Psychology

The current DSM has often been criticized due to the several flaws observable from its system of diagnosis. Although it is largely used by clinical and psychiatric professionals, DSM IVTR raises several doubts on its validity reliability, genuineness and ability to provide diagnosis that exist in a real world. It is factual that even after production of the text revision of DSM IV in 2000, there are several changes which ought to be made in it so as to overcome the current criticisms But what are the major criticisms of DSM-IV-TR and what changes should be incorporated in the next DSM to make it more effective and applicable This paper discusses the main criticisms of DSM IVTR alongside relevant changes required on it.

Introduction
The current text revision of the DSM -IV was published in 2000. It is universally abbreviated as DSM-IVTR and it classifies psychiatric diagnosis using five major axes, according to the different aspects of disabilities and disorders. The first level (Axis I) comprises of the clinical disorders which include disorders of learning and major mental disorders. Axis II is a list of personality disorders as well as mental retardation. Physical disorders and acute medical conditions are found in Axis III while Axis IV contains the environmental and psychosocial factors causative of these disorders. The last level, Axis V, contains Childrens Global Assessment Scale (CGAS) for children and teenagers below eighteen years (Beutler, Malik, 2000). In this paper, criticisms of the 2000 text revision (TR) of DSM-IV will be discussed in detail, giving relevant changes that should be incorporated in the next version (DSM V).

Criticisms of the DSM-IVTR
The major criticism of DSM-IVTR is based on the reliability and validity of its diagnosis. Generally, this relates to the doubt whether the disorders and diagnosis it defines are genuine conditions in real life that can be constantly identified through its criteria. Critics argue that DSM-IVTR lacks validity since it does not have any affiliation to an established scientific model of psychological disorders. Therefore, the resolutions taken from its classifications are not scientific (Beutler, Malik, 2000). It lacks reliability partially for the reason that different diagnoses share several criteria and what seem to be actual different criteria are mostly restatements of the same idea. This implies that decision to allocate diagnoses to patients is in some way the result of personal prejudice (Nordmarken, Zur, 2010).

In addition, the DSM-IVTR is criticized due to its lack of definite cut-offs. Despite the text revision that was done on DSM-IV, it is still criticized for lacking a distinctive system of classifying disorders. DSM-IVTR uses arbitrary dividing lines between what is considered abnormal and normal.  Up to date, several efforts aimed at creating boundaries between various related syndromes in DSM have constantly failed.  For instance, DSM-IVTR does not take into consideration the patients context and the extent to which a disorder could be caused by psychological adverse situations. Axis IV fails to outline concrete environmental and psychological factors that contribute to disorders (Blatt, Luyten, 2009). On categorical modeling, critics argue that the structuring method of DSM-IVTR categories represent rising medicalization of human nature, attributed to syndrome mongering by psychiatrists and pharmaceutical companies. For example, amongst the authors of the current DSM, evidence has shown that more than half of them have had some financial affiliations with the pharmaceutical industry. Moreover, all the versions of DSM are intended to be used for administration, research and by mental health professionals. However, to use the diagnostic criteria, one requires clinical training. The terminologies used in DSM-IVTR are only usable among clinical professionals, making its use in research and administration limited (Blatt, Luyten, 2009).

The labeling of the disorders using the current DSM has also been criticized for the reason that it labels some normal behaviors as disorders. For example, normal existential anxieties are labeled as Anxiety Disorder while behaviors such as shyness are labeled as Social Phobia. Further, it labels strong willed-spirited children as victims of Opposition Disorder and lasting grief as Complicated Grief Reaction (Nordmarken, Zur, 2010). This has the effect of making people who exhibit these behaviors conclude that they are abnormal, which is not the condition in most cases. DSM has thus become a social control tool, judging who is normal or not, sane or insane, and who remains free or hospitalized.  The labeling of normal human behaviors as disorders is also used by medical professionals, pharmaceutical companies and insurance companies for financial gains (Nordmarken, Zur, 2010).

Evidence gathered from experienced mental health professionals show that in some cases the symptom pictures described under the current DSM do not exactly match the real symptoms exhibited by the patients. An individual may exhibit symptoms that cut across different DSM disorders and this makes it difficult to determine the real disorder they could be suffering from (Kleinplatz, 2010). This argument is the foundation of the criticism that the symptom pictures in DSM IVTR do not always match with clinical experience. Critics who have thoroughly analyzed the two versions of DSMDSM-IV and DSM-IVTRargue that there is negligible difference between the two and therefore, DSM-IVTR is not important. The only changes that seem evident between the two versions are in the criminal paraphilis (Exhibitionism, Pedophilia, Frotteurism, Voyeurism and Sexual Sadism) and the method of effecting these adjustments is not stated (Kleinplatz, 2010).

Changes in the next DSM
A revision for Reactive Attachment Disorder has been suggested to include a division of two DSM-IV types into two disorders  Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder and Reactive Disorder of Infancy and Early Childhood. This is because the symptoms of this disorder are a composite of the proposed two conditions. In addition, the Adjustment Disorder which is currently placed under Axis- I, does not fit perfectly under this category and should be included in Trauma and stress related disorders (American psychiatric association, 2010).

More so, a scientific basis of evaluating the validity of DSM disorders should be developed to eliminate doubts on its reliability. Towards this end, the American Psychiatric Association should take the responsibility of identifying a reputable scientific research association that will be assigned the responsibility of conducting research on various DSM disorders so as to verify their genuineness and existence in real life. Consequently, all the disorders that lack scientific justification ought to be removed from the next DSM to circumvent the current adverse effects created by the categorization of normal human behaviors as disorders (for instance shyness.

DSM-IV-TR is more concerned with the symptoms of psychological disorders other than their causes. There is no explanatory basis for the mental disorders using DSM IVTR (Beutler, Malik, 2000). It is crucial that the next DSM addresses this issue by conducting research on the possible etiology of mental disorders to give more credibility to the reliability of its diagnosis.

The arbitrary cut offs should e eliminated from the current DSM. Elimination should be based on the review of the disorder symptoms, classifying all the disorders with almost similar features under the same category, followed by a change on the minimum average number of symptoms required to indicate the presence of a mental disorder in a person. This implies that in the place of the fifty percent minimum symptom which is used by DSM-IVTR, the minimum number of symptoms should be increased to approximately sixty five percent. Such an effort will also eliminate categorical modeling problems.

DSM-IV-TR is produced by the American Psychiatric Association as a requirement under federal legislative mandates. It is used in research, administration and by mental health professionals (American psychiatric association, 2010). However, since its use by people who do not have adequate clinical training results to wrong application, the next version should either limit its use to clinical professionals only or ensure that all laymen intending to use DSM obtain the necessary training and a license. Anyone using DSM must be licensed by both the American Psychiatric Association and the health care industry. Licensing should be done after training (Blatt, Luyten, 2009). To counter the claim by critics that majority of the authors of the current DSM are in one way or another affiliated to the pharmaceutical industry and that their intentions are rather commercial than medical, there should be a complete change in the DSM V planning committee of experts to ensure that they are free of any commercial affiliations. This should be done through a purposive survey of the already existing authors. Subsequently, all the authors who have links with the pharmaceutical companies should be removed from the team and replaced with neutral professionals.

Conclusion
The way forward for the American Psychiatric Association is not to revise the current DSM further, but to come up with a new, scientifically approved version of DSM that not only addresses symptoms, but also the causes of mental disorders. This will eliminate majority of the criticisms of DSM IVTR.

