not close to them.

Case assessment
The case of Chantel is very obviously a case of post partum depression and after affects of the shock of losing a child. When a woman becomes pregnant and goes through the pregnancy years an expectation of motherhood and an anticipation of holding the child, loving and caring for her find its place in her heart. Giving birth to a still born child has snatched away all these feelings from Chantel leaving her feeling empty and depressed. Chantel has plunged into the deep sea of post partum depression due to loss of her child.

Taking a look at the other problems in her life we find that she has had a past relationship failure and her 12 year old daughter visits her occasionally. This may also be a drawback as already having a child away from her and then letting go of another child can add to the distress. Also the similarities between her own childhood life living with grandmother and visiting father and her daughter living with her father and visiting her may also lead to troublesome memories from the past.

Interaction with husband and home
It is clear that Chantel is facing financial problems with her husband and is openly critical of his career failures. She is also stressed by his training ventures. In these conditions her job is also necessary to support them financially this puts her under stress to work at a place where she does not feel comfort and understanding. Facing daily work problems or working under stressful conditions can also be a source of depression.

Interaction with neighbors, family and friends
Her interaction with neighbors, family and friend are not very cordial. She does not have much connection with her extended family and her father is also critical on her and also away in Guyana. This shows she is not close with him. Her bonding with her friends is also weak and at this time of her need she is not supported by them.

Interaction with organizations and social system
The place where she works is another of her problem are she is not happy with her job relations as well and says she does not find sympathy and understanding there. The social system of Chantel is very weak and she does not have any family or friend condoling her at this time of need. Her maternal grandmother that raised her also died a few years back.

Effect of ethnicity, class and gender
Social class is a way of ascribing status, prestige and power. It is based on education, income and occupation (Hutchison, 2007). Chantels class identity may also play a role in the weak support system that she has. Being a Guyanian she may not be able to form attachments and friendships as people like to socialize within their own ethnic and class groups shutting out the outsiders who then look beyond these people for friendships and social attachments. But class differences do exist, and they document another form of cultural inequality, as well as imperfections in our capitalist economic system (Hutchison, 2007). The social systems and cultural differences play a great role in bringing the people closer together on in this case setting them apart. Racism has become a fundamental principle of social organization even though it has no validity as a biological category (Hutchison, 2007). This situation also weakens the optimistic level of a person and slowly and unnoticeably the person may sink into depression due to this second class treatment that they have to face on a daily basis. Similarly gender is also important in this regard. Men are more emotionally stable and can bear stress more effectively then women.

Identify the presenting case
The present case of Chantel after review seems to be a severe case of post partum depression, which she is suffering due to the death of her infant girl. This is the blow that has shaken her and sunk her into depression. But another kind of depression namely adjustment disorder depression which is due to some major changes in life. Even before the death of her child she has a number of husband and work related problems and pressures of the social system with no outlet to her stress which is suppressing her spirits for a period of time. These problems have compounded by the death of her child and now she seems unable to help herself out of the situation. She is being bore down by all these pressing issues on her life. One more aspect is her past that is her previous marriage and childhood. There also she has a number of sour experiences and no content is derived from looking back into her past. Another source of contentment is usually obtained from religious source but as Chantel herself describes she is not that religious so she does not even find solace at the door of religion.

Literature review
Post partum depression
 Post partum or post natal depression is common among mothers after they give birth. Upto 80 percent of new mothers experience post partum depression after giving birth.  Women are more likely to experience psychiatric illness after childbirth than at any other time in their life (Kendell et al, 1987). This depression is heightened for mothers who loose their child during delivery. If depression prevails presence of other forms of clinical depression may be examined. Lack of social support can be a major factor that may cause postpartum depression (OHara 1985, Gotlib et al. 1991). Segre et al., also found a correlation between a mothers social class and PPD. Not surprisingly, women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those with more financial resources. Numerous studies support the correlation between postpartum depression and lack of social support (Beck 2001 Hagen 1999). In 2009, researchers reported that the levels of placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) during the 25th week of pregnancy may help predict a womans chances of developing postpartum depression.

Adjustment depression and Anxiety
Adjustment depression is related to some specific situations in life like job or home conditions that become a definite stressor for the person. The diagnosis of an adjustment disorder implies that specific psychological symptoms have developed in response to a specific and identifiable psychosocial stressor. But if a person experiences a trauma, and develops the symptoms of a major depression, then the diagnosis of adjustment disorder is not used, even though the depression developed in response to a psychosocial stressor. Therefore, adjustment disorder with depression is used to categorize mild to moderate depression, following a stressful event.Significant impairment is observed in occupational or social functioning. Women have been shown to be more vulnerable to stressors across all ages and types of stressors (Turner et al., 1995). Asnis et al. (1993) found that AD patients report persistent ideation or suicide attempts less frequently than those diagnosed with major depression.

Theory of family life cycle
Researchers have distributed the human life into a number of stages with each stage contributing to the emotional maturity and understanding in human being. As the human crosses each stage in their life they become more mature and learn a new set of rules for application to the next level. As each level is progressed smoothly the character of the person becomes strong and mature and helps him face the challenges of the next level. But this is not the case for all people, sometimes a person may not be able to cross the stages with ease and confidence because the challenges they face is unable to bear and may put them back in the race of live. In these cases they cannot stop the next stage from arriving but they become weak and unsure of their ability to cope with the next level challenges. This way they feel the stress of passing life weighing upon their shoulder and holding them back from gaining trust and confidence required to live a smooth and happy life. The life seems to them a burden to behold and each passing level increases to their burden until they find themselves sinking into depression with no desire to go on.

The family life cycle is a transition from one role to another that a person has to take during the course of his life. Following are the key stages in the family life cycle

Independence This is the phase from childhood to independent state where a person gathers most of his maturing skills on which the rest of his life cycle is based.

Coupling or marriage In this level the person finds a mate gives up his independent life and settles for a family life.

Having babies, children through adolescent This phase is concerned more with bearing children and concerning oneself with the well being of children. Both parent focus now shifts to the children.
Launching adult children This phase is called leaving the nest phase where your children are ready to test their feathers and fly for themselves.

Retirement or senior years This is the declining phase for the parent when he feels the affects of aging and derives pleasure from reliving past memories.

