Psychology

Description of the drug
Methamphetamine is classified as a psychoactive stimulant, drug which serves to stimulate the central nervous system (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). The drug in particular is useful in increasing alertness and mentalbody energy. However, research findings indicate that when taken in large amounts, methamphetamine can serve to improve self-esteem as well as sexual pleasure (Murray, 1998).  Methamphetamine is legally recognized and approved for use in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and exogenous obesity.

Methamphetamine is found in the form of white crystals or powders which is soluble in water and alcohol (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Based on this reasoning, this drug is usually mixed with water for injection or swallowed. The drug can also be mixed with tobacco or marijuana for smoking. Just to be appreciated is the fact that high purity methamphetamine which come in the form of ice crystals is usually smoked in small pipes (Fabian, 2007). It has also been established that some abusers of methamphetamine exploit its rapid vaporization by heating it and inhaling the fumes.

Methamphetamine has two major ingredients namely levorotary and dextrorotatory (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). According to existing scientific research evidence however, levorotary has no proven central nervous activity. It thus possesses non-addictive properties and is used for treatment of nasal decongestion (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Dextrorotatory on the other side functions as a stimulant of the central nervous system(National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). It accomplish this, methamphetamine affects the brain neurotransmitter mechanisms for controlling functions like body temperature, blood pressure, attention and response among others.

Due to the effects of methamphetamine on the functioning of the brain, the user experiences an increase in heart beat rate as well as increase in blood sugar levels (Zickler, 2006). These serve to improve alertness and eliminate fatigue. Methamphetamine has been identified as one among the most abused drugs in the United States. This has been closely attributed to a number of reasons. First, methamphetamine can be locally produced, a factor which makes commonly available. Another reason is that it is legally allowed as a pharmaceutical drug thus opening a loophole for accessibility, possession and use (Whaley  Hayes-Smith, 2009).

Methamphetamine is quite addictive. This is because it serves to stimulate the pleasure pathways on the brain (Zickler, 2006). Just to be appreciated is the fact that upon continued use, the drug compromises the natural functioning of the brain, a factor that calls for dependency on the drug (Zickler, 2006).

Another reason for the addictive effects of methamphetamine compared to other drugs is that its costs are almost same as that of cocaine while its effects are much longer compared to those of cocaine. According to available statistical evidence, an estimated over 10 million people in the American nation are victims of methamphetamine addiction (Fabian, 2007).

As a result of methamphetamine abuse and addiction, there are a number of laws which have been enacted to mitigate the sale, use and possession of the drug (Fabian, 2007). One is the Federal Controlled Substance Analogue Enforcement Act of 1986 which seeks to mitigate the use of designer drugs (Fabian, 2007). Another important law is the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 as it limits the amount of Methamphetamine one can purchase and the conditions for its availability to mitigate theft (Fabian, 2007). Due to such restrictions, statistics indicate that the abuse of the drug have decreased by over half between 2006 and 2008.

Effects of Methamphetamine Drug on the Human Brain
Methamphetamine has been established as having the effects of increasing the release and blocks the reuptake of brain neurotransmitter dopamine (Zickler, 2006). This has the direct result of significantly increasing the amount of dopamine in the brain. Just to be appreciated is the fact that dopamine is the neurotransmitter chemical responsible for brain functions such as rewarding, motivation, pleasure and body motor functions (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010).  Indeed, it has been established that the intense euphoria experienced after taking methamphetamine is due to the rapid increase in the levels of dopamine supply on the reward regions of the brain caused by the drug (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010).

Another effect of methamphetamine is that it compromises the functioning of the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin brain transporters (Zickler, 2006). The drug in purpose changes the normal direction of flow for these transporters. Such a reversal of transmitter flow triggers the release of the transmitters from both the vesicles to the cytoplasm and from the cytoplasm to the synapse (Zickler, 2006). This has the result of increasing the stimulation levels of the synaptic receptors. Still, due to the fact that the drug compromises reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin neurotransmitters, it causes them to remain in the synaptic cavity to a long period. This is why the effects of the methamphetamine are found to last longer compared to those of other drugs.

High level abuse of methamphetamine is found to cause changes in how the brain functions (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009) According to results from noninvasive human brain imaging studies, methamphetamine alters the activity of the brain dopamine system, a factor with reduces motor skills and compromises verbal learning. According to available scientific research findings, chronic methamphetamine abusers are marked with severe alterations of the structures and functionality of brain areas which are concerned with emotions and memory (Murray, 1998). Due to this reason, victims of chronic methamphetamine abuse are evidently faced with the problem of impaired emotions and cognition.

Methamphetamine leads to dopaminergic degeneration (Zickler, 2006). Dopaminergic is usually responsible for the production of brain dopamine and serotonin neurons (Zickler, 2006). Therefore, the intake of methamphetamine is found to reduce brain activities in sites such as brain dopamine and serotonin neurons, 5HT uptake and tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylase (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). It is worthy stating here that the addictive nature of methamphetamine is due to its changing of the functioning of the central nervous system (Baskin  Sommers, 2006). This creates a state of induced brain dopamine and serotonin neurons production in the brain, a factor that results into dependency on the drug for realizing pleasure and alertness as well as eliminating fatigue.

Due to the above stated effects of methamphetamine in the brain, the drug is usually associated with a number of psychological effects (Murray, 1998). Such include increased libido, self-esteem and anxiety (Murray, 1998). This result due to the effects methamphetamine has on the release and reuptake of dopamine. As methamphetamine leads to increased blood sugar levels, it can be strong associated with increased alertness, attention, sociability and aggression (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). The drug results in feeling of having excessive power, a factor that is characterized by obsessive behaviors.