The paper discusses the nature vs. nurture debate. The influence of nature and nurture on human development is evaluated. The paper presents the basic arguments. The dynamics and variability of the gene-interaction concept are discussed, too.

In 1952, British Educator Richard Mulcaster wrote that nature makes the boy toward, nurture sees him forward (Pinker, 2002). Since then, nature vs. nurture became one of the major debates in psychology. Throughout years, psychology professionals tried to define how nature and nurture influence human development. Today, the nature vs. nurture debate is far from resolved. Some psychologists view nature as the basic driver of human development others are confident that human development is influenced solely by environmental forces. Most scientists believe that human development as the product of multiple influences. Whether genetics and environment equally contribute to the course and pace of human development is difficult to define, but it is clear that both forces play their role in the development of human psychology over the life span.

Nature Nurture Debate and Human Development
Through the nature vs. nurture debate, psychologists try to analyze the interactions between genes and environment and their influence on human development. The nature vs. nurture debate is about whether human development is the products of heredity, or whether human development is shaped by the environment in which individuals grow (Shaffer, 2008). In the nature vs. nurture debate presents the two opposing views on human development. One party holds heredity and genes responsible for the development of humans, their cognition and behaviors (Shaffer, 2008). The other party treats environment and social conditions as the primary source of influence on human development (Rutter, 2006). Many psychology professionals take the middle ground and state that human development is the result of both hereditary and environmental influences. They treat the intellect, human behaviors, personality traits, and temperaments as the end products of a long interplay between environmental forces and genetic predispositions (Shaffer, 2008). Yet, there is no sufficient information about how these forces interact and combine to result and reflect in a developmental change.

The gene-environment interaction concept dates back to the early stages of agricultural genetics (Gottesman  Hanson, 2005). Agricultural geneticists sought to explore the influence of environmental forces on agriculture and to confirm that different agricultural genotypes responded differently to different environmental conditions (Gottesman  Hanson, 2005). For example, the rice seeds grew vigorously in wet conditions and withered in the dry environment (Gottesman  Hanson, 2005). Unfortunately, it is not possible to calculate the influence which genes and environments produce on human development that is why, the nature vs. nurture debate persists. The belief that human psychology is the combination of genetic and environmental effects is too simple and does not reflect the real picture of influences on human development (Gottesman  Hanson, 2005). However, it is possible to assume that the balance of genetic and environmental influences is different for different stages of human development.

Environmental and biological influences on human development are not stable (Dodge, 2004). Throughout the human life, the balance of the environmental and the genetic changes (Dodge, 2004). Here, the two beliefs about the nature vs. nurture balance deserve attention. First, a belief persists that the environmental influences on human development reflect the genetic features of children (Dodge, 2004). In other words, a child who tends to behave aggressively will be more likely to meet similar environmental response than the child with a calm disposition (Dodge, 2004). Healthy environments allow children to compensate for their psychological problems for example, shy children will tend to receive more support and nurturance from their parents (Dodge, 2004). Behavioral geneticists use these arguments to protect their genetic viewpoint on human development.

Second, not only does the environment respond to genetic features of children but children change in response to environmental conditions in which they grow. For example, children who are physically abused by their parents will be more likely to become hostile to their peers (Rutter, 2006). In turn, hostility will produce negative effects on the childs socialization and interactions with other people (Rutter, 2006). Thus, the environment and ones biologically based dispositional tendencies may dance with each other across development to lead, in some cases, to compensate for each others vulnerabilities, and, in other cases, to potentiate each others effects (Dodge, 2004).

When professionals say that human development is the product of both genetic and environmental influences, they look for easy means to resolve the conflict between the two opposing parties. Vygotsky was one of the first to recognize the importance of both genetic and environmental influences on human development he wrote that the moment the child acquired the basic language skills, the entire development from his animal stage became truly social (Wertsch, 1985). Shaffer (2008) writes (and Dodge (2004) would support this view) that each individual displays genetic traits and features, which make him search for experiences and activities most compatible with these genetic characteristics. In the same way, environments influence the biological development of humans as a result, nature and nurture in human development are complexly intertwined and are difficult to separate (Shaffer, 2008). That, however, does not mean that the nature vs. nurture debate is easy to resolve. On the contrary, researchers list several reasons, for which the nature nurture debate will persist.

First, many psychologists believe the childs mind to be a black state and consider environmental forces as the best way to grow a good personality (Pinker, 2002). Modern society lives in confidence that to grow the best child, parents must be authoritative, loving, and talkative (Pinker, 2002). Society either disregards or is not aware of the genetic influences on human development. Similarly, behavioral geneticists spread the belief that genes and not environment produce the dominant influence on human development. The nature vs. nurture debate will persist, unless the society can come to a unanimous agreement about the role of environment and genetic influences on human development.

Second, the belief that human development is influenced equally by genetics and environment is not always justified. In some instances, (for example, the second language acquisition), human development has nothing to do with genetics and is solely influenced by the environment (Pinker, 2002). Thus, the society must decide whether and in what instances human development is influenced by only one of the two forces. Finally, Pinker (2002) assumes that disentangling nature from nurture is not that difficult. McCrae (2000) writes that personality traits are shaped under the influence of purely genetic factors  even significant differences in life experience have little or no effect on personality traits. Simultaneously, not all personality traits are the products of genetic processes  some of them, like Extraversion, develop under the complex influence of environmental factors (Cloninger et al, 1994). Today, the nature nurture debate is still one of the most controversial and highly ambiguous topics, which will hardly be resolved in the coming decade.

Conclusion
The nature vs. nurture debate is a popular topic in professional literature. The debate presents the two opposing views on human development. One party keeps to a belief that human development is the product of solely genetic factors. The other party is confident that human development is driven by environmental forces. Professionals in psychology often discuss human development in dualistic terms i.e., human development is considered as the result of the gene-environment interaction. Due to the complexity of the gene-environment interactions and the complex dynamic effects which they produce on human development, the coming decade will hardly resolve the nature vs. nurture debate.

Psychology can be termed as the science of reasoning use to study behavior.  The goals of psychology can be summarized as to describe behavior, explain why a certain behavior occurs, predict behaviors in future and modify or control behaviors.  An example of these objectives would be in investigating autism. Autism was earlier though to be caused by cold and rejected parenting but most recent studies shows biological causes by abnormal brain development with a genetic connection.  The causes may be inked to early brain damage or abnormal cerebrum or abnormality in the part linking the two sides of the brain, or maternal illness during pregnancy. The risk for autism there is 2-4 times as many males with autism, the family with an autistic kid are 50-100 times more at risk to have another kid with autism Predicting a situation when symptoms may worsen it may occur when there is sensory overload, or when the traditional way of doing things is disturbed.  Controlling symptoms of autism symptoms can be avoiding certain situations or stimuli and also genetic counseling can reduce the risk of autism as well as good parenting for an autistic kid.

There are various theories in psychology that try to explain the human brain and its formation. One of the theories is cognitive. It describes behavior in terms of flow of information. Cognition is the aspect of trying to understand the surrounding and making sense of it. It originates from the word conation which related to motivation. Each person has his or her own way of processing information and hence will interpret situations differently. The other important perspective is the biological one. It tries to builds on the connection between physiology and psychology. With the biological analysis of the brain, it has been possible to analyze the brain and map the functioning in relation to human psychology. Another theory is the evolutionary perspective of psychology which focuses on the relation between evolution and psychology. Mental processes exist because they help in evolution and hence enable survival. Psychodynamics is the other theory in psychology, important because of the view that psychological processes are actually the flow of psychological energy in the brain. It enlightens the relationship between the mind and the personality, focusing on the conscious and the unconscious parts of the human minds. Mental forces result from the action at the subconscious level. Behaviorism is the learning perspective of psychology that ascertains that all thing s that organisms do are their behaviors. It explains that the environment influences humans behavior, which is comparable to animals behavior. Human behavior is perceived as an outcome of the link between hisher ideas and experiences.