Case in the light of this theory
As it is very obvious by evaluating the family life cycle in detail that Chantel has been among the unlucky persons who got off from the wrong since the start of her family cycle. If we study her life events we shall find in infancy she lost her mother and was separated from her father. She was raised by maternal grandmother who was a positive influence and gave her a positive influence in life. As she grew in her teens she moved to a place where she faced racial and ethnic problems. In the next stage of her life, when she marries she meets with failure in her marriage and divorces her husband leaving a girl in his care. Separation from husband and child leaves negative impact on her emotional and maturity levels. Now again that she is married and has a prospect of a child she is again ditched by luck and the child is snatcher from her by death at the time of delivery. These events one after another are leaving their marks on her and her stress level is rising to the point that she feels like a failure. Having to give up one child and losing another send her into depression and she is not able to adjust to the fact. Moreover she has problems at work and with her husbands financial crisis she is forced to work in an environment where she is not comfortable. Her friend network is weak and she has practically no one to confide her feelings and create an outlet of her negative emotions. These problems are weighing down on Chantel making it impossible to adjust to these changes in her life and sending her into depression where she finds no motivation to face the challenges of life and move forward.

Annotated Bibliography
Beck, C.T. (2001) Predictors of Postnatal Depression An Update. Nursing Research, 50, 275285.  Comment this article reviews ways to discover signs in women during pregnancy that may suggest them later suffering of postpartum depression. This way they can be helped earlier with the depression issue.

Bronish, T.,  Hecht, H. (1989). Validity of adjustment disorder, comparison with major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 17, 229236. Comment This article briefly discusses adjustment depression and then tries to link it with depression of the worst kind that is major depression.
Hagen, E., and Barrett, H. C. (2007). Perinatal sadness among Shuar women Support for an evolutionary theory of psychic pain. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 21, 2240. Comment This article is not directly linked with case study but it is useful as it tries to analyze the cause for postpartum depression in mothers.

Heene, E., Buysse A., Oost P.V, (2007) An Interpersonal Perspective on Depression the Role of Marital Adjustment, Conflict Communication, Attributions, and Attachment within a Clinical Sample, Journal article Family Process, Vol. 46 Comment This book covers important domains of depression in the context of marital adjustment and indirect ways are explored in which depression and marital adjustment are associated.

Landry-Meyer, L.,  Newman, B. (2004). An exploration of the grandparent caregiver role. Journal of Family Issues, 25(8), 1005-1025. Comment This journal has been included due to the role of grandparent in the case study. The effect on children raised by grandparents in the absence of parents are explored here.

OHara, M.W. Depression and marital adjustment during pregnancy and after delivery. American Journal of Family Therapy 134955, 1985. Comment This journal gives lots of genuine information regarding depression and also suggests ways to cope with it.

Robertson, E., Celasun, N., and Stewart, D.E. (2003). Risk factors for postpartum
depression. In Stewart, D.E., Robertson, E., Dennis, C.-L., Grace, S.L.,  Wallington, T. (2003). Postpartum depression Literature review of risk factors and interventions. Comment This book has a range of information on Postpartum Period  Increased Risk of Severe Psychiatric Illness. This provides insight on how Mothers are affected during postpartum period.

Segre, Lisa S, Mary E. Losch, Michael W. OHara. RaceEthnicity and Perinatal Depressed Mood. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. Vol 24 No 2 99106 Comment This article relates the raceethnicity factor to Perinatal depression and the role of this factor in postpartum phase.
Vandervalk, I., Spruijt, E., De Goede, M., Meeus, W.,  Maas, C. (2004). Marital status, marital process, and parental resources in predicting adolescents emotional adjustment. Journal of Family Issues, 25(3), 291- 317. Comment This article is a very useful guide to evaluating adjustment problems in married life and factors leading to adjustment issues.

Vandsburger, E.,  Biggerstaff, M.A., (2004). Evaluation of the stress adjustment and adaptation model among families reporting economic pressure. Journal of Family Social Work, 8(2), 65-84. Comment This is also a great article and helps analyze the economic factors that result in adjustment disorders. We have a very clear study report here which helps families to adjust and adapt during economic pressure.

This paper will analyze the literature available regarding first responders and subsequent medical health problems or posttraumatic stress.  The literature and articles will be reviewed and analyzed during the process. 

Chopko, B., Schwartz, R. (2009). The relation between mindfulness and posttraumatic growth  A study of first responders to trauma-inducing incidents.  Journal of Mental Health Counseling, volume 31, (4), 363-376.

This article presents evidence on rescue workers respond when given negative information, rather than the positive.  The study looked at the relationship between mindfulness (Using the Kentucky Inventory) and posttraumatic growth (using the PTG Inventory).  The study used 181 police officers to gain the results. Multiple regress analysis results of the study indicated that the movement towards spiritual growth was correlated positively, and the acceptance of non-judgmental events was correlated negatively with posttraumatic growth.  The article explains how this information is valuable in mental health counseling. 

Analysis
An analysis of the article finds it lacking in several areas.  For instance, there is not significant emphasis or focus on the police officers themselves.  The article does not study the relationship of spiritual growth as the officers become increasing exposed to trauma.  The article does not answer the question as to whether the trauma began the spiritual outreach which led to the posttraumatic growth outcome.  In addition, the sample was too convenient.  Readers could not determine if the officers in the study were any different to those that did not participate.  Therefore, care needs to be used when quoting such results.  Another glaring limitation of the article and study was that there was no analysis of how religion, race, or gender correlated in the posttraumatic growth study.  Also, there was no discussion of how coping skills, social support, or any other psychosocial issue and how the areas related to posttraumatic stress issues.  An area not addressed should tell us if certain types of traumatic incidents relate more or less to the posttraumatic growth.

Heglund, J. (2009). Helping first responders withstand traumatic experiences. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 78, (9), 1-4.

This article tells of the West Coast Post-Trauma Retreat in San Rafael, California.  The goal of the retreat is to help professionals who suffer from post-traumatic stress syndrome to regain control of their lives that have been adversely affected from the trauma experienced.  The hope of the program, as detailed in the article, is to get the professional back on his or her feet with a fresh perspective regarding their experience and the resulting stress.  The article explains how each participant in the retreat process is matched up with a clinician to assist them as they work through the process.  The center also offers in-house chapel services, as well as alcoholics anonymous meetings, the article explains.  The article explains how the retreat assists the clients in understanding their reactions to the things they experienced.  It presents a list of the warning signs to give first responders an idea of characteristics that show they suffer from the affects of trauma. 