Withdrawal Symptoms
Reports indicate that withdrawal from methamphetamine is quite uncomfortable and can depending on the level of addiction be a threat to the life of the individual (Whaley  Hayes-Smith, 2009). Some of the common withdrawal symptoms include drug cravings, depression, irritability and loss of energy as well as sustaining a feeling of fearfulness (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Some other withdrawal symptoms include shaking, sweating, nausea and increased appetite. Withdrawing from methamphetamine use can either induce or mitigate sleeping. This means that withdrawal from methamphetamine is a real threat to the social and economic life of the victim.

Due to these serious implications of withdrawing from methamphetamine, it is a common practice for many to engage in medical care to facilitate effective recovery from methamphetamine addiction. According to available statistics, methamphetamine is identified as one of the drugs with high relapse rates (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). This has been closely attributed to the reliable emotional and cognition effects it brings to an individual. Indeed, it is due to this reason that the problem of depression and suicidal behaviors are common with victims of methamphetamine withdrawal (Zickler, 2006). Such makes the methamphetamine as a drug to have the potential of compromise the social and economic value of an individual in the community.

The effects of long and short term use and abuse of methamphetamine
Short term use and abuse effects of methamphetamine
Methamphetamine is identified as being highly addictive regardless of how it is administered (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Such are because the drug is responsible for stimulating the production of dopamine neurotransmitter which serves to control brain cells concerned with promoting moods and alertness (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). There are a number of short term effects of methamphetamine use or abuse. According to scientific research findings, immediately after using methamphetamine, one experiences an intense sensation commonly referred to as a rush (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). This is because the methamphetamine drug leads to increased release of dopamine in the brain.

Once taken in small amounts, methamphetamine can lead to increased alertness (Murray, 1998). This is the reason why it is a common medication for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder problem. Another effect is increased physical activity in an individual. Such are mainly attributed to the fact that methamphetamine causes an increase in blood sugar levels, enhances self-esteem and increases aggression (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Methamphetamine decreases appetite in the victim. In order to met the energy demands triggered by increased physical activity after using methamphetamine, victims experience an increased in respiration rate.

Methamphetamine is found to increase the heart beat rate and thus increasing blood pressure (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). Still, it can result into irregular heart beats. The victims of methamphetamine abuse are therefore at a higher risk of sustaining cardiovascular collapse. Other short term effects of methamphetamine are irritability, anxiety, increased aggressiveness and tremors (Zickler, 2006). Just to be appreciated is the fact that methamphetamine can also lead to confusion. Some abusers of methamphetamine can sustain fatal conditions such as convulsions and hyperthermia, a factor that risks death. Owing to the fact that methamphetamine leads to increased blood pressure due to constriction of blood vessels, it can result into headaches, chest pains and even heart attack as well as premature labor (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010).

Methamphetamine is found to significantly improve the neurotransmitter functioning of the brain (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2000). This means that the drug cause into increased activity of the brain. Based on this reasoning, the drug increases blood supply to the brain. It has thus been claimed that methamphetamine abuse can result in irreversible brain blood vessel damages (Zickler, 2006). This is why the large intake of the drug can result into a stroke. Therefore, use of methamphetamine has both positive and negative short term effects upon use by an individual.

Long term use and abuse effects of methamphetamine
Chronic methamphetamine use can result into a number of long term effects on the health and behavior of an individual (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). First, methamphetamine can lead to violent behavior (Baskin  Sommers, 2006). According to available psychological evidence, it is clear that character and behavior of an individual is mostly acquired rather than inborn. Methamphetamine intake results into increased physical energy as well as increased aggression, factors which can result into violent behavior. With sustained use therefore, methamphetamine is likely to create a culture of violence in an individual.

Another long term effect of methamphetamine is that it can result in psychotic behavior and mood disturbances (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). Numerous scientific research findings have concluded that long term use or abuse of methamphetamine results in the damaging of the victims brain just like is the case caused by Alzheimers disease, stroke and epilepsy (Zickler, 2006). This means that the drug can lead to the sustenance of mental impairment on the victim. Still, methamphetamine intake is found to compromise the production and functioning of neurotransmitter dopamine (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Just to be appreciated here is the fact that dopamine is responsible for brain functions such as control pleasure and moods. Therefore, long term use of methamphetamine can lead to mood disturbances.

Still on psychotic behavior caused by long term use and abuse of methamphetamine is the question of addiction (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). By simple definition, addiction is a mental condition that dictates dependency on a given substance for the proper and efficient functioning of the body.

Methamphetamine is been identified as a highly addictive drug (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). Based on this reasoning, it can be concluded that the problem of addiction is a key factor in sustaining the psychotic behavior found with methamphetamine users. Another effect of long term use of methamphetamine is that it can lead to homicidal and suicidal thoughts or behavior (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2009). It should be noted that any substance which enhancing feeling, aggression and pleasure can compromise the reasoning and judgmental ability of the individual, a factor that results into suicidal thoughts.

Chronic use of methamphetamine can also result into extreme weight loss, and acute dental decay problem (Zickler, 2006). The question of weight loss is based on the reasoning that methamphetamine cause a sharp decline in appetite as well as an increase in physical activity. Just like cigarettes, methamphetamine smoking or even drinking leads to the dissolving of teeth enamel chemicals this causing dental decay (Zickler, 2006). Other effects include paranoia, visual and auditory hallucinations. Due to the fact that methamphetamine increases sex libido, it has been cited as a major cause of irresponsible sexual behaviors and increased risk of sustaining sexually transmitted diseases (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Therefore, it is clear that the though methamphetamine can have some short term positive effects, none of it long term use effects are positive.