Research methods in psychology
There are three main research methods in psychology causal, descriptive and relational.
In causal research, the investigation is done on the effect of one or more variables on one or more outcome variables. It also investigates if one or more variables cause other variable(s) to change or exist. An example could be changing the amount of drug given to a patient and studying the outcome on the patient.

Descriptive research tries to find out what already exists in a given population. There is really no measure of the variable, only description. For example, an opinion poll on who is the favorite presidential candidate to vote in the next elections.

Relational research is aimed at studying the already existing behaviors in a population. For example, how many people would buy a classic CD compared to a jazz CD in a group of people
In psychological research, there is always a hypothesis of the study which is the expected outcome of the study, for example, what is the effect of good study habits to an exam anxiety test

Critical thinking skills in psychology
Critical thinking is thinking correctly in pursuit for relevant and reliable knowledge. It is reasonable, reflective and reliable thinking in order to choose what to believe in or do. It is the ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well supported reasons. It is a way to analyze questions, avoiding questions that suggest answers and look for evidence to support answers given while rejecting any answers that do not have a basis of evidence. It is not always negative thinking though. In answering questions, it is good to give several possible answers and criticize them effectively. One important problem to avoid is being swayed by emotions or authority to make wrong decisions. In critical thinking, persistence, tolerance for ambiguity and intellectual engagement is encouraged in the process of looking for the most exhausted, correct and convincing conclusion from an open and quality discussion.  It is important to respect and use critical thinking for success in investigations and fro general life experiences. It is also important to differentiate critical thinking from good thinking or creative thinking. It is important to identify behaviors that relate to critical thinking and apply them. It is good to complete task analysis, define intermediate goals and design evaluation methods. Critical thinking is a process in carrying out an investigation and requires identification of the best method of instruction for each aspect the whole process. This process sometimes calls for use of scientific methods to solve problems.

Application of psychology
Psychology studies can be applied in many ways. Those with knowledge in psychology can apply it in their daily life to make informed choices and avoid conditions that would lead to discomforts of many kinds. The application of psychological knowledge by professionals end-up in a different purposes though. In clinical psychology for example, the professional will help people with mental disorder, relying into the nature, diagnosis, classification, treatment and prevention of the disorders.  In an academic setting, research is done into problems of learning, adjustment to movements and child behavior and psychological results applied with the ultimate goal of offering help to troubled kids, parents and teachers. In industrial or occupational psychology, the main aim is usually research into peoples performance and well being while at work in the organization, whenever specific problems are identified in such areas. There is also the application of psychoanalysis, which is a special case compared to the clinical and counseling psychology as it is highly influenced by the theory of mental structure and based on the theory of mental structure and function. There is also the application of psychological knowledge in sports. The field of psychology in sports and exercises explores the relationship between psychological factors and optimal performance. This study is important to the sports population and in cases of sports physical rehabilitation by physician. The roles of physicians are expanding because of the need of psychological knowledge in order to offer holistic services to the sportsmen and physical rehabilitation patients. Psychology is also applied in some service industries including market research, management consultancy and advertising. Psychology is often applied for the special skills and knowledge on the subjects in these fields. There is also demand of skills and knowledge in psychology in existing professional areas like medicine, nursing, teaching, social work, speech and therapy and specific branches of medicine like psychiatry.

Values in Psychology
Psychology was once clearly understood as physical application of philosophy. The philosophy was based on moralist and spiritual principles, requiring man to be attuned to his spiritual nature. Values are ideally everything from eternal ideas to behavioral actions. In psychology, values can be viewed as ways of determining levels of things like goodness, worth or beauty. They are affectively-laden thoughts about objects, ideas or behaviors that guide behavior but do not necessarily but do not necessarily need them. Values are what make social groups stick together and sometimes impossible because of setting the stage for friction. Values are not just personal traits they are what the society has agreed as right, good and to be cherished. A value system represents what is to be hoped for, what is required and what is forbidden for a society. For this reason, they may not be what an individual would personally uphold but since collectively the society agrees as to those values, the person has to bear with the ambiguity of the values. It is therefore necessary for a person to act ethically in order to fit into the society. Values at a personal level can be learnt through testimonies or behavioral choices. But at the society level, they are learnt through cultural and social structures spending time, energy and resources together in the process of structuring the natural environment. From a scientific point of view, the history of research has had it that a persons value is perceived through observation of behaviors directly but in future, it might be expanded to some indirect methods like asking what the society offers to a person, as well as what behaviors are rewarded or sanctioned.

Personal Development
Psychological self development is based on the total gradual change and molding of ones self from the various forms that his traits may take while interacting with different phenomenon like home, school, work and others. This is because a person may have different forms at different contexts, but they share a common thread to which the self is. There are many areas of personal development including research and contribution, mental knowledge and learning, physical health, work, career and job, financial matters and others. It always includes some activities of goals, programs, tools and methods.  Personal development includes developing ones self quality as well as touching on others. Self development requires internal reflection. This involves thinking that is driven by some expectation or purpose of some desired outcome. Then there is the realization, awareness or understanding stage. In this stage, the results of internal reflection may provide some knowledge that requires no further analysis but just assimilation. However, if the knowledge is partial, further internal reflection may be applied to gain more realization of the knowledge and understanding. The results after this would be personal growth and application in others. At this point, the person finds himself in decision making on how to invest in cause further change. The factors that may influence this decision maybe the impact of change on self and the impact on others. In personal development, the methods used may be both internal and external development methods. The person may initiate action and cause others to follow or may join the right movement and get helped, helping others later.

Aspergers disorder is many a time identified as Autism or other related disorders (Watkins, 2000). This confusion happened to the three year Tony whose speech was somehow odd in comparison with other childrens who were of the same age with him. Tonys doctor diagnosed him of Autism but it was later discovered that the doctor had been all wrong. Tony was suffering from Aspergers disorder. Aspergers disorder as defined by Mayo clinic staff, refers to a developmental disorder that affects a childs ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others (Mayo, 2008). It has been named so after the doctor who first described it in the years 1940s, Hans Asperger. On the other hand, Autism as spelt out by Edwards, is a developmental disorder that is characterized by impaired development in communication, social interactions, and behavior (Edwards, 2010). The two disorders are closely related. They are both Autism Spectrum Disorders, (ASDs) (Armman, 2010). Evans in her article, Aspergers vs. Autism, says, The one thing that is known for sure is that Aspergers is a type of autism.  Aspergers disorder is sometimes called high functioning autism (Evans, 2010). Evans further adds that, There are many differences between what most people think of when they imagine an autistic child and one suffering from Aspergers syndrome (Evans, 2010).

Description of Aspergers disorder
What causes this disorder remains a mystery but suggestions show that it may be genetically linked as it tends to be seen through the family genealogy. Environmental factors such as pollution, child vaccinations and food intolerances are also thought to play a role. Another cause of aspergers disorder is suggested to be stomach candida that occurs in high levels (Irving, 2010).
 
Aspergers disorder is associated with childhood. If one wants to identify a child suffering from Aspergers disorder, here are some symptoms that can help one pick out the child with aspergers syndrome. They have impairment with their social interactions. This makes them tend to use a multiple of non-verbal behaviors like, facial expressions, eye eye gazing, gestures that are used in regulating the social interactions and body postures. The impairment is also characterized by, inability to make developments with their age mates relationships, disinterest when it comes to other peoples interests and they also fail to reciprocate socially or emotionally ( Marina, 2007).