Analysis
Although the article discusses in detail the therapeutic and educational program of the program, it does not present any data supporting the need for such a program.  The article could have been enhanced if it had isolated on one person and provided their story and how the retreat had turned that persons life around.  The article, however, was informative providing the details of the California program.  Although the article gives a chart detailing the signs of potential posttraumatic stress, it does not give detailed examples that an individual could identify with.  Readers are left wondering if this is the only program of its type in the country.  If other such programs exist throughout the nation, it would have been a positive step to explain that to readers who may want help and live in Florida.  Additionally, the article does not tell readers if there is a cost to the program, or if it is covered by insurance, or if it is paid for by the employers.  Therefore, there was much information lacking in the bulletin.

Reissman, D., Howard, J. (2008). Responder safety and health  Preparing for future disasters. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 75, (2), 135-141.

This article presents an informative review of the lessons that have been learned since the 911 disaster regarding the management of the health and safety of recovery workers. The article looks at the disaster response, recovery and cleanup after the disaster.  The article looks at the ongoing health burdens from a health and safety worker perspective.  The article looks at the changes in infrastructure, response planning and the resources to protect first responders in the future.  The article stresses the need for planning and knowledge of how to use equipment in the event of another tragedy.  The planning consists of assurances that the first responders are fit to engage in such activity.  It discusses the need to anticipate hazards in an emergency and encourages responders to consider all the possible scenarios that might occur.  The article completely reviews both the tragedies at the World Trade Center and Katrina.  It discusses the lessons learned from both disasters.

Analysis
This is an extremely good article filled with what has been learned since the day of September 11, 2001.  The article admits that in the desire to reach people in trouble, workers emphasized speed, rather than protecting themselves from hazards.  This cost the lives of many fire department personnel at the World Trade Center.  However, with the admission of the problem, no real solution was suggested.  The article recommends joint planning and exercises to learn how to meet disaster challenges head-on, yet does not suggest that any one agency be responsible for organizing and insuring progress in this area.  The integrated disaster planning makes good sense, but unless headed up by the Office of Homeland Security, then the matter would continue to be disorganized and ill prepared.  All in all, the article is worth the attention of first responders and caregivers alike.

Robbers, M., Jenkins, J. (2005). Symptomatology of post-traumatic stress disorder among first responders to the Pentagon on 911 A preliminary analysis of Arlington County first responders. Police Practice and Research, 6, (3), 235-249.

This article examines the psychological impact that the attacks of 911 had on the responders who arrived at the Pentagon.  The article details a study performed on Arlington County first responders.  The results indicated that one-third of the officers who responded immediately to the attack were suffering from some form of post-traumatic stress disorder.  The article provides a lengthy background on post-traumatic stress disorder and a review of how law enforcement officers across the nation suffer with the problem.  Three main issues are dealt with in the article.  First, the psychological impact of 911 is discussed.  Second, the degree of post-traumatic stress among first responders is reviewed.  Thirdly, discussion continues as to if there is any chance of moderation among those suffering from the disorder with the passage of time.

Analysis
The problem with this article and subsequent study is that is focuses on too small a group to get a good read as to the severity of post-traumatic stress among those first responders to the Pentagon sight.  Although, researchers claim that they examined race in their study, there does not appear to be any evidence that gender was studied.  Apparently, researchers also failed to take the age of the respondents into consideration in the study.  Since the number of those suffering from the disorder is so low, one asks the question as to why some first responders are affected and others are not.  The article does not indicate what form of debriefing the first responders received after the disaster.  It also does not indicate if any of the responders sought counsel from clergy or other professionals after the attacks.  Therefore, the article leaves the reader asking more questions than he or she gets answered.

Enright, P., Skloot, R. (2008). Standardization of Spirometry in assessment of responders following man-made disasters World Trade Center Worker and Volunteer Medical Screening Program.  Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 75, (2), 109-114.

This article has to do with testing completed on first responders with the use of Spirometry.  Spirometry is a pulmonary functioning testing procedure that screens for diseases of the lungs.  The instrument was used to measure the severity of lung deterioration from exposure to damaging fumes and dust.  This article describes the approach that is used in an effort to minimize the differences between the various institutions that are treating first responders of the World Trade Center disaster.  The instrument quickly diagnosed first responders with differing degrees of lung disease.  The article explains how smoke, dust and fumes can cause serious lung problems that potentially could cause the loss of lung function due to the inflammation of the individuals airway.  In October 2001, the report indicates that more than 1,000 first responders had five minute Spirometry tests.  Half of the tests provided evidence of abnormality in lung function.

Analysis
The article provided a wealth of information regarding the use of Spirometry in determining debilitating lung function.  The article, however, did not explain how different results coming from the same lab could vary depending on the pulmonary specialist doing the testing.  Additionally, the article when testing the first responders did not consider previous illness or lung impairment.  For instance, the first responder may have COPD, asthma, or may be a smoker.  Also, there was no baseline used in the study and no way to measure pre-exposure results against post-exposure.  The article, in general, presents an excellent overview, however, in the growing screening programs used for first responders.  However, the article does not recommend associated follow-up for individuals suffering from lung disease.  The article does give quality results to other scientists and researchers who study post-disaster issues and care for first responders.

Ko, S., Ford, J., Kassam-Adams, N., Layne, C., Berkowitz, S., Wilson, C., Wong, M., Bryer, M. (2008). Creating Trauma-Informed Systems Child Welfare, Education, first responders, health care, juvenile justice. Professional Psychology  Research and Practice, 39, (4), 396-404.

This article has to do with treating children who have been traumatized.  It describes the federally funded national effort to assist welfare, teachers, health care, justice personnel and first responders in addressing the impact of trauma on children.  The article does not deal with the suffering of the first responder.

Moody, R., Akram, M., Dickson, E., Ih, C. (2007). In vitro dermal absorption of Methylsalicylate, Ethyl Parathion, and Malathion  First responders safety. Toxicology and Environmental Health, 70, (12), 985-999.

This article deals with the skin absorption research that has been done since the 911 attacks at the World Trade Center in New York.  Research has been focusing on the protection and preparedness of those officials first on the scene of a disaster.  This article provides a report of the reaction of the first responder to chemical, radiological, biological, and other nuclear events.  First responders are likely to be exposed through their skin to such chemicals from terrorists packages or devices or from contaminated building and structures.  The study investigated dermal absorption of three different chemicals normally used in chemical warfare.  The study results indicated that the chemicals quickly were absorbed by the skin even if washed thoroughly within a 30 minute period.