Treatment of methamphetamine addiction
Since methamphetamine addiction is termed a behavioral problem, the best commonly used treatment approach is the use of comprehensive cognitive-behavioral intervention techniques (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Given the feeling associated with withdrawal from using methamphetamine, the process of treating addiction takes time and requires a supportive therapeutic environment to mitigate chances of relapse. Cognitive behavioral intentions involve measures designed to changing the thinking, behavior and expectations of the methamphetamine addict victim. In summary, the technique encompasses the following activities (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010).

The first action is engaging in behavioral therapy for the victims. This takes a number of aspects such as counseling. Counseling of methamphetamine victims is quite important as it does not only identify the problem but above all engages the victim in appreciating that they have a problem and need to change (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). During counseling the clinical practitioners seeks to find the actual cause of the victims indulgence on drug abuse. Just to be stated is the fact that most cases of drug abuse have been associated with family relationship issues. Therefore, there is need to inform the victim on the best way to address their family, social and economic problems as a sustainable way of realizing methamphetamine addiction treatment (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010).

Still, on treating methamphetamine addiction is the use of assistance groups for the victims (Murray, 1998). These groups are a collection of addicted members who are striving to recover from their addiction problem. This has been found to be quite influential in helping victims learning from the experience of others. Still, such have the advantage of enhancing acceptability of the reformed victims by the society. It is worth to be understood that drug addicts in the community are usually subjected to stigmatization. Indeed, this is the reason behind the problem of relapse into drugs by victims as a way of finding socialization and company.

Methamphetamine addiction is closely associated with psychotic or mental impairment problems. According to available statistics on the problem of methamphetamine addiction, it is quite clear that most of victims have schizophrenia (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2000). This makes identification and treatment of any mental problems in the victim quite an important in realizing sustainable treatment of the addiction problem. Another way of ensuring sustainable treatment of methamphetamine addiction is engaging in non-drug related activities and social groups (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Given the high rates of relapse by reformed victims of methamphetamine abuse in the community, engaging in new and anti-drug activities is quite important. It is worth stating that drug abuse problem is mainly influenced by peer pressure. This is why eliminating poor influence is quite important for victims to realize sustainable recovery.

Another common practice when controlling methamphetamine addiction is addressing the problem of malnutrition in the victim (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). According to existing statistical information, poor health is a common feature which characterizes methamphetamine addiction problem. This has been closely attributed to the fact that the use of methamphetamine greatly compromises appetite (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). However, as per to date, there is no medication available for treating methamphetamine addictions. Therefore, the only immediate and reliable solution to the problem is to behavioral therapy (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Another important thing to be appreciated is the fact that early treatment of the problem is highly successful. This has been explained by the fact that at late stages, the victims have already sustained irreversible damage of the brain, a factor that complicates the treatment process.

Conclusion
It has been sufficiently established that methamphetamine is one of the most commonly abused drug in the US. This has been attributed to two reasons. First, the drug is commonly available in the market. The other reason is that despite the fact that it costs almost the same price as cocaine its effects are longer than those of cocaine (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). There are a number of negative effects associated with methamphetamine abuse. Such include compromising of the normal production and functioning of dopamine in the brain, a factor that can lead to addiction, violent behavior andor sustenance of psychotic impairments (Murray, 1998(.

The addictive effects of methamphetamine can be easily treated through engaging in a comprehensive cognitive behavioral intervention practices (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). This technique involves the use of counseling and behavioral therapy practices to mitigate the drug dependence behavior. Just to be appreciated is the fact that early identification and treatment of the addiction problem is important as it mitigates problems of possible irreversible brain damages caused by chronic use of methamphetamine (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Therefore, there is need to create awareness among the general public on the negative effects of methamphetamine and where to get help should be given first priority in addressing methamphetamine drug problem in the American society.

Corporal punishment is application of physical pain tochildren as a way of enforcing discipline through discouraging undesirablebehavior. This kind of punishment includes beatings, burnings, spanking, slapping and scalding. Due to its severity in punishment, use of corporal punishment to discipline children is controversial. In schools, teachers go for corporal punishment. They believe that spare the rod spoil the child Discipline on the other hand involves strategies to reduce undesirable behaviors among children.  Straus and Stewart (1999) found out that 94 of American parents spank their children between the ages 3 and 4 years and up to 5 years. The US Department of Health and Human Services (2001) showed that 13 in every 1000 children were abused. According to her, spanking may lead to abuse.

Research carried out found out that corporal punishment leads to immediate compliance, increased aggression. Studies showed that using corporal punishment to reduce aggression increased the risk of aggressive behaviors by 50. Corporal punishment may also result to antisocial behavior. This affected boys mostly and children of ages ranging between10and12. Increased corporal punishmentled to increased risk of criminal behavior in adulthood. Corporal punishment results to decreased mental health. This affects children between ages 5 and 8 who are more prone to severe corporal punishment.

Physical punishment hasnegative effects which may affect child wellbeing or hisher health thus they are unacceptable and therefore should not be used. Despite this, spanking which is a form of corporal punishment has been used by most American families (about 90). Corporal punishment may also result to adult abusive behaviors. Most results showed that spanking increased undesirable behaviors and decreased desirable ones. As severity of corporal punishment raises so are the negative results. Many children who are spanked within normal limits do not grow up with negative results .However, a number are physically disciplined beyond normal limits thereby are at increased risk of possessing negative outcomes

Are emotions determined by nature and preprogrammed biologically Are an infants emotions developed through stimulation and conditioning Or, do you believe that an infants emotions are a combination of the two These are the questions this paper means to answer and shed light on.  Identifying and defining the meaning of emotional development and its concepts, we will start and begin to understand the psychology or an individuals nature of being.