Aspergers affected persons may also have stereotyped and repetitive behavioral patterns- they have preoccupied, abnormal and restricted patterns, their failure to adhere to certain routines is evident, has questionable repeated motor behaviors like twisting or constantly flapping a finger or the whole hand, and observed is also the complex movement of the whole body in an awkward manner. They are persistently pre-occupied when it comes to the issue of object parts such as those of a car (Marina, 2007).

Generally, the disorder causes intensive impairment in occupational and social areas. On the positive side, they do not experience language delays and have normal language despite its odd patterns. They can bubble single words at the age of two like normal kids or phrases at the age of three. Their cognitive development is normal and there is no delay either (Marina, 2007). Other descriptions that are common with children at the onset of aspergers may include precociousness in their learning how to talk, what Marina emphasizes in his article, Symptoms of aspergers disorder, as  he talked before he could walk. They are more fascinated with numbers, despite their interest in odd statistics, and also letters, the small child has the ability to, though with almost no understanding, decode words, a condition Marina calls, hyperlexia. The affected young child may have strong attachment to members of the family but it lacks when it comes to their peers. The child may try to establish contact with their peers by, as Marina adds hugging them or screaming at them and then puzzle at their responses, which is quite a bizarre behavior (Marina, 2007).

As far as the treatment of Aspergers disorder is concerned, there appears to be no specific aspergers syndrome medication. What are treated are the specific symptoms, for instance, a stimulant can be used in case of hyperactivity or inattention. And with individual portraying stereotyped movement, idiosyncratic or agitation, a low dose of antipsychotic the likes of risperidone can be used (Watkins, 2000).

Information about Autism
Though scientists may not be sure on what causes autism, it is thought that genetic make-up and environment are involved. At early infancy, the baby suffering from autism fails to respond to people and may tend to focus on one object for a very long time. Children of this nature may fail in responding when their names are called. They are shy and will as much as possible evade eye contact. In addition, they are unable to interpret social cues of tone and facial expressions and since they never look at peoples faces to get clues, they find it difficult to interpret feelings or thoughts of people. Empathy in such children is absent (NINDS, 2009).

Many of the children with autism make repetitive movements and they bully others by head-banging and biting. Lateness in speaking is evident and when talking about themselves, they refer to their names rather than using the first person pronouns me and I. Their playing with other children is uncoordinated and speaking to some, is characterized by sing-song voice when talking about, though narrow, their favorite topics putting little interest to people whom they are talking to. Just like the Aspergers disorder, there has never been a cure for autism. Therapies and some behavioral interventions may be used to correct certain symptoms and this is sometimes successful at the earlier stages of a childs development (NINDS 2009).

Current research on the similarities and differences between autism and aspergers disorders
Initially, the two cases could not be differentiated. However, in the years 1980s a research carried out by the American Psychiatric Association showed that there were cases that resembled autism but did not meet the criteria for autism diagnosis. The two of them were classified as pervasive developmental disorders. Their similarities were development impairments in social interactions, verbal and nonverbal communication and imagination. The differences that existed by then are that autism was more severe as far as other pervasive developmental disorders such as aspergers were concerned. Aspergers on the other hand was, as Bishop (1989) puts it in the journal, Autism, aspergers syndrome and semantic-pragmatic disorder where are the boundaries, Characterized by pedantic and stereotyped speech, clumsiness, obsession interests and deficit social behavior.

Similarities between Asperger and Autism disorders 
Many similarities are evident with both disorders. In both disorders, the affected persons have social interaction deficits. They are poor as far as communication is concerned as they are unable to interpret social cues. Because of this, maintaining relationships with their peers is difficult they would better speak to adults (Gabbi525, 2009).In both situations, eye contact is poor. They have a tendency to avoid eye contact with people and this makes it difficult for them to interpret intentions and emotions of other people. Other notable areas of similarities in the two cases include, resistant to change routine, pain-touch hyperhyposensitivity, motor skills deficits and obsessions in certain topics (Gabbi525, 2009).
Differences between Aspergers disorder and Autism disorder

Social interaction
To begin with, the greatest difference that stands out between children who have Aspergers disorder and the autistic children can be explained in terms of their social interactions. Children suffering from Aspergers syndrome unlike those with autism, have insatiable desire to engage in conversations with other people but the shortcoming is that fail to know how to put it across and its hard to follow their conversation (Evans, 2010). They behave too awkwardly such that they formalize even the informal social situations. They also have no empathy on other kids and moreover seem to neither understand social rules nor good manners. They naturally avoid eye contact which suggests their disinterest in socialization and makes them unable to interpret what others say. Austic kids react differently they are cocky and never care about other children within their vicinity. They are anti-social who keep to themselves and in many occasions, loners (Evans, 2010).

Language and Communication
Secondly, though children suffering from Aspergers syndrome have impaired social development leading to problems with language use, their language development is just like that of other children who fall under their age (Evans, 2010). The article on Autistic disorder and aspergers (pervasive development disorders) question and answer, points out that Children with Aspergers Disorder may communicate verbally but you may feel theyre talking at you rather than with you (Autism society, nd).  Their language is not too much affected and they can even perform above average. Ownby in the article, exploring the autism spectrum autistic disorder, aspergers spectrum PDD-NOS and more, describes these children as little professors because of their command of the language and lots of vocabularies. However, they have difficulties when it comes to social language (Ownby, 2008). Autistic children on the other hand have severe lapses in their language development. Many children suffering from this disorder may completely fail to develop the skills of language and if they do, it is distorted (Evans, 2010).

Individuals suffering from aspergers have no delays in their communication as is prevalent with those suffering from autism ( Armman, 2010).Those suffering from Aspergers lack skills in language and have the ability to use the language in distinct ways. This is not to say that they are perfect in their language. The fact is that they have unusual speech patterns that lacks inflection and is at times song-like as it is accompanied by rhythmic patterns. In other cases it can make one deaf very loud or its pitch too high. It will be as if one is talking to a person who is at a further distance while the person is actually within an earshot (Autism Society, nd).

Cognitive Ability
More so, Aspergers children have the cognitive ability. They are just like any other of their equals regarding their cognitive ability. They have a cognitive ability of average or surprisingly, above average in school. They may even perform better than the normal children of their class as their IQ is high (Evans, 2010). Armman adds that,they often manage to go to school, graduate from colleges and live independently. (Armman, 2010).  This never changes even as they grow up into adults. On the other side of the coin, autistic children have cognitive impairments and despite their growing, it does not improve at all. They are mentally retarded (Evans, 2010).

Aspergers affected children have obsessive behaviors in funny things such as sports statistics, Russian czars names or anything else that appears odd. This obsessive behavior can affect their socialization irrespective of whether others are interested in the discussion or not. They would like to talk in monotones without giving others a chance about what their obsessed minds have (Evans, 2010). Their pervasiveness in specific topics leaves them with narrow and shallow interests as opposed to normal human beings (Armman, 2010).