Analysis
This article was very impersonal only presenting facts and statistics regarding the absorption of dangerous chemicals by the first responder.  The article, however, offers no suggestions as to how to keep from getting exposed to the chemicals in light of the nature of the job.  The article, also, does not present alternatives as to what a first responder should do when they are exposed.  One main concern with this article and study is that it was not tested on a living human being.  Skin was garnered for the study from a plastic surgeon.  There was no detail as to the skin condition, type, or even race.  Therefore, there is no factor that would explain if all first responders would be in the same danger if exposed to the mixture.

Duarte, C., Hoven, C., Ping, W., Fan, B., Cotel, S., Mandell, D., Nagasawa, M., Balaban, V., Wernikoff, L. (2006). Posttraumatic stress in children with first responders in their family. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 193, (2), 301-306.

This article presents a discussion and study of children when exposed to high levels of the occupational stress of their parents.  The study indicates that after the attacks of 911, many children in first responder families became traumatized.  The study used a sample of children in the New York City schools.  The results of the study stated that children with the first responder in the family had a high degree of posttraumatic stress disorder.  The article discussed the fact that 13 percent of first responders get posttraumatic stress disorder.  Their children may, after being in close contact with the first responder, may get posttraumatic symptomatology by way of secondary translation.  In fact, the report tells readers that parental psychological behavior is a predictor of children and their mental health issues.  The report stated that the emergency management technician, or EMT, suffers from the highest degree of posttraumatic stress disorder.

Analysis
The article is helpful as it relays a study that if confirmed, would support the need to monitor and support the children of first responders, especially the EMTs.  A problem with the study in the article is that it uses a very small sample size.  The study does not look into the life of the EMT.  It does not indicate whether he or she has a more difficult work schedule, less training, or little opportunity to get help for posttraumatic stress.  The article does not indicate whether any type of assistance is available for the first responders employed by New York City or private firms involved in handling health care crises.  The article also does not look into how many first responders are in the family of the child.  Also, the report does not indicate the relationship between the child and the first responder.  For instance, a childs father may be a first responder, but the child may not see the father except on weekends and might live with the mother.  Additionally, the precision of the results may be impaired by the differences in the sizes of the groups of first responders analyzed.  However, the focus on getting help for the children of first responders is an admirable goal for the researchers involved in this study analyzed in the article.

Abatemarco, A., Beckley, J., Boran, M., Robson, M. (2007) Assessing and improving bioterrorism preparedness among first responders. Journal of Environmental Health, 69, (6), 16-23.

This article details a study conducted on the training of first responders in the use of respiratory equipment.  After 911 individuals recognized the need for respiratory devices for protection.  The study detailed in this article was to find out the prior knowledge of emergency workers when it comes to bioterrorism and to build more knowledge to be ready should another attack occur.  The idea of the study was to determine if the train the trainer program was an effective means for first responders to gain knowledge about the N-100 respirators.  The program was deemed effective to prepare public health officials in disaster preparedness.  With the advent of SARS, anthrax scares, and 911, there is more need for first responders to wear respiratory protective devices.  First responders need to maintain their own health while caring for those in greater need.  The study occurred in Hunterdon County, New Jersey.  The goal was to train and educate on the N-100 face mask. 

Analysis
Although the article presents some important information, the results of the study outlined are questionable.  Researchers admit that they did not get the kind of results that they anticipated.  The only reason researchers can give for that fact is that people are more knowledgeable about respiratory needs and face masks than they realized.  Ironically, the group of public health officials who participated in the study were not model subjects.  Forty-two percent of the participants involved in testing the respiratory devices were smokers.  Sixty-eight of them were considered obese.  It seems illogical to test respiratory equipment on unfit subjects.  It is difficult to ascertain whether the respiratory device was failing, or the individual.  There also was no information given on what to do if the equipment became contaminated.  Therefore, more data is needed to determine the effectiveness of respiratory equipment for first responders in a disaster.

Grover, W., Ramani, R., Radomsky, M., Flick, J. (2004). Protecting first responders. Professional Safety, 49, (11), 31-41.

This article evaluates a study on the effectiveness of government guidelines presented to first responders at the site of the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks.  It posts the response evaluation of how adequate equipment and procedures were and how to identify issues and insure that the problems experienced were corrected.  The article discusses the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks that were similar in the scale, duration, and hazards on site.  The article discusses the fact that in these two attacks, the role of the first responder was increased to include the exposure to the different hazards found in fumes, dust, and contaminants.  The article tells how these originally responders were not trained or equipped for a disaster the size and scope of the Pentagon or World Trade Center attacks.  The article, therefore, outlines the pros and cons of the equipment used, including respiratory equipment, and how it could hamper other means of rescue equipment.  For instance, although the respiratory equipment may help the responder to breath, it also may make it more difficult for communication.  The goal of the project discussed was to collect, and categorize all guidelines available regarding emergency equipment.  The idea is to prepare a reference type of document that can identify problems areas and shortcomings in the use of emergency equipment.  The study indicated that adequate guidelines were available to list head, hearing, foot, hand, respiratory, faceeye protection.  However, there were no guidelines covering the problem of falling by first responders. 

Analysis
It was not clear from the study and article as to whether or not the lack of adequate protection for falls indicated a weakness in the emergency guidelines and plans, or if it was problem just associated with the disaster location itself.  The debris and rubble found at the sites make falling a difficult aspect to guard against.  One issue with the article is that it did not include all documents that were passed out after the twin disasters in its analysis.  Also, creation of these guidelines does not mean that the information will be distributed to the emergency responders.  It is a good thing to provide directives and information regarding the different kinds of equipment, but it does not do anything to control the exposure to hazardous chemicals during an attack.  The article does not offer information as to if there has been training on the emergency equipment since the attacks.  If workers are not trained adequately, there will be considerable injury just in the misuse of the equipment.  The article also did not discuss how to distribute equipment or how to maintain its appropriate use.  This article remains more effective than the article by Abatemarco, Beckley, Boran and Robson, in that it looks at the problem from a larger perspective.  However, neither article meets the challenges to insure that first responders are adequately prepared to do their jobs.  Neither article explains the first steps should a hazardous material be suspected, how to distribute equipment, and how to clean up after the incident.

Bills, C., Levy, N., Sharma, V., Charney, D., Herbert, R., Moline, J., Katz, C. (2008). Mental health of workers and volunteers responding to the events of 911 Review of the literature. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 75, (2), 115-127.