Emotional Development
Emotional development is a process or is something that goes and follows a process which starts from infancy all the way to adulthood.  Children or toddlers have their parents as their first teachers. The child upbringing, self-esteem, confidence and development starts at home. It is the home that the child first develops his emotions. Soon, this will be carried over to other individuals and situations outside the walls of their home, such as their pre-school teachers, classmatespeers and the kind of environment the child is placed. Researchers have approached this area from a variety of theoretical perspectives, including those of social constructionism, differential emotion theory, and social learning theory. Each of these approaches explores the way infants and children develop emotionally, differing mainly on the question of whether emotions are learned or biologically predetermined, as well as debating the way infants and children manage their emotional experiences and behavior (CBS Interactive Inc, 2010).

The Emotion Behind the Behavior
Babies emotions are often seen in their facial reactions.  By carefully observing these expressions, parents and other individuals may easily read and understand an infants emotions.  Psychologists, anthropologists, and sociologists have proliferated theories about emotion and its significance to the individual and society ( Hager, 2003).

What makes a baby smile or happy The expression of happiness is a childs smile.  Happy expressions show enjoyment, friendliness and pleasure and having a positive disposition.  A child that is always smiling is a contented child.  Meaning, that the infant feels loved and wanted by the people surrounding him or her.  It has been mentioned earlier that the childs foundation starts at home and from the parents or people giving him or her care.

Conclusion
Though presented with these facts, I believe a persons development is a combination of both natural and stimulated.  A child who was carried in a mothers womb feeling wanted and loved will play a big role in the infants development. I also believe that the child will also develop another side of his being once he is exposed to different environments such as his peers and other worldly influences.

Home Instead Senior Care
The experience in caring for elderly made Paul Hogan realized that there is more that elders need than medical care. After taking care of his grandmother for almost twelve years, he came up with an idea of establishing an agency that will cater to elderly needs. In the year 1994, Paul, together with his wife Lori Hogan, founded Home Instead Incorporated, servicing seniors from Omaha, Nebraska under the name of Home Instead Senior Care. It was in June 1995 when the organization started to franchise and by 1998, the franchise had rapidly grown to 99 offices.

Often times, elders are sent to homes for the aged where their families think that they can get ample attention and assistance from these establishments. Home Instead Senior Care believes that elders should stay at home with their families as they grow older. The organization has helped families to take care of their loved ones right at the comforts of their own homes, without sending them to any homes for the aged. That is why they offer in-home services like (1) elderly companionship and conversation, (2) monitoring of diet and eating, (3) assistance with evening and tuck-in, (4) stimulation of mental awareness, and (5) assistance in taking right medication at the right time. In addition to this, there are also personal services that they offer such as grooming, bathing, and dressing.

There are also other assistances that Home Instead Senior Care offers. They can be reached 24-hours a day, with a group of trained Caregivers ready to provide assistance with the elderly.

Home Instead Senior Care is located at 13323 California St. Omaha, Nebraska 68154 and can be reached via 888.484.5759 of through fax 402.4985757. Supplementary information can be found at their website  HYPERLINK httpwww.homeinstead.com httpwww.homeinstead.com

Cloning is the creation of an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another or clones is defined as genetically produced individuals from a single parent (What is Cloning 2010). Cloning is associated with various psychological effects that can endanger the normal survival of the clones. No one actually knows what the effects of the clones would be to the human identity and relationships of creating someone who is the twin of the father or the mother, but born in a different generation and environment.

The other question that arises is whether the clone would feel that he or she was just a copy of someone else who had already existed and not really of himself or herself. Failure to understand some of these dilemmas among others, such as the clones relationship with the person they were cloned from and the inability to predict the assurance of proper answers to this questions can give us a clear indication as to why cloning should completely be done away with. Therefore, humans should not be cloned because this activity is ethically and morally wrong considering the significant incident of death and birth defects in cloned animals.

Cloning human beings is carrying out a lifelong experiment, which may result in adverse physical and psychological effects on the individual and any defects are onto the offspring (Lambrianides n.d.).

Cloning also leads to premature aging that is explained based on the donor cells being old and containing DNA materials with short telomeres. It also puts children at risk of being born with deformities, and the mothers life at risk due to major abnormalities of the placenta. These anomalies happen because the cells used to clone the embryo will be taken from one of the possible parents. These mature stem cells preserve the memory of whether they were a muscle or skin meaning that they do not develop and behave in the way stem cells in a placenta usually do. In conclusion, cloning, be it therapeutic or reproductive in nature is unacceptable and should not be done to human beings.

1. Life Changes and Stress Test
The life changes and stress test allows individuals to measure the level of stress that they are undergoing and therefore decide what steps they can take after. Stress is the sure proof of the connection between the mind and the body, that is the mood picks up the stressor and the body reacts physically to the stressor. The life changes and stress test measures the levels of stressors that an individual perceives in normal life.

After taking the stress, the results indicated that I am experiencing borderline stress. Borderline stress is indicated by a surge of alert hormones when the mind perceives a level of stress. It is characterized by lack of sleep and over heightened awareness that normally means one cannot relax. However since the body after experiencing a stressor cannot remain in the hyper mode for long, the hormone levels finally subside and the individual is brought back down. This is when one may experience moodiness, headaches, aggressive behavior and inability to concentrate.

Management of borderline stress is simple, and sometimes only requires dealing with the stressor. For example in the case of the death of a close relative, to deal with the stressor requires proper grieving and acceptance. Taking up simple exercise and allowing the mind to process the loss will often lead to less stress, (Wolfgang 2005, 40). In the same length taking up something that is positively reassuring or emotionally strengthening reduces the effects of the stressor. Inability to manage borderline stress through the life changes presented by the American Massage Therapy Association (2010) for example exercise and enjoying yourself, may lead to increase in stress levels to over 300, and this will definitely require a professional to develop coping mechanisms.

2. V Axes Diagnosis
The V axes is a global psychological test that is used by professional psychiatrists, clinicians and psychologists to evaluate the patients ability to function in day to day activities. From the results of the test once it is administered the clinician is able to chart a proper treatment and intervention plan for the patient.  The diagnosis is designed to provide clinicians with a methodological and uniform method of diagnosing psychological patients. 