Severity
Another difference between aspergers disorder, what is abbreviated as AS, and autism is in their severity degree. Autism is a very severe PDD (Pervasive Developmental Disorder) form. Autistic person have difficulties relating with others. As pointed out earlier, they have absent or delayed speech and even or worse mental retardation (Watkins, 2000). Unlike Autism, AS is not severe. It is, as Watkins speaks in her, Aspergers disorder article on the milder end of PDD. She adds that Individuals with Aspergers generally have normal intelligence and normal language acquisition. However, they show difficulties with social interaction and non-verbal communications. They may also show pervasiveness or repetitive behaviors. AS is, in this case, a less severe form of PDD (Watkins, 2000). Children suffering from autism are more prone, as compared to those with asperger, to other co-occurring conditions such as fragile X that causes retardation in mind, tuber sclerosis (growth of tumors in the brain), tourette syndrome, epileptic seizures, attention deficit and learning disabilities (NINDS 2009).

Conclusion
Unless one is keen, it is not easy to identify a person suffering from aspergers disorder. It is hard to imagine that many well known people suffer from aspergers disorder Of these imaginable who showed aspergers signs are Isaac Newton, George Orwell, Albert Eistein and H G Wells. Former president of the United States of America, George W. Bush, is also said to be an Aspergers sufferer (Armman, 2010).Autism on the other hand is so obvious even from an early age. A problem earlier treated can be diagnosed and perhaps there can be an improvement in a condition. It is therefore essential, in case of any abnormalities in the behavior of a child, to consult a doctor.

Have you ever felt like not waking up in the morning just to avoid a public speaking event Or have you felt trembling in front of the audience like I feel now I am not afraid, but I am definitely scared for todays speaking engagement. However, I managed to stand here in front of you without having to encounter accidents along the way. Right at this moment, I am going to discuss three secrets to overcoming your fear of public speaking being prepared, practicing and relaxing.

Public speaking, I believe is one of the sources of our anxiety and fear. By merely imagining the eyes that will be scrutinizing us, and the ears that will criticize us, we usually end up experiencing digestion troubles or some weird feelings we usually dont feel. Im pretty sure you can relate with what I am saying. I consulted medical practitioners to help me figure out why public speaking makes me feel anxious. Dr. Morton C. Orman (2002) explained that public speaking does not need to be stressful It is in fact a very satisfying and invigorating experience for us. Well, that was a statement that made my hairs stood on ends.

I met Dr. Orman in the internet, and honestly he does not know me. I came across with his article about overcoming fear in public speaking. He said that keeping a few important principles would help us overcome our nightmares about public speaking. Among the principles that struck me the most states that for me to successfully finish my speech or any presentation, I should not consider myself as a public speaker In other words, I should not try to be someone I am not. It seems paradoxical but the best speakers are the ones who allow themselves to be fully natural in front of others. Audience do not demand perfection, so be yourself.

Alongside some principles that we should bear in mind when speaking in public are behind-the-scenes preparations. One of the best ways to make public speaking a great success is to take serious preparations for it. Any successful individuals will leave nothing to chance. Every detail should be laid out and taken cared of. Careful preparation for a public speaking means getting your materials ready, knowing your audience and checking the conditions under which you will speak so that you can visualize how you can exit when nothings going right. Kidding aside, it is vital that a speaker do careful preparations to ensure success.

Practice is also crucial before going into public speaking. Mr. Ron Kurtus (2001) of the School for Champions emphasized that practice is extremely important. This will give you more confidence and mastery. You can practice alone by speaking your piece out loud or you can practice in front of the mirror to make sure your mouth is still on the right position, or even conduct a dry-run in front of your friends. Just make sure they are friendly and supportive.

Finally, you have to relax before your speaking engagement. Allow enough air to enter your lungs so that you will not faint after a minute. When your name is introduced to speak, be sure to take time to breathe, otherwise, you will not reach the stage. Relax and get settled before you start your presentation. Remember to count up to 10 to give your audience time to settle down and be prepared to listen to you. Being relaxed means that you are in control of the situation. Dont let panic ruin your day.

An effective public speaker is someone who can stay natural in front of many people. Dr. Daisaku Ikeda (2000) in his book The Way of Youth wrote that we cannot really avoid public speaking as this is a vital part of our lives. For us to overcome fear in public speaking, we should believe that it is not scary in the first place. Your audience will not eat you. Just think of them as lizards watching you. It is crucial that you make ample preparations and practice before the event and make sure to keep yourself relax in front of the audience. In this way, you will surely enjoy public speaking as I do now.

Education is an important aspect of the human life and society. Today, it is quite noticeable how the society has institutionalized education and the educational system. Today, individuals start schooling as early as four or five years of age. The common entry point for schooling is kindergarten. All around the world, many parents send their children to schools for kindergarten, with many different expectations, but mostly in the belief that this is a solid starting point that can help the child be ready for the next step in his or her education. Over the years, kindergarten has become increasingly important, especially during the time when researchers have found out the connection on dendrite growth and academic stimulation. This made them believe that if individuals are submitted to academic stimulation in the earliest time possible, this can impact significantly his mental faculty and capacity. Brain development has been responsible for the new perspective and approach to kindergarten leading the change and shift from half day to full day. However, it appears that in analysis, even with the merit of this model hypothetically, unanimous approval and appreciation for this scheme is still to be achieved considering how sectors of the society are reacting differently and in varied fashion regarding this issue. This is an important aspect of discussion and exploration regarding full day kindergarten scheme and the brain development premise. 

History
Kindergarten
Kindergarten came to America from Germany, the term meaning childrens garden. Friedrich Froebel and Margethe Meyer Schurz are two of the leading personalities who began the practice of kindergarten (Persky, Golubchick, 1991, p. 263). As the name implies, it refers to a system and a place wherein children are brought together and is being prepared for formal schooling. Kindergarten, as a form of preparatory stage, at first, was focused on making children possess sufficient social skills to allow them to interact correctly with other individuals during formal schooling. Kindergarten education prepares them by teaching basic things which they will need in formal schooling and will serve as foundation of what they will learn and how they will learn in formal schooling.

Kindergarten eventually spread all around the world. Educators working in kindergarten follow learning models as well as educational theories that make the kindergarten experience useful and constructive for the child. Kindergarten originally was just a half day session, with educators thinking that half a day is enough schooling for individuals this age (Persky, Golubchick, 1991, p. 263). This was changed when scientists put forward the discovery involving the brain and its development (Eden, 2008, p. 214). During this stage and age, the role of intervention and the resulting conclusion that if this was the case, then it is important that the child is correctly and sufficiently prepared, therefore the shift from half day to all-day or full day or whole day kindergarten scheme.

Half day to full day kindergarten
From purely being half-day sessions, changes and developments and new perspectives regarding kindergarten education surfaced and resulted in the change from half day to all-day or whole day sessions. There were two important factors that led to the shift from half day to whole day or all-day kindergarten - the scientific basis and the practical basis. No one knows for sure which came first. Is the practical need for all-day kindergarten inspired researchers to look at any possible scientific credence this option might possess Or was it the other way around and was a case of scientific intuition among professionals leading to the discovery of the scientific basis for all day kindergarten This, in turn, made parents realize that besides the scientific basis, this option also has practical significance for them and the children that support and popularity for all-day kindergarten grew especially across America, as well as in other parts of the world. Regardless of this chicken-and-egg condition, it is nonetheless important to discuss both aspects affecting the creation of and the shaping of all-day kindergarten as it is known to day.

a. Scientific basis - The main artery of the shift from half day to all day or whole day kindergarten is based on the discovery on the brain, in particular, the development that is happening in the brain when it is being subjected to academic stimulation at an early age. Professionals who were involved in this scientific study explain that dendrites grew when under academic stimulation. Dendrites are found in the brain. They are important in the learning ability and processes of the human beings. Their development is important in the mental faculty of an individual. In laymans terms, the growth and branching out of dendrites indicate active mental practices and exercises which in turn allows for improved processes of the mental faculty or thinking.