This article presents information about a study conducted on all of the literature measuring the mental health of workers at any one of the September 11 attack sites.  A total of 25 articles were studied.  The articles that were examined reveal varying degrees of symptomatology of mental health problems, and whether or not mental health services were acquired.  The study detailed in this article presented the mental health needs of workers and described them as suffering from no adverse effects to needed assistance of medication.  The article explains that a disaster spreads and ends up creating a community of people that are effected.  The articles main focus is on the care that these people needed in the aftermath of the tragedy.  Some of these people were exposed to ongoing and severe trauma.  Some of the first responders lost co-workers, friends, and even helped to search for the loved ones that others lost.  It is estimated by the articles data that more than 40,000 people worked on rescue and recovery operations at the World Trade Center, Pentagon and in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.  The purpose of the article is to examine all literature surrounding the event and determine the mental health needs within future disasters.  Researchers hope the data will provide an extensive amount of information to mitigate mental health needs in the future.  Most of the people examined through the study suffered from posttraumatic stress syndrome, posttraumatic stress disorder, severe depression, anxiety disorder, panic disorder or drug and alcohol abuse.  The article states that outcomes discovered in the study indicated that the information varied according to procedure used by the different studies.

Analysis
The article is very informative and offers insight to the problems associated with the first responders on September 11, 2001. However, little was documented detailing whether or not the distressed worker sought help from mental health professionals.  No studies at this point have detailed the numbers of first responders who have gone for help and no outcomes have been able to be measured.  The quality of services available to the first responders was not discussed in the article.  Additionally, the article fails to recommend the type of care that a first responder on 911 might need.  Ironically, the article did state that most first responders who suffer from mental health issues do not seek care.  This makes it vitally important that the first responders on the scene of a disaster are well trained and mentally fit for the job.  Additionally, the article does explain whether those that are not seeking assistance are male or female responders.  This could be a factor in that many males are reluctant to seek help in the mental health field.  A factor to be considered is that the 25 studies outlined in the article use different forms of assessment and differing subpopulations.  This could present a disparity in the outcomes.  However, the strength of the article is that it presents a composite look at the literature on first responders from the tragic attacks on 911.

Howard, J. (2008). The 911 World Trade Center Disaster Past and Future.  Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 75, (2), 65-66

This was a short article indicating that the World Trade Center disaster has left its mark on first responders both mentally and physically.  According to the article fires burned at the trade center from the day of the attack until December 2001.  All of the time the fires produced dangerous smoke and dust filled with hazardous physical and chemical agents.  The article discussed how many of the early responders suffered from stress reactions to the disaster and with acute respiratory problems.  The article states that after the attacks, screening was begun on all first responders.  Treatment programs were then offered by the city and federal governments to assist with mental health or physical ailments.

Analysis
This is an extremely brief article discussing the ramifications of the 911 disasters on the first responders.  It details implicitly what the responders have dealt with on both a mental and physical basis.  The article is short on suggestions to alleviate the suffering of those first responders and does not discuss the need for better preparedness in the future.  More attention to the needs of the first responder is recommended, yet the article does not say how to meet these individuals needs.  It does not go into detail on the quality of existing literature in this area and proves inadequate except for the recollection of events.

Potera, C. (2008). Disaster response.  Mental health effects among World Trade Center rescue and recovery workers. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, (9), 395

This short article recognizes the problems that first responders had in handling the disaster of the World Trade Center attacks.  It explained how the first responders had both airborne pollutants and psychological stress to deal with after the incident.  The article quotes a recent five-year study on the health of World Trade Center responders which indicated a lingering mental health problem among those workers.  To prepare the study researchers had 10,000 World Trade Center responders fill out a questionnaire from 10 months after the tragedy to 61 months.  Without any clinical evaluation, 11.1 percent of the responders suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder, 8.8 suffered depression, five percent experienced panic attacks, and while 62 percent of the responders indicated they had serious stress reactions to the incidents of 911. 

The author of the article does recommend continued screening for first responders and treatment if necessary.  Also, recommended is that rescue workers received medical screenings to lessen the adverse health issues related to disasters.

Analysis
The article is brief but does focus on the problem facing first responders years after the 911 experience.  The article only quotes one long-term study but does not give any attribution if the reader should want to look it up.  Other than recommending follow-up treatment for the first responders, the author of the article fails to make specific recommendations to assist the first responder in the future.

Summary
There is considerable information on the needs of the first responders who arrived at the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001.  Yet, there appears to be a shortage on how to prevent the first responders from experiencing the mental stress of dealing with a disaster.  The articles available offer more discussion on the events of that day, rather than giving methods for such responders to move forward with their lives and leave that day behind.  The Chopko article was the only one that studied the aspect of spiritual growth among first responders from 911.  More data on spiritual growth could prove helpful to those trying to assist the first responders through their difficulties.  There was one article, however, that did detail a retreat organized to help first responders deal with their mental health issues.  However, the program is in California, a very long way from New York City.  The article does not detail if any other such programs are available for first responders anywhere else in the country.  There was one article, by Duarte, which made people realize that the children of first responders also suffer after such a tragedy as 911.  The article, however, is short on recommendations for the children of first responders.

There is considerable literature regarding the physical health of the first responders, especially in the area of respiratory problems.  The survey indicates that more emphasis is being placed in cities across the nation, in getting first responders the equipment they need to protect themselves from harm in an emergency.  However, more application is now necessary in these areas.  Studies are important, but it is recommended that application begin soon.

Violence at home or domestic violence is an act of violence that is gender based that is likely to result in psychological, physical, sexual harm to a partner in a relationship. This violence includes threats like arbitrary denial of freedom in private or public life (Schelisngner  Buzawa, 2003). A family should be a safe sanctuary that is, a place where the family members seek safety, love and shelter. However, domestic violence hampers all of this. In most cases, the men perpetrate domestic violence for instance boyfriends, husbands and fathers. Domestic violence against women is in most cases, a cycle of abuse that is manifested in many forms in their lives. For instance in courtship and dating violence, there are reported cases of partner violence 

The case study is of a client who is a victim of domestic violence and who is looking for help in this matter. However, the client is of the view that the children living in the house are not in any danger since most of the fighting happens after the children have gone to bed. The client seems to be in denial about the magnitude of the problem. On the fourth session with the client, she had a black eye and when I prompted her for the cause of the black eye, she insisted that it was just an accident. After further exploration, I concluded that the black eye was a result of a fight between the client and her partner. This kind of violence presents some social, legal and ethical issues that arise from this kind of domestic violence.