The V axes diagnoses works in a short time, measuring all aspects of a patients symptoms and functioning ability. The diagnoses incorporates all aspects of a patients functioning whether physical, social, emotional and general productivity. The diagnoses therefore provide an opportunity for review of the measures already taken and their effects, and provide an opportunity to set new intervention measures.

An example of the application of the V Axes diagnoses is in the treatment of a schizophrenic patient. Once the patients hospitalization is over, when the clinicians are considering releasing the patient, the V axes is applied. The axes provide a numbered diagnoses sheet to measure the patients functionality. If the patient scores 51-60 then the he is likely to suffer from mild schizophrenic symptoms and difficulty in social situations. The patient may not need to be hospitalized further but may require a case worker to visit and help him adjust to life after hospitalization, (Whiston 2008, 299).

Whitson (2008, 302) The V axes diagnosis is especially helpful in diagnosing the hospitalized patients for release, or in deciding the amount of care that a patient requires. Once the questions in the diagnoses test have been completed, they are applied to a 10 point scale that automatically determines the level of adjustment and functionability of the patient.

3. Anorexia Nervosa An Eating Disorder
Anorexia nervosa is simply referred to as anorexia. This is a type of eating disorder that is psychologically based. The patient often begins by dieting to loose weight and soon becomes obsessed with getting thinner and thinner. This means that the patient begins exploring more and more unhealthy diets. The patient views weight loss as a sign of control. The patient engages in a cycle involving restrictive refusal to eat, exercising all the time, and use of laxatives to loose weight. Weight loss becomes an obsession and an addictive behavior.

Maj (2006, 49) individuals with anorexia unlike popular belief are obsessed with food, but instead of eating it, they desire to become masters at avoiding it. They may suddenly develop an obsession with healthy eating and foods, or start cutting their food to smaller pieces and using smaller plates. Anorexic patients are often depressed and moody and are eager to please everyone lacking self esteem and self definition.

Although the disease in characterized by the need to gain control, anorexics almost always have disorganized lives apart from food and dieting. Anorexics often allow their obsession with food to distort all other aspects of their lives. Other forms of compulsion such as gambling and sex are common in anorexics.

For patients diagnosed with severe malnutrition that has led to organ failure, hospitalization is necessary. This is because the immediate focus is on weight gain through intravenous feeding by passing the mouth. Different forms of therapy both individual, group and family sessions are applied. Clinicians have found it especially advantageous to apply the Maudsley therapy approach in family therapy for anorexic patients. A good intervention plan addresses the patients need to be controlling, the self esteem and personal perceptions, the desire to starve themselves and nutritional education. Although anorexia can be treated without medication sometimes the clinicians may put the patient on prescriptions to moderate moods and other emotional or psychological symptoms, (Maj 2006, 399)

4. Anxiety Disorders- Social Phobias
In America today, social phobia is the 3rd largest psychological disorder affecting the American people. Individuals suffering from social phobia often experience feelings of anxiety when forced to be in a situation that requires them to engage socially. 

Heimberg (1995, 7) there are at least two forms of social phobia, the first being social anxiety which is characterized by extreme emotional discomfort about social interactions and relating with others. The patient is often worried that they are being scrutinized or analyzed by others. This form of anxiety often develops in adolescence and follows to adulthood.

The second form is the specific social phobia where patients may be confident in certain social situations but completely overwhelmed in others. For example patients may suffer from fears of eating in public, using restrooms that are public or attending any gatherings of a social nature, (Heimberg 1995, 8).

The essence of a social phobia arises from an irrational belief and expectation of negative judgment from others. Unlike other forms of disorders, patients suffering from social phobia are aware of the irrationality of their beliefs but are unable to overcome them. Patients often suffer from low self esteem and experts are of the view that social phobias generally develop from childhood.

Social phobias are often very difficult to treat as the patients may experience the emotional distress even in therapy. Despite this, group therapy and combined cognitive therapy have been found to be extremely successful in helping patients deal with social phobias.

5. Gender Identity
For a child to develop gender identity, social and cultural perspectives influence the roles and choices made. Each cultural group uses biological sex to make the distinction in gender, but beyond this each culture posses variations in distinguishing gender identities.

Coon (2000, 451), division of labor is often used to identify with one specific gender. Each culture posses a specific division of labor, identifying the roles to be fulfilled by each gender. Boys are socialized differently to accept more manly roles associated with their gender such as protection of the family, while girls are socialized to be home makers a role suitable for their gender. In fulfilling their particular roles, children begin to identify with a specific gander.

Gender differences In the same way there exist differences in the emotions and reactions of both males and females. For example men tend to be more aggressive than females, and are quicker to express this aggression physically, while aggression does not come easily for females.

Females also tend to be more empathetic than males, generally associating with the plight and abuse of others easily. Additionally women are more able to decode emotional and non verbal cues than men, (Coon 2000, 453).

Another difference arises in the ability and willingness to communicate. Women find it much easier to communicate and reveal much more details than men. Psychologists actually claim that it is easier for women to undergo successful therapy than men.

Finally there have been claims that women have much more long term memory than men.

6. Narcisstic Personality Disorder
This is a personality disorder characterized by an exaggerated form of self importance.  Patients often display an exaggerated need for attention and desire for admiration. Narcissists often demand a lot of praise and admiration from others. Lack of such gestures tend to draw over emotional reactions and may sometimes lead to violence. A narcissist often sees themselves better than others, they feel they posses exceptional talent and live in an unrealistic world where they are powerful and successful, (Livesley 1995, 104).