Professionals as well as neuroscientists have already connected the growth and branching out of dendrites when under academic stimulation. This is proof that when the brain is exposed to academic stimulation or learning process especially in the early formative years, the physiological make up of the individual, particularly the brain develops and adjusts depending on what it is being subjected to. Therefore the childs mind is subjected to longer academic stimulation that can be an important factor for mental growth and capability in the future.

This is the main premise of the scientific basis of the full day kindergarten scheme. Professionals argue that it is important that we must look at our childrens entry point into education (Miller, Gore, 2007, p. 140). New research into brain development demonstrates that the first three years of a childs life are extremely critical for her emotional and intellectual growth (Miller, Gore, 2007, p. 140) which necessitated the need for all day kindergarten programs (Miller, Gore, 2007, p. 140).

People involved in it - Educators, psychologists, neuroscientists and different professionals have been involved in the studies leading to this particular discovery and in the creation of a new perspective in kindergarten. Todays early childhood educators recognize children as active learners, not jugs waiting to be filled or blank slates waiting to be written upon (Handelman, Auerbach 2000, p. 4). Individuals like David Sousa as well as many other professionals came forward in support of this new notion regarding brain development and the need for a whole day kindergarten schedule and the merits of this kind of scheme.

Professionals explain that it is understandable why such discovery was only made today because of many important considerations, one of which is the ethical as well as technological considerations on the ability of the human to understand the brain. In the past and without the technology for non-invasive and ethical brain study procedures, scientists are left with the one and only option available for them - to study brains from dead people.

This option left them with very limited areas of research and study, and no prospect at all at studying the human brain while it is still alive and in motion. However, because of the current technology and scientific processes and abilities available to scientists today, the brain is now accessible for exploration in such a way that it is not unethical, immoral and non-invasive. This led the scientists to what they recently discovered about dendrite activity and its connection with academic stimulation.

b. Practical basis - Besides the scientific basis, there is also the practical basis that was used by parents and educators in approving the full day scheme. This has something to do with the current family and parent socio-economic and socio-cultural conditions. Economy has made it a necessity for both parents to work at the same time. This allows the parents money to send their children to good schools which they hope can look after their children while they are at work. Parents believe that full day kindergarten is like hitting two birds with one stone. First, their child is exposed to extended periods of studying and education and has limited time for other things that are harmful to the child in the long run like watching television, for example.

At the same time, parents are more assured of their childs safety and well being since they are at school, attended by teachers who are trained to handle children. While this does not fully eliminate the use of nanny or a household helper, parents believe that besides the children, parents are also benefited in particular, specific ways through this scheme (Lerner, Jacobs, Wertlieb, 2003, p. 202). Full day kindergarten was introduced to speak to the needs of the growing number of working parents who wanted their children to be looked after for the whole day (Lerner, Jacobs, Wertlieb, 2003, p. 202).

Full day kindergarten today
Today, many schools all around the United States, as well as in many other different countries that feature kindergarten in their school and education system, use the all-day or whole day kindergarten scheme. It adheres to the idea presented by scientists, psychologists and educators who believe that exposing children to longer educational experiences at school can help improve the mind and improve the capacity of the individual for learning and mental processes in the future. The full day kindergarten scheme has attracted many supporters who called for the institutionalization of full day kindergarten schemes.

Organizations, groups and institutions, such as the Education Commission of the States or simply the ECS (Neal, 2006, p. 117), support the full day kindergarten.  The shift from half day to all-day or whole day kindergarten session is not just merely an extension of time, nor was it a quantum leap in the learning experience for the kindergarten. Part of the change in session was the realization that teaching style, educational approach and learning perspectives should also change. It should focus more on the newfound consciousness regarding the learning ability of a child and the importance of maximizing it in the earliest possible time.

Because of this, kindergarten changed. From focusing in learning through play in the past, the learning structure of kindergarten became more oriented in structured academic learning. This means that part of the learning experience included learning languages and mathematics as well as other things like color and shape cognition and identification, memorization skills, interpersonal skills, play, even good morals and conduct and religion in other kindergarten schools and institutions (Persky, Golubchick, 1991, p. 263). These early kindergarten programs focused on the basic concept that childs play was significant and that when it was intelligently directed gave impetus to cognitive development (Persky, Golubchick, 1991, p. 263).

From this point, the perspective changed and focused more on academic learning. This move towards change was hinged on the scientific discovery regarding the brain of the child and how in that stage the brain should begin the experience of being harnessed. When the individual grows up and matures, he or she will possess the mental capacity for competitive and capable learning and is suitable for more advanced learning in the future. Todays full day kindergarten, despite its admirable background and history, is nonetheless facing many different problems as well as criticisms. Professionals involved in this field undertake many different studies to be able to find answers to these problems and to address the different criticisms hurled at the practice of full-day kindergarten.

a. Studies regarding all day kindergarten - Authors like Cryan (1992) and Elicker and Mathur (1997) provide the people with materials they can read and refer to when considering full day kindergarten scheme and their opinion about it (Cryan, 1992, p. 187 Elicker and Marthur 1997, p. 459). These authors as well as many other authors have come up with results of studies, research and analysis tackling this matter both in books as well as in peer reviewed journals. Psychologists and educators appear to have undertaken intensive study and research efforts regarding the different aspects of all-day kindergarten so that they can discover new information regarding this practice that can help in determining what new course of action to take with regards to the full-day kindergarten scheme.

There are currently numerous published works as well as books and even internet articles about the results of studies and research efforts focused on full day kindergarten. In general, the content of these materials stand in two polar regions. There are those that attest to the positive impact of this scheme while on the other hand, there are those who present criticisms as well as new areas of investigation which they believe is important. These realms that they identified remain unexplored. This means that full day kindergarten scheme cannot be considered to be fully ideal and suitable, not until all areas of inquiry and possible sources of problem are identified, studied and resolved.

b. Criticisms and problems - The full day kindergarten scheme was not without criticisms as well as its own set of problems. Parents are one of the most important groups that can strengthen or derail the progress and practice of full day kindergarten. They also became sources of important criticisms and arguments regarding full day kindergarten scheme. One of the most basic areas of standoff resulting to criticisms of this scheme is the resulting tug of war between parents who want two different things for their children  those who want to keep kindergarten at half day while those who wanted schools to shift to whole day or full day kindergarten (Lerner, Jacobs, Wertlieb, 2003, p. 202). The introduction of full day kindergarten more than a decade ago has brought to a head an ongoing controversy between parents who want half day program and those who want the full day program (Lerner, Jacobs, Wertlieb, 2003, p. 202).

Some parents point out that despite what scientific research claims as the ideal learning time and opportunity, a child is presented and should be exposed to at that age. Parents argue and reason that scientific research, on the other hand, has not fully answered the query regarding the effect to the children of being removed from their biological parents for that long period of time. They still could not explain the effects as well as possible problems that can arise when children are constantly under the care of someone they do not know and does not know the child, even with the fact that they are certified professional and capable educators (Lerner, Jacobs, Wertlieb, 2003, p. 202). Parents...look at kindergarten in the traditional way and regard full day away from home as too much time for a 5-year old to spend in the care of a non parental adult (Lerner, Jacobs, Wertlieb, 2003, p. 202).

There are also those who pointed out that full day kindergarten does not automatically mean dramatic change in learning and development. The main supporting ideas for the establishment of this kind of approach to kindergarten education is about the scientific claims on improved and increased brain development via academic stimulation. Part of the equation (and an important part) is curriculum, teaching styles and methods as well as other equally important factors like teacher competency, environment. Eden (2008) pointed out in a book that providing a full day program for four year olds, for example, has much merit, but not if what is provided is simply watered-down first-grade curriculum (Eden, 2008, p. 214).