DISCUSSION
Following a lengthy discussion with my client, I am of the view that the clients children are at risk due to the domestic violence. Children who have witnesses domestic violence may display behavioral and health problems (Vincent  Jouriles, 2000). For example, the clients children are of the view that it is an accident when people throw things and fight each other. This clearly shows the extent to which domestic violence can have an impact on children who witness it. This raises the social, legal and ethical issues that are involved in this case.

Ethical issues
As a counselor, I should adopt a non-judgmental approach concerning this clients problem. The main purpose of ethical counseling is to allow the client to conclude what is right for her, instead of giving her a solution, which is inappropriate. It will be therefore vital for me as the counselor to be responsive of personal values and morals.

During the conservation with the client, the client further confessed that she sometimes fears for her life as her partner has a very bad temper and that he is easily gets annoyed with simple things. She further added that she is alarmed how this situation sometimes affects her immediate family but mostly her children. I get a sense of relief after the client says this because at the beginning of our discussion, she was kind of adamant about all this as she was of the view that her children could not be affected since her partner mostly fights with her after they have gone to sleep. As her psychologists, I try to make her see the point that there is a way out but she stubbornly does not see the importance of an immediate solution to this problem. I insist that she should immediately get out of this relationship but the client says that her partner has threatened her repeatedly if she walks out on him. I begin to wander how I can handle this case since I start fearing that the clients and her childrens lives may be in jeopardy.

In this case, the main issue is protecting the parties that are involved which are the client and her children from abuse. The children can be in serious danger as well as the abuser who is the clients partner, but he counseling may be beneficial to him if he realizes when it is not too late that there is a positive way he can change his abusive behavior. One of the first things I as a psychologist needs to do is evaluate my own personal predisposition concerning this case of domestic violence. Additionally, I have to embark on and try to understand the scope of the domestic violence in which the client somewhat blames herself and defends her abusive partner. As a psychologist responsible for this case, my ethical responsibility would be to make sure that all the victims involved in this case are safe from any more violence. In relation to this, I must comprehend my personal bias as well as the ethnic and cultural background of this client and I must discuss with the client about issues like informed consent, confidentiality and the limits to this confidentiality considering that the client is not about to partake a solution to this problem fast enough (Shipway, 2004). The relevant authorities will have to be alerted about this case because of the magnitude of the case since there are children who might be victims.

Social issues involved in violence at home
One social issue that may arise from domestic violence is the major effect it can have on children. Childrens experience to this kind of violence falls into three categories being a direct witness to a domestic violence event, hearing a domestic violence event and experiencing the outcome of a domestic violence event (Nicolson, 2008). Domestic violence can have adverse effects on children such as the danger of neglect, danger of exposure to a traumatic event and danger of losing one parent to domestic violence. In addition to this, children are often accidentally harmed during a violent attack on a victim. Children who are exposed to domestic violence tend to have social, behavioral and emotional problems, cognitive and attitudinal problems and may even experience long-term problems like resulting to violence in their future relationships (Mullender, 2002).

Legal issues involved in domestic violence
Areas that a psychologist may encounter ethical and legal decisions when dealing with a client who is a victim of domestic violence especially a court-mandated client is privilege and confidentiality, informed consent and other problems that are related to the safety of the client, scope of license and competence (Helfrich, 2001). For instance, confidentiality is an ethical and legal concept that serves to protect the client. Additionally, psychologists must know their officially permitted responsibilities and rights and once a psychologist enters into a working relationship with a client, he or she has ethical and legal responsibilities to abide by the various laws governing a psychologists work. Moreover, he or she should rightfully exercise their nature of work in accordance with the standards that have been adopted by the psychologist profession and the workplace.

Moreover, a psychologist should have a contract with the client that stipulates issues like
The frequency and duration of the counseling sessions
The canceling and keeping of appointments with clients
Confidentiality of clients records and any limitations
Client access to counseling notes, records and diagnosis
Payment for counseling services
The treatment procedures, risks, methods, expected outcomes and benefits.
Competency and qualifications of the counselor or the practitioner
The criteria for the termination of counseling services
The goals of the treatment
The physical setting where counseling will take place
Challenges when working with the client

One of the utmost challenges I had when working with this client is that the client proved to be quite a difficult one in the sense that she tried to defend her violent relationship with her husband. I as a psychologist had a hard time trying to reveal to her the negative outcomes of been in a violence relationship. Additionally, this case with this client was emotional draining because I became worried about how her violent relationship could have a negative effect on her children since she portrayed a view that physical fights are normal in a relationship. 

Plan for working with the client
In this case, one of the most important things that I as a counselor should do is provide a safety plan to the client. The aim of this safety plan is to provide a safe haven for all the parties that are involved in this domestic violence case (Geffner, Jaffe  Suderman, 2002). This will be accomplished providing this safety plan as well as making the client aware of the numerous resources that are available to solve this problem. First, I will evaluate the necessary needs of the client and try to involve her in the strategy for intervention to this problem since there are children who are involved and are exposed to the negative side of domestic violence even if as the client assert that most of the fighting is done when they are asleep.

Part of the safety plan is that the client should seek the services of a domestic violence lawyer. The functions of this lawyer are offer child protection services against domestic violence and assist victims in resolving the proper action for the family, which may include offering legal help (Boland, 2007). Additionally, the lawyer will support victims of gender violence such as my client by escorting them to court proceedings as well as evaluating the clients needs and referring them to the relevant people where necessary. Another significant step is giving the client a domestic violence handbook by (Barnett, Perin  Robin, 2005), that describes the complexity of domestic violence and what one can do if the client decides to leave the abusive relationship and getting the necessary help from bodies like social services.

A powerful resource that can be extremely beneficial to the client will be getting an order of protection. An order of protection that is usually issued by a court of law normally provides a safe haven to victims of domestic violence as the abuser will be necessitated to
To stay away from the client that is the home, place of employment and the childrens school.
To desist from an act of commission that can lead to risk to the safety and health of the client and her children.

To provide through medical and health insurance for the expenses that have occurred because of medical treatment that was a result of physical abuse of the client.

CONCLUSION
The case study is of a client who is a victim of domestic violence and who is looking for help in this matter. However, the client is of the view that the children living in the house are not in any danger since most of the fighting happens after the children have gone to bed. The client seems to be in denial about the magnitude of the problem. On the fourth session with the client, she had a black eye and when I prompted her for the cause of the black eye, she insisted that it was just an accident. A legal issue that may arise in a domestic violence is if the victim of the domestic violence reports the abuser to the authority. Additionally, if there are children that are involved in a domestic violent event, social services may be alerted and in such a case, there is a risk where the children might be taken away from the couple due to the nature of the violence that is involved.