There are two theories that define narcissism from culture. In the first, psychologists suggest that there are some forms of culture that idolize a child. This is especially so in cultures where a specific talent for example sport seems to be considered exceptional. As the child grows they are unable to develop realistic goals and ideals away from the idealizing parents or community. They therefore emerge to adulthood stuck on the idealized child they were.

A second theory presented suggests the opposite that narcissism develops when the child craving for emotional attachment especially from the mother does not get it. Emotionally stunted, the child withdraws to a part of themselves that the parent seems to value such as talent or looks. They inflate this part of themselves and become exceptionally attached to it, (Livesley 1995, 104).

Narcissists often find it hard or impossible to deal with criticism or failure. Although they may not show it outwardly, or they may react with arrogance, failure haunts them deeply. However their excessive ambition often leads to higher chances of success, though this may sadly be short-lived as they cannot withstand correction and criticism. On the other hand the fear of failure may cripple narcissists both professionally and personally.

7. Depression
A depressive disorder is characterized by a group of symptoms that reflect extreme sadness and irritable behavior that exceeds normal grief.  Depressives often are characterized by sudden moodiness (shift from highs of extreme joy to lows of extreme grief), sleeping and eating disorders and sudden illnesses. Depression is often hard to identify as people may confuse it with sadness and grief, (Alford and Beck 2009, 90)

There are three types of depressive disorders. The first is major depression normally characterized by some symptoms such as irritability, crying bouts that interfere with the patients life. The symptoms always last around 14days. The second type is dysthymia which involves the clients inability to function fully for long periods of time. This is a chronic depression disorder. Finally there is the bipolar disorder also known as manic depression. The patient often exhibits periods of depression where they are irritable or sad followed by periods of mania where the patient is irrational and violent, (Alford and Beck 2009, 90)

Depression and sadness Depression is often confused with sadness but whereas sadness is a symptom of depression it is not depression. The main difference is in the period where sadness is experienced. For example when one has lost a loved one for a period of time they may grieve, and their life maybe disrupted but often this period ends. When the sadness persists through long periods and begins to disrupt normal productive life then it now turns to depression.

Additionally it is easy for individuals to deal with sadness and grief and understand why they feel as they do in that particular moment. However for depression people cannot explain their feelings or their behavior.

8. Warning Signs of Suicide in Adolescents
Changes in eating and sleeping habits although teenagers often have changing eating patterns, drastic changes that include either overeating or starving themselves may be a sign of depression and as such a cry for help. Adolescents who suddenly and drastically change their eating for no reason at all, sometimes complaining they are not hungry or are satisfied should be observed closely.

In addition children who suddenly cannot sleep or sleep too much may also be suffering from anxiety or depression which often results in suicide. Guardians and parents noticing such changes should consult professionals to help them diagnose the child correctly and set up an intervention plan.
Withdrawal from social activity perhaps this is the most telling sign of depression in adolescents. Adolescents have a need and crave the attention and company of their peers. A child who suddenly develops the desire to withdraw and spend time alone is probably undergoing a difficult adjustment that could lead to depression and eventually suicide.

Violent actions, rebellious behavior, running away parents and guardians of adolescents who have committed suicide often state that they had not seen the child for hours but they had a tendency to run away. Suicidal Adolescents see suicide as an escape route from a situation they find difficult or impossible to deal with.

Such actions may also be related to the use of drugs. 60 of the suicides recorded are often while the child is under the influence of drugs. The ability of drugs and alcohol to alter the mood and perception of the individual is sighted as a cause for suicide (Spirito and Overholser 2003, 82).

Additionally the adolescents are uncommonly concerned with their personal look believing it defines them. Neglect of what they consider probably most important should be an indicator that they have a problem.

Marked personality change for children who were extremely social, they suddenly become loners. Others were high performers and suddenly they cannot seem to concentrate on anything. This personality changes are indicators of highly complex psychological issues, (Spirito and Overholser 2003, 80).

Adolescents may also develop untreatable diseases and symptoms of illnesses that disrupt their normal schedules and life.

Loss of interest in pleasurable activities adolescents often crave approval a childs inability to withstand praise even when they have done exceptionally well is a sign of emotional distress that may lead to suicide.

Additional signs other indicators that may be slight are verbal indications of suicide (I want to kill myself) periodically or loss of self esteem. Teenagers who also develop bizarre behavior like an obsession with death rituals and preparation for death are at risk for suicide.
                                               
 9. Mood Disorders
Mood disorders are also known as affective disorders and are disorders that distinguish themselves through unusual mood experiences. Mood disorders are characterized by the experience of one mood over a period of time in an unhealthy manner. Most mood disorders are treatable and easily diagnosed. The patients exhibit a number of symptoms such as low pleasure experiences, suicide tendencies, and tiredness, loss of memory, disinterest, poor sleeping and eating patterns. Generally speaking a person may be diagnosed with a mood disorder if two or more of these symptoms persist over a period of two weeks.

Mood disorders generally consist of unipolar disorders such as depression characterized by the persistence of one particular mood, or bipolar disorders characterized by the persistence of two or more symptoms such as in manic depression. The shifts in mood are usually in a defined set of patterns, for example extreme sadness immediately after a period characterized by great happiness and joy, (Barlow and Durand 2008, 228).

In life, human beings are often faced with circumstances that require them to adjust accordingly to adapt some adjustment behaviors. These are known as normal behaviors in adaptation. For example in a situation where one looses a loved one, normal adjustment includes proper grieving and finally acceptance of the loss. Where an individual grieves for an extremely long time, to the point of affecting their productivity, this is known as a maladaptive behavior. This is where the individual is unable to adjust to new circumstances or situation properly.  They may develop coping mechanisms such as alcohol, gambling and drugs which are unhealthy. Maladjustment often leads to mood disorders, (Barlow and Durand 2008, 452)

10. Enabling Behavior
Families and close friends of an addict are often accused of engaging in behaviors that allow the individual to continue without treatment and in addiction. Enablers often believe that they are being helpful when in fact they are destroying opportunities for the addict to acknowledge negative behavior.
From the eGetgoing information (2010), some of the enabling behaviors include making excuses for the addict. Family members may call bosses and previous engagements of the addict to report that they are unwell when in fact they are just hangover or suffering from withdrawal.