Conclusion
The work of the forerunners of the concept of kindergarten has come a long way. Today, it is something that appears to have evolved significantly over time, with many different important changes. This includes the change happening during the 90s - the shift from half day to full day kindergarten school time. Like many complex issues in the society, the debate over which between half day and full day kindergarten scheme is better. There is also a debate if full day kindergarten schedule by itself and outside of comparison is ideal for children and their welfare is a topic that is not easily answerable by a yes or a no. There are many gray areas and dark areas that are yet to be discovered and explored so that more answers are available for people to use in this particular decision and position.

Nonetheless, the brain development and its connection to education in early childhood is an important breakthrough that can impact education for years. As for kindergarten, the newfound scientific perspective has made it clear that even the humble and previously seemingly non-bearing educational experience which is kindergarten appears to be, after all, something that holds a significant importance in the mental development of the individual. This is something that professionals should look on and design carefully in the future, for the benefit of the child above anyone else.

Problem Background
In our time, the world has witnessed numerous human rights violations and the most scandalous is violence against women. This is primarily caused by discrimination which denies women of equal opportunities with men in all aspects of life. General Recommendation 19 issued by the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) made it very clear that violence is a form of discrimination (Dauer, 2006).

Indigenous women in the US are the most represented victims of brutal sexual violence. The likelihood that Native American or Alaska Native women are raped or sexually assaulted is more than twice that of any other women in the US. Interviews by Amnesty International (2008) are testaments on the ubiquity of sexual violence among Native Americans. Although rape is in itself an act of violence, evidence suggests that indigenous women sustain additional violence in the hands of their perpetrators, mostly non-Native. Logistic regression analysis by Yuan et al. (2006) revealed that history of childhood maltreatment, alcohol dependence, and marital status were significant predictors of sexual abuse among Native American women.

Sexual violence against Native American women can be traced back in history at the infamous Trail of Tears and the Long Walk. Rape is said to be a very powerful tool of conquest and intimidation (Weaver, 2009). Most of societys discriminatory attitudes towards Native American are still existent in present-day American society and culture which have increased the rates of violence against them and helped protect attackers from due process of law. There are in existence treaties, the US Constitution and federal law that establish the political and legal framework between tribal nations that are federally recognized numbering to more than 550 and the federal government. These Indian tribes that have achieved federal recognition are autonomous under US law therefore they can exercise jurisdiction over their citizens and land and maintain intergovernmental ties with each other and the US government.  It is the mandate of the federal government to exercise legal means to protect the rights and well-being of Native American peoples (Amnesty International, 2008).

Mostly investigators consider these racist incidents as stressors resulting in psychophysiological disease while only a few conceptualize these as forms of trauma.  In 2002, Walters and Simoni (as cited in Bryant-Davis  Ocampo, 2005) pointed out that racism  is unresolved trauma among Native American women which leads to post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. Carter, Lo, Milliora, Sanchez-Hucles, Villena-Mata, and Wyatt also adopted this paradigm.  This clinical construct can potentially be utilized in treating disorders that have adversely affect victims of these abuses. Therefore it is necessary to assess the level of severity of the incident first when investigating the traumatizing impact of these experiences. Lo et al. (2001) and Woodard (2001) as cited in Bryant-Davis and Ocampo (2005) identified racism as a significant predictor of PTSD in other racial backgrounds particularly Asian and African Americans. 

Survivors experiencing PTSD manifest these symptoms intense fear, helplessness, or horror re-experiencing the traumatic incident avoidance or numbing and increased arousal after a traumatic event. In contrast to non-traumatic stress, traumatic stress requires restructuring because the individual is constantly haunted by fear and experiences destabilization (McFarlane  Girolama, 1996 as cited in Bryant-Davis  Ocampo, 2005). Heckman, Cropsey and Olds-Davis (2007) cited that while there are no empirically well-established PTSD treatments, there are probably efficacious treatments which include exposure treatment, stress inoculation training, eye movement desensitization retraining (EMDR), stress management, and pharmacological treatments with antidepressants.

There are two salient parameters psychologists should consider when treating PTSD- anger and guilt for several reasons. Pretreatment anger has been shown to be associated with poor outcome based on studies by Foa et al. (1995), Taylor et al. (2001) Cahill et al. (2003), Taylor (2003), van Minnen, Arntz, and Keijsers (2002) (as cited in Stapleton, Taylor,  Asmundson, 2006). Likewise Pitman et al. (as cited in Stapleton, Taylor,  Asmundson, 2006) found that anger or guilt elevated during the course of prolonged exposure therapy. Moreover, no difference in general symptom reduction was detected among various PTSD treatments (Taylor, 2004 van Etten  Taylor, 1998 as cited in Stapleton, Taylor,  Asmundson, 2006) when compared to EMDR or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. However, these three treatments were better than supportive therapy, benzodiazepines, tricyclic antidepressants, and hypnosis.

Presently there is limited literature on the application of certain PTSD therapies on Native American rape survivors so that case management will be clearly understood. Therefore this justifies the proposed study. 

Purpose of the study
This proposed study will determine the effectiveness of PTSD treatments on selected samples. In studying the effectiveness of selected PTSD treatments on trait- and trauma-related anger and guilt, the research will investigate whether or not the effect of the interventions differed from pre-treatment severity of anger or guilt.

Research Questions
The study is designed to ascertain the effectiveness of PTSD treatments. In order to do this, the following will be the specific objectives

What is the psychosocial profile of the survivors in terms of age, civil status, highest educational attainment, employment, and history of violence

2. What are the pre- and post-treatment trait- and trauma-related anger and guilt among the rape survivors

3. Is there a significant difference in both trait and trauma-related anger and guilt after undergoing PTSD treatments

Hypothesis
The null hypothesis will be tested at alpha of 0.05 posits that there is no significant difference in the levels of trait- and trauma-related anger and guilt of Native American rape survivors before and after the interventions.

Rationale and significance of the study
It is hoped that this study will contribute in generating data on the subject of PTSD among Native American rape survivors and possible treatments that could be recommended. Moreover, the findings, if well disseminated, will be helpful in policy formulation which is aimed at improving the victims well-being and recovery. Furthermore it has important implications in theory and practice for researchers and practitioners in psychology and counseling. 

Limitations
Participants for this study will be Native American women who can voluntarily report their rape experience. These subjects may not be representative of all recorded rape cases involving Native American women. Due to stigma, lack of awareness, or nature of the crime, many cases are unreported. In truth, the difficulty the researcher is anticipating is uncertainty on the survivors ability to describe and label what is happening to her. Even if they can describe the experience to themselves, their willingness to accept what is happening differs from each other. With this, the researcher will ask the aid of therapists to make the survivors feel at ease. The demographic factors to be described will include age, civil status, highest educational attainment, employment, and history of violence. The independent variable will be the treatments namely prolonged exposure, eye movement sensitization, and relaxation training. The dependent variable will be trait- and trauma-related anger and guilt.

II. Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
The Cognitive-Behavioral Theory will be the theoretical basis of this study. The theory implies that cognition has an important role in modifying behavior. Specifically, cognitions or thought processes impact behaviors thus having negative thoughts or beliefs would be difficult in creating a positive behavioral change. Interventions patterned after this theory combine both cognitive and behavioral approaches in solving a variety of behavioral and psychological problems.  Through education and enforcement of positive experiences, the clients irrationality will be changed dramatically enabling the person to actively cope. Thus, by altering or shifting the way of thinking of clients, they are able to more clearly think about their choices as well as their behaviors. Another significant theory is the emotional processing theory proposed by Foa and Kozak (1986). According to this theory, encounter of pathological fear structures evokes feelings of trepidation. These fear structures are harmless stimuli associated with the conceptualization that the world is a dangerous and inhospitable place. Treatment is successful when these fear structures become emotionally processed in such a way that exposure to stimuli will not elicit fear.

Anger and guilt in rape victims
Taylor (2006) mentioned two types of beliefs that are associated with anger. The first points out that the survivor is wronged by others. Survivors might be heard saying They had no right to do this to me or Others should be punished for what theyve done. These are associated with or predict severity of experienced PTSD symptoms. The second however are referred to as metacognitions which by definition are beliefs about the value of dwelling on angry thoughts. These enable survivors to understand, prepare for, and cope with distressful and threatening instances and justify aggression towards their attackers (Others are not likely to take advantage of me if I have been dwelling on my angry thoughts, Dwelling on what happened prevents me from blaming myself). There are occasions when survivors entertain negative metacognitive beliefs which are concerned with the detrimental emotional impact of anger on the overall functioning of the individual socially and occupationally (My anger builds up, last longer, and gets me into trouble when I dwell on my angry thoughts).

Steyn (2005) maintained that guilt and shame are closely associated to each other in response to sexual abuse and trauma. When a victim has self-guilt, there is the tendency for the individual to feel responsible for the event accompanied by embarrassment or disgrace. However these feelings are not only limited to sexually abused victims to be trauma survivors in general.  It should be emphasized that guilt is the attempt of the survivor to learn valuable life lessons from and establish a sense of power and control over oneself. Self-blame has been considered as an influential factor on how the victim may respond to her being sexually abused. Both guilt and self-blame are closely linked because behind the guilt is blaming oneself for experiencing the trauma. The response of the victim after the rape depends on self-blame and is noted to greatly affect the victim psychologically. Meyer and Taylor (as cited in Steyn, 2005) also found that self-blame is associated with adjustment and depression after rape and increased anxiety, hostility, and greater confusion of core beliefs about ones existence and the world.
Use of prolonged exposure, eye movement sensitization, and relaxation training

In exposure therapy, the rape survivor is subjected to imaginal exposure which allows her to revisit the traumatic event in a safe environment. In practice, the therapist guides and encourages the client in imagining, narrating, and emotionally processing the traumatic experience within the safe and supportive confines of the clinicians office. It has a low threat to the client and de-conditions the disorder through the habituationextinction process (Rizzo et al. 2009).

EMDR is a PTSD treatment method utilizing exposure and cognitive restructuring in a relatively short time without having to subject patients to prolonged anxiety and with the aid of the therapist the patient makes saccadic bilateral eye movements. The action of EMDR could be attributed to the conditioning process brought about by the accelerating function of the eye movements and the activation of a neurobiological substrate modulating the emotional responses, thereby leading to homeostasis (Well Care Health Plans Inc, 2008).

Klein (2007) mentioned that relaxation techniques are helpful in treating DSM-IV diagnosis most particularly trauma, depression, and anxiety. In the treatment session, patients are provided tools which do not only sooth themselves but also help develop healing positive self-talk statements.

Hogberg et al. (2007) observed that EMDR has a short-term effect on PTSD based on the Global Assessment of Function (GAF) and Hamilton Depression (HAM-D) scores. Then in 2008, the same authors found that the symptom-reduction effects of EMDR on 20 subjects presenting chronic PTSD remained stable 35 months after the therapy. In their study, the participants underwent five sessions of EMDR.

Rothbaum, Astin and Marsteller  (2005) noted improvement in PTSD especially among the PE and EMDR groups compared to the control group. However, no significant difference in depression, dissociation, and state anxiety were found in PE and EMDR from baseline to either post treatment or 6-month follow-up.

Stapleton, Taylor and Asmundon (2006) investigated anger and guilt before and after prolonged exposure, eye movement sensitization and reprocessing and relaxation training.  The study also showed that the treatments had significantly reduced anger and guilt, even among patients who had high levels of these emotions.

III. Methodology
Research Design
The proposed study will use a pre-test post-test experimental design because the purpose is to compare groups resulting from experimental treatments which in the context of this study are the cognitive-behavioral strategies in treating PTSD among Native American rape survivors.

Participants and Sampling
Participants will be Native American rape survivors who experienced most severe PTSD based on physician referrals. Only those that presented severe PTSD using the DSM-IV diagnosis, more than 18 years of age, signed the written informed consent, and willing to suspend any psychological treatment and keep doses of any psychotropic medication constant throughout the duration of the study. Rape survivors with mental retardation or psychotic disorder and has changed medication within the last three months will be excluded.  Respondents will be assigned randomly to each of the treatments in the study.

Measures 
The respondents will be asked to fill out information regarding trait- and trauma-related anger and guilt aside from the psychosocial profile based on age, civil status, highest educational attainment, employment, and history of violence. To measure trait anger, the State Trait Anger Expression Inventory will be used. It has 44 items and divided into five subscales namely state anger, trait anger, anger-in, anger-out, and anger control. The statements will be rated using a four-point frequency scale (0-almost never to 3-almost always).  Trait guilt levels of rape survivors will be assessed using the Guilt Inventory. This tool is a 45-item self-report indicative of state guilt, trait guilt, and moral standards where subjects will be asked to respond using a five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). For both trauma-related anger and guilt, evaluation was made by an item that asked the frequency of anger and guilt for the past week. The item will be rated on a four-point frequency scale from 0 (not at all) to 3 (almost always).

Procedure
Before conduct of study is commenced, permission will first be obtained from Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University. Permission will also be secured from the Dean of the Graduate School after Oral Examination. Afterwards, another letter will be sent to the president of a local organization of Native Americans or local clinics stating the intent of the researcher to seek their participation and coordination. 

Prospective participants referred to by local organizations and physicians will be invited for screening for the inclusionexclusion criteria. Those who passed will be asked to carefully read the written informed consent before baseline evaluation. The researcher will then randomize assign the subjects to any of the following interventions prolonged exposure, eye movement sensitization, or relaxation training. There will also be a control group. The structured questionnaires will be administered during the pre-treatment, post-treatment (one month after end of intervention), and follow-up (three months after the post-treatment). Several ethical considerations will be taken into account. The answers to the structured questionnaires will be kept confidential and PTSD records will only examined by the researcher. Furthermore, permission to use information will be requested and secured prior to data analysis. Lastly, no monetary incentives will be offered to participate in the study.

Data Analysis
After questionnaire administration, tabulation and data analysis will follow. The first problem will be addressed by computing for frequency and percentage. Means and standard deviations in anger and guilt in the pre-treatment, post-treatment, and follow-up periods will be obtained to answer the second problem. Statistical inferences will be based on the results of the t-test for Dependent Sample Means at 5 level of significance. Comparison will be between pre- and post-treatment and pre- and follow up phases of the study. 

Internal Validity
It is expected that this study will test the null hypothesis that no significant difference exists in the anger and guilt of the Native American rape survivors before and after treatment with cognitive-behavioral strategies at 95 level of confidence. Therefore there is a high degree of certainty that the result is attributed to the treatment.

External Validity
There will be a high external validity since the participants will be randomly assigned to a treatment or intervention. Thus, there are no sampling discrepancies which will introduce error and bias into the results. The selection of respondents also guarantees the same.