One of the utmost challenges I had when working with this client is that the client proved to be quite a difficult one in the sense that she tried to defend her violent relationship with her husband. I as a psychologist had a hard time trying to reveal to her the negative outcomes of been in a violence relationship. When working with the client I provided a safety plan whose aim was to provide a safe haven for all the parties that were involved in the domestic violence case. This will be accomplished providing this safety plan as well as making the client aware of the numerous resources that are available to solve this problem. Part of the safety plan is that the client should seek the services of a domestic violence lawyer.

One of Prime Minister Kevin Rudds earliest promises to the Australian people upon taking office was that his administration would issue an official apology to indigenous Australians for the grave abuse that the federal government had made against them since the second half of the 1800s until 1960s.  He was referring to the infamous so-called Stolen Generations, a label that is used to describe the event in which indigenous Australian children as well as those from the Torres Strait islands were separated from their families upon orders from the federal and state governments.  In many cases, the separation was made without the consent of the parents and the children.  The forced removal occurred in the years between 1869 and 1969 although several areas in the country continued the practice even during the seventies (Read 1981).  During the term of Prime Minister John Howard, there was pressure from certain lobby groups that the federal government should issue an apology.  However, the Howard administration never did.  On the other hand, Rudd made good his promise to release an official apology in front of the Parliament in February 13, 2008 (Peatling 2007). 

The concepts behind the Stolen Generation can be reduced into two contrasting points.  One is supposedly out of humanitarian concern to provide a better future for the indigenous Australian children.  In this regard, the postmodernist approach towards the issue is obvious.  A postmodernist theory negates the existence social classes and conflicts but rather dwells on the necessity of humaneness. The other is to reduce considerably the population of the indigenous Australians. The removal of the children from their families and their natural environment was a means of eliminating the original Australian race, leaving the subcontinent with a majority of whites who are of European, mainly British, origins. This is essentially a postcolonialist approach.  Postcolonial theory is used in analyzing the manner that the Australian government treats the indigenous people.   Both contrasting concepts, however, have shades of racism.  It is not only the elimination of the black indigenous population that is racist.  The so-called effort to provide the children with a different future than what they would get with their respective tribes also reeks with racism.  The notion behind this is that only the white race can bring about development and progress that only they can ensure the education and well-being of the indigenous children. 

It is in this light that the continuing federal intervention of the indigenous Australian communities in the Northern Territory is to be evaluated.  Currently, the Rudd administration is in an all-out implementation of the Northern Territory Emergency Response Act.  The NTER is essentially an intrusion into the political, economic, and cultural freedoms enjoyed by the indigenous Australians.  However, similar to the case of the Stolen Generations, it is being presented as a measure driven by egalitarian ideals.  In fact, it is racist in nature and is redolent of the postcolonial attitude by the white-dominated federal government.

Indigenous Australians and the Northern Territory Emergency Response
The interventionist policies of the federal government are reminiscent of the inequalities and injustices that the indigenous people suffered in the past when the country was still a colony directly under British rule.  The Rudd administration may have expressed apology over the Stolen Generation issue, something which the previous Howard government failed to do.  However, it also extended the implementation of its predecessors Northern Territory Emergency Response.  Therefore, despite the so-called shift in the attitude of the government towards the indigenous communities, it is still essentially interventionist in nature.  On the other hand, the Rudd administration is supported by both the Labor and the Liberal Parties in arguing that the NTER is a solution to the problems that beset indigenous Australian communities.

The NTER, which also called as the intervention, is a set of amendments to certain provisions in welfare, land tenure, and law enforcement policies already existing before the John Howard administration came into power.  In 2007, ostensibly to remedy the widespread cases of parental negligence and child molestation in the indigenous communities in the Northern Territory, the federal government under Howard, launched Operation Outreach.  This operation was mainly carried out by troops and units from the Australian Defense Force.  The entire operation ended in October 21, 2008 (Ashby-Cliffe 2008).  The NTER was prompted by the release of a report entitled Little Children are Sacred which concluded that the cases of sexual molestation of indigenous Australians have become very rampant, unchecked, and serious.  Although this was introduced during Howards conservative administration, Rudds Labor Party, which now dominates the federal government, continues to implement the intervention (de Tarczynski 2010). 

When the intervention was first implemented, the federal government released a funding worth 587 million. This fund is currently being used in realizing the key measures included in the NTER.  Such measures involve the employment and deployment of more police personnel in the affected indigenous communities.  This police force is primarily responsible for the restrictions on alcoholic beverages and liquor including the native kava and on pornographic materials.  At the same time, public funded computers have been installed with pornography filters (NTNER Act 2007).  The restriction on alcoholic drinks and pornographic materials may seem noble and harmless. The federal government considers these two measures as child sexual molestation prevention.  However, aside from these, the NTER also has key policies that directly affect the indigenous peoples land tenure as well as their distinct way of life and culture.  The NTER includes the mandatory acquisition of townships which was granted to the indigenous Australians more than a decade before through the Native Title Act of 1993.  The acquired townships are leased for five years with compensation based solely on the federal governments discretion.  A measure that affects the cultural distinctness and identity of the indigenous Australians is the elimination of considerations based on culture and customary law in terms of bail applications and criminal justice processes.  The measure that gained the strongest objection from different sectors of Australian society is the exemption of the NTER from the Racial Discrimination Act of 1975.  This exemption along with the limitation of the permit system and the mandatory acquisition of indefinite number of indigenous community areas weaken the fundamental tenets already achieved in the previous years that legally recognize the rights of indigenous Australians to their lands (HREOC 2007).  Aside from this, critics have pointed out to the fact that the intervention and the implementing law behind it were created with inadequate consultation with the leaders of the affected communities.  The critics also claim that the most of the proposals stated in the Little Children are Sacred report were not given attention.  Instead, both the Howard and the Rudd administrations went against one of the recommendations in the report that insists that the actions to be taken against the child sexual abuse must be local and that all these should be done only after a thorough process of consultation with the indigenous communities (Wild  Anderson 2007). Nevertheless, the Rudd administration continues to implement the NTER, driven by what it considers as a noble mission to protect the indigenous children.