Whenever family members take up a persons responsibility either housing them or paying their bills, they give them more freedom to engage in whatever addiction. While paying their bills may seem like a good reason, it gives them a reason to return to their addiction.

Addicts tend to misbehave and cause messes when they are on a high. Sometimes friends take up the responsibility of cleaning up their messes while at the same time making excuses for them. This covers the extent of the addiction from the addict himself.

Family members often find it difficult or embarrassing to discuss chemical dependency with addicts. Refusing to accept that they have a problem only worsens the situation. Where family members find it hard to intervene, it is advisable to consult a professional to help, (eGetgoing, 2010).

The more friends and family rescue an addict, the deeper the addiction becomes. It is advisable that friends and families ignore enabling behaviors forcing the addict to face up to their problems.

11. Cognitive Impairment Disorders
Cognitive impairment occurs in a shift in how the patient thinks and perceives things. It normally deals with the functions of the brain which are affected by pathogens confusing and in extreme cases rendering the brain useless. Sometimes the disorders can arise from birth through birth defects, chemical and substance abuse of the mother or developmental hindrances. (American psychiatric association 1996, 886).

Some of the causes of cognitive impairment include birth defects, trauma injuries to the head and diseases such as Alzheimers. Individuals who have also engaged in drug and substance abuse are more likely to suffer from cognitive disorders. Some medicines also put patients at risk of cognitive disorders.
 
A cognitive disorder often interferes with normal body and brain functions. Changes may not be major sometimes including short term memory loss and mood disorders. However they can also cause the inability to think independently and properly. Cognitive disorders make simple tasks such as reading, basic motor functions and personal care to seem extremely difficult or impossible to perform.
Patients cognitive function can be improved through specialized therapy such as speech and motor therapy. However patients often require being hospitalized either in group homes where they can remain independent while still receiving specialized care. On the other hand severe cases of cognitive impairments often necessitate hospitalization in highly secure and supervised facilities (American psychiatric association, 1996 888).

Although some symptoms of the cognitive disorders can be inhibited by drugs and the individual become normal, most of the symptoms are very difficult to treat and are degenerative in nature. Cognitive disorders can cause absolute memory and motor function loss reducing a mature productive individual into a childlike mess. Often the people closest to the patient suffer most.

Abstract

When it was first discussed, homosexuality was approached as a disease. Doctors, experts and even the homosexuals themselves worked indefinitely to find the cause of homosexuality and stem it from society by discovering a cure. Society at the time held very conservative views on the matter, refusing to discuss it openly. In some other cultures homosexuality was considered taboo to be punished by law. Homosexuals were often banned from participating in social activities and were considered outcasts.

The Changing Views of Homosexuality
Aristotle a famous philosopher was quoted as saying that societies that denied homosexuality were backward and underdeveloped. At the time the practice of homosexuality was widespread in Greece and Rome. During the 16th and 17th century, kings and noble men acquired young boys to serve as their slaves and homosexual partners. Homosexuality was practiced as a family planning method and was widely accepted.

Spencer (1995, 13) In the late 17th century the European countries came under the ruler ship of the church which frowned upon such practices. The pope declared homosexuality not only ungodly and inhumane. He ordered the burning and stoning of homosexuals on a stake.  Rupp (2002, 74) The European countries took to this new belief, they embarked on stumping out sin and establishing chastity and holiness. At the time, the church had a stronghold in each of the countries. Using sermons of destruction and instilling the fear of eternal damnation, the church succeeded in declaring what has previously been considered a matter of personal choice a matter of law.

In the early 18th century, the church had succeeded in banning homosexuals and turning it into an illegal act. Anyone caught in the act of homosexuality was immediately sentenced to a public death without a trial. All the countries and societies ruled upon by the European countries held this strong belief. There were public executions of gays that involved burning in fire and sulphur, a biblical imitation of the fires of hell.

In the late 19th and early 20th century, the issue of homosexuality arose again. This time America was considered the bed rose of the homosexuals. Downturn pubs were formed specializing in entertaining homosexuals only. However the wide held view was still that the acts were immoral and un-human. Mondimore (1996, 35) The homosexuals had to meet in secret and matters concerning homosexuality were not openly discussed. At this time the gay bashing incidents arose and became common.

Homosexuals were openly assaulted and sometimes even killed for their nature. Police harassment of gay members of the society was common. Although some people were of the view that if left alone the homosexuality trend would disappear, others held the view that homosexuality could only be undone forcefully.

In the 1970s therefore it was common to hear of incidents involving gay men especially, where they were maimed or killed. Being gay at this time was life threatening and endangering. Homosexuals often led double lives some even going as far as to marry and have children in an effort to hide their true identity. Families and communities often took harsh stands, disowning gay members from their midst. At this time being gay meant leading a completely secret life from that people believed one should lead (Mondimore 1996, 40).

The gay bashing and assault incidents led to the activism of the 90s and the attitude changes in the 20th and 21st centuries. Although some people are still against homosexuality, some states have gone as far as to legalize gay marriages. Gay activism has become so common. Harassment and assault have been declared illegal. The rights of homosexuals have become a commonly discussed issue. Homosexuals can now hold their relationships in open. Whereas religious and other institutions may be against homosexuals, the civil rights of gays and lesbians have become widely accepted. The cases of assault and gay bashing have become more and more isolated (Spencer 1996, 125).