As a result of the NTERs implementation, indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory have been driven away from their customary and long-established lands.  As this happens, town camps such those in Alice Springs and Tennant Creek have become overcrowded.  Even as complaints about the poor conditions in the town camps rise, the government and its appointed community leaders insist that the indigenous people are satisfied living in it (Owen 2009). The NTER measures are being implemented in all lands that are covered by the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (Northern Territory) of 1976.  This approximately affects the communities of 70 percent of the indigenous population in the entire Northern Territory.  Considering this large coverage on the land and the setting aside of the more tenable solutions to the child sexual abuse problem as recommended by the Little Children are Sacred report, it is clear that the real objective of the NTER is solely the acquisition of the traditional lands of the indigenous Australians.  In order for this to be realized, this may involve procedures that would result to the destruction of Aboriginal culture and links to land where it is strongest (Chitts 2008).  The reasons why these indigenous peoples lands are being acquired have begun to unfold.  In March 2010, Federal Resources Minister Martin Ferguson said that the government is planning to set-up a nuclear waste dump site at Muckaty Station, 120km north of Tennant Creek, in the Northern Territory (Statham 2010). 

Analysis of the Issue
The federal governments intervention in the affairs of the indigenous Australian communities have been justified with the premise that the child sexual abuse problem can no longer be solved by the built-in systems of such communities.  With the indigenous community leadership in the Northern Territories helpless in protecting the children, the Howard government saw enough reason to mobilize the state machinery to intervene.  Such line of thinking does not bear any significant difference to the reason behind the policies that shaped the Stolen Generations.  Barbara Stringer explained that this policy is essentially composed of an underlying economic agenda geared to assimilatory neoliberation, and a moral cover geared to converting the issues of violence, abuse and neglect into bottomless sources of official legitimacy for that agenda (A Nightmare of the Neocolonial Kind). Without delving further into the real objectives of  the NTER, postmodernist philosophy would seem to have influenced policy-makers. This is because they seem to set aside racial or cultural differences but recognize to achieve social and economic equality among Australians.  While certain sectors among the citizenry may see such differences, the postmodernist philosophy makes the policy-makers wish to revive the early romantic version of a unified world (McGowan 1991).  However, it is obvious that even if indeed human compassion is the motivation for introducing such intrusive policies, the fact remains that human societies have basic cultural differences that cannot be ignored.  Granting that the NTER is indeed the solution to curb the grave cases of child sexual abuse and neglect, it may never work effectively if it does not take into consideration the unique cultural characteristics of the indigenous Australians.  A postmodernist perspective on racial and cultural difference is based on the concept that these should not be recognized. The NTER bears the hallmark of the marginalized sectors interest being championed by a government with a Western liberal pluralist nature (Kramer 1997). 

Postmodernism does not prompt the federal government to implement the NTER, or in its general attitude towards the indigenous people of Australia.  This is mentioned only when the bases for the NTER or similar policies by the federal government concerning the indigenous Australians are sought for.  Behind the NTER is still the vestige of colonialist attitudes towards countrys original inhabitants.  Australia has been able to erase traces of postcolonial relations with Britain but it has been able to retain postcolonial treatment of the indigenous people (Huggan 2007).  It did provide concessions to the indigenous Australians in terms of political autonomy, cultural freedoms, and land rights in the previous decades.  However, its increasing need for resources to fuel its own economy has led to measures, such as those in the NTER that would denigrate whatever rights and privileges that indigenous Australians have been enjoying for a long time. As the federal government wishes to project an image of a responsible nuclear power producer, it decides on creating dumpsite on areas in the Northern Territory, threatening the lives of the indigenous.

Conclusion
Modern Australia began as a country established by settlers and was a colony for many years.  Unlike many countries that were able to establish nationhood by severing ties from foreign colonizers, Australia merely cut ties from its motherland but the colonizers never actually left it.  As the country decolonizes itself in relation to Britain, the process of colonizing the indigenous peoples continued for a time.  Now, when decolonization is mentioned, it refers to the moving away from policies of control of indigenous peoples developed in the interests of the nation state, towards policies of self-determination (Docker  Fischer 2000).  However, such process is certainly taking long as the federal government continues to retain policies that stall it.  Within the country, the NTER brings back memories of the Stolen Generations and of the colonial times when the indigenous people barely had political and economic rights.  In the community of nations, it gives the impression that racial inequality in all spheres of social life still exist and that Australia has not yet fully rid itself of remnant practices of its colonial.

In the article, Safe as a woman,  Melissa talks about two seeds that grew inside her.
The first seed was that of homosexuality, which became a part of her from the age of seven.

The author does not give a specific reason for her sexual orientation. In fact, Melissa
herself is confused about her affinity towards girls instead of boys. So, when Melissa, a devout
Christian reads a particular paragraph in the Bible berating homosexuals, she feels dejected.

Acceptance by society is desired by everyone. It is so with Melissa too. She wants to be
accepted as she is. Reading those lines in the Bible, makes matters worse for her. As an adult,
Melissa finds acceptance in her lesbian relationship with her girlfriend. She becomes part of the
gay community, where she feels welcomed and can be free of pretense.

But, she describes this step as unable, unaware and unwilling to resist. This clearly
shows that in her subconscious mind, she is still programmed to follow societys norms and
Bibles teachings.

She craves acceptance from the society, especially the church, though she is not aware of
this. Later, she finds acceptance, when she meets a couple, Doris and Bill, who like her for what
she is. The couple start praying for her illness and the second seed is planted. She becomes an
active member of the church and begins to think of womanhood.

There are many interesting aspects to this transition. Earlier, when Melissa was a child,
she visited the Church, as she felt it was the right thing to do. Later, she joins the Church of her
own free will. The difference is that as a child, Melissa was confused about her sexual
orientation. Her regular visits to the Church and her subsequent sighting of a paragraph If a
man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They
must be put to death their blood will be on their own heads (Leviticus 2013), in the Bible fills
her with guilt.

She believes subconsciously, even when she is in a lesbian relationship, that she is
suffering from an illness and homosexuality is a sin. This thinking can be traced back to her
childhood, when it was ingrained in her that the word of the God was final.

So, in a way, the second seed of enlightenment, was planted even before the first. And
because of that seed, Melissa experiences guilt all the time. But, when the couple accept her, she
is freed from her guilt.

A free Melissa decides to walk away from homosexuality. She begins by joining
Crossover Ministries, which helps people with changing their sexual orientation.

Melissa starts reading all the literature available on the subject to understand her past
behavior and march towards womanhood. In the end for Melissa, acceptance was far more
important than following her desires. The desire and the fear of the written word in the Bible was
so much that she manages to convince herself that homosexuality is a sin that needs to be
repented.

And so she begins a new quest for womanhood at the age of thirty.