People are more and more beginning to accept homosexuality as natural. Homosexuals are now being viewed as equal human beings with rights. The general view is that though homosexuality may not be considered as moral, it is a persons choice which is protected in the legal statutes. Homosexuals are now holding public office and declaring their preferences openly without fear. Discrimination on gay grounds has been declared illegal. All people must be treated equally despite their sexual orientation. The main opposers of homosexuality still remain to be religious institutions, (Rupp 2002 134).

Conclusion
The views on homosexuality have evolved greatly over time. From complete denial of homosexuals, the 21st generation is fast coming to accept homosexuality as a personal choice. The stress on the protection of the right to make personal choices is fast changing the views on homosexuality. Homosexuality is now considered as any other relationship discussed and practiced openly. Homosexuals no longer have to meet in secret or lead double lives.

Families and communities are beginning to view individuals past their sexual orientation and focusing more on their productivity and skills. Gay celebrities and public leaders have played a big role in educating people towards more acceptances of gays and the homosexual culture. The loss of controlling power by the church has led to decreased acceptance of the harsh stands against the homosexual culture. Today people are more concerned with developmental and economic matters, and less concerned with a persons sexual orientation. Many people are of the belief that whoever a person chooses to love and relate with is a personal choice and does not affect them in any way.

Having experienced the most devastating earthquake of the century and loosing close to 250,000 people as  well as properties valued in the tune of billions of dollars, the word hope sounded like a dirge to most of the victims in Haiti (SIC, 2010). However, the astounding positive response from people all over the world has resulted in rejuvenated optimism for the Haitians. Attkisson (2010) approximates 14.9 billion having been donated and the figures escalating with each day. This number has in fact exceeded the 14 billion estimated for rebuilding Haiti. So what really is responsible for this amazing philanthropy from all over the world

Prosocial behavior theorists suggest that human beings are social in nature and mutually affect one another through their natural selection actions (Clarke, 2003). Different people are motivated differently towards their altruistic behaviors. Most of them engage in prosocial behaviors when there is something to be gained from it.  Some do it solely on humanitarian grounds while others are enthused by the hope that the same good they do to other people will be reciprocated some day. 

As witnessed in the Haiti, Prosocial behavior is immensely supported by the church.  Philips (2010) supports this by exemplifying with the prayers, counseling, emotional support, money donations and foodstuffs that have been offered from across the religious divide. From Catholics to Protestant Christians, Muslims to the traditional believers (for instance the voodoo community), many religious groups have moved in to fill the void left by other humanitarian organizations.

Various governments have also been depicted as arduously supporting the prosocial campaigns in Haiti.  Attkisson (2010) observes that over 1 billion has been donated by the US government and more than 1 billion already pledged by the same government towards the Haiti earthquake victims. Other countries and world bodies are also documented to having pledged 8.75 billion towards the same initiative.
It is important to note the generous contribution that social sites like Twitter and Facebook have made towards relief for Haiti. Gray, a consultant from Houston, donated 10 to Red Cross after reading of fellow Twitters having made donations (Rauf, 2010). Bnabou and Tirole (2005), who are proponents of prosocial behavior theory, explain this action by saying, People commonly perform good deeds and refrain from selfish ones because of social pressure and norms that attach honor to the former and shame to the latter.

Changing minds.org (n.d.) however argue their case out differently. They observe that Evidence abounds of people helping others without asking for anything in return. This is the whole principle of charity. Their rationale for helping others is often intrinsic motivation. This can be exemplified with the actions of Stuart Johnson (an architect for the San Antonio Conservation Society). In 2004, he donated money to the relief efforts of the Indian Ocean Tsunami. A year later, he wrote another check to Hurricane Katrinas victims. And now with the Haiti earthquake, he repeated the same behavior only that this time round, he did it through his iPhone where he sent money to both the Yle Haiti foundation and the American Red Cross (Rauf, 2010).

This intrinsic motivation can further be epitomized by activities of the Yle Haiti Foundation. Despite facing multiple allegations of misusing the relief funds, there is surmountable evidence of them genuinely helping victims of the Haiti earthquake. Started in 2005 by producer, musician and social entrepreneur Wyclef Jean, the Yle Haiti foundation has been able to use statutes like education, arts, sports and community development to restore hope in Haiti. This initiative has been endowed with immense support from his wife Claudinette Jean, musicians, celebrities, world leaders, NGOs and even individuals (Yle, 2010). Other non-profit organizations that have been able to champion prosocial behavior by helping Haiti include. World Vision Haiti Earthquake Relief, UNICEF Haiti Earthquake Relief and American Red Cross among many others (STL today.com, 2010).

As a point of caution, prosocial behaviors like making donations should not be overdone. Too much of anything is dangerous. According to a recent report by Attkisson (2010), there has been an excess in donation of foodstuffs to Haitians which has had some negative effects on the economy. Firstly, indigenous farmers are having problems in selling their home-grown crops since there is a lot of free food circulating in Haiti. Secondly, poor residents from other districts in Haiti-not necessarily earthquake victims- are moving into the refugee camps and to get a share of the relief healthcare and food. These issues greatly inhibit the value for hard work and encourage laziness through overdependence on foreign aid.

In conclusion, more effort should be put by governments, religious organizations and even learning institutions towards instigating positive attitudes with regards to prosocial behavior. When people come together to help one another, not just in the time of need but also for other important aspects, so much progress can be realized both locally and globally. No man is an island, and support to others should therefore be a key component of our lives regardless of whether we gain from our acts or not.

Antisocial behaviors should be greatly discouraged and condemned since they destroy the moral fabric that holds us together and thus limiting positive development in any given society. By doing all these, the common phenomena of having to suffer alone in times of difficulties will be replaced with a loving environment where everyone is there for one another and thus making the world a better place