Psychology

Weve been used to the saying, The strong shall live and the weak shall die. In the scientific sense, it is survival of the fittest first known from the biological concept of renowned theorist of human evolution Charles Darwin. Survival of the fittest has been coined synonymous to Darwins theory of natural selection.

Weve learned back in our science courses the premise of natural selection which is commonly associated to the idea that only the fittest organism can survive and adapt to the changes of time. Figuratively, this well-recognized phrase has also become the basis for human beings and their life and purpose on earth. If we try to put it on the same ground, we may arrive at the proposition that humans survive to live and that they must be the strongest among others in order to survive. Consequently, this suggests two things that men are innately good or that the life of men is naturally solitary, nasty, poor, brutish and short and men are ought to care about their self-interests which make them selfish and bad.

The legendary philosophers and scientists of our time had long ago argued the existence of mankind. To us, it has always been who-do-you-believe situation and we eventually create questions in our minds. Philosophy answers who we are while science dictates what we are. Another area of thinking is psychology but although it is like cognitive science, the explanations it can give are also built on the epitome of philosophical analysis.

Psychologist and theorist Carl Rogers along with Abraham Maslow, accepts that men have a human nature and so are born good. They theorized on positive human life and self-fulfillment. Rogers would say that men are propelled to do well for growth, development and personal fulfillment (Davis and Palladino, 1997, p. 542). On the other hand, Maslow would place self-actualization on top of his Hierarchy of Deficiency Needs theory on why men are motivated to grow and work hard.

A lot of issues have been set forth to argue if men are born either good or evil. And a lot has also been discussed about the correlation of morality that standardized human behavior. Weve known that goodness reflects on the ability of a person to help with no reward or altruism (Davis and Palladino, 1997). In contrast, weve also been brought up with judgment that evil deeds are those that hurt, destroy, or harm. If men are naturally good, how would we respond to Platos story of the Gyges invisible ring Or, if men are naturally bad, how would we place ourselves in the example made by Mother Teresa

Altruism is a prosocial behavior supported by many of our theorists and their colleagues (Davis and Palladino, 1997). But many of our psychologists, ethologists and sociobiologists still have their own belief on what drives us to be the way we are, such as when we tend to offer our help or none at all. Many have been proving and disproving the existence of true altruism since everybody doesnt have the same view of mankind. Theorist Robert Cialdini and his colleagues believed that extrinsic (money or praise) or intrinsic (a boost to the ego) factors are behind the altruistic feats. On the other hand, Daniel Batson and his colleagues disputed that true altruism is a genuine phenomenon impelled by empathy and little compensation (Davis and Palladino, 1997).  We are left with wonder that men are naturally bad because if true altruism is real, then, men are naturally sensitive to others feelings.

Conversely, we cannot ensure that men are born kind because in psychology, many have also been trying to study on the physical or psychological behavior of men to harm someone or something which is called aggression (Davis and Palladino, 1997). It is said earlier that what we conceived to be wrong is something that hurt, destroy, or harm. Thus, the occurrence of aggression among men may imply that men can be naturally harmful or bad. Our sociobiologists would acclaim the fact that the goal of mankind is to survive and in order to survive men should increase the survival of their own genes. Hence, sociobiologists see it as an adaption to life. But others maintain that aggressiveness is being produced by the environmental conditions. Some psychologists proposed the frustration-aggression hypothesis which states that an individual can act aggressively once hindered in obtaining his or her goal (Davis and Palladino, 1997). Further, the more we get closer to our goals, the more we get frustrated once cut back because of an outside force. The more we become aggressive when we become more frustrated.

Frustration and anger are not the only reasons of our being aggressive. Sometimes, these are attributed to verbal and physical assault. Additional environmental factors can include perception of unjust treatment, aversive environmental temperature or mood and lastly, arousal especially when there is a direct shift from one relaxing moment to a disturbance. More so, European psychologists such as Fathali Moghaddam (1990) realized the influence of various culture or groups (Davis and Palladino, 1997).

Another type of aggression that is concerned with assessing human beings involves the provoking nature of being sexual. Aggression that leads to anger can cause abuse to relationships. Psychologists investigated and examined the effect of sexual aggression and found that increased sexual assaults especially toward women are related to sexual aggression. Incidence of rape happens because of pornography which stimulates sexual violence. If we are to admit that outside factors trigger aggression, we may as well assume that human beings are literally chaste. That means men are innocent and do not intend to do harm. Political theorist John Rawls (1994) would say that men have been through a veil of ignorance where neither of them would know right from wrong. Would it mean that fear, violence and even sex are natural outside factors affecting the being of a person

A study by Tracy Bostwick and Janice De Lucia concluded that women who asked and paid for the bills were the ones who desire sex. Likewise, men who paid for the date assume to desire a demand for sex (Davis and Palladino, 1997). It could have been debatable to choose whether the desire for sex is also a human nature. If so, then it contradicts the thought that human beings were innocent at the beginning of time. We are usually adversarial to the issue of sex and sometimes, rape which is seen as an evil act is often blamed to men who are aggressive and wanting of sexual activity. This keeps us guessing between chastity deemed as goodness and obscenity deemed as profane and irrelevant.

If we move to rely on the personality of human beings, theorists had also scrutinized and continued to share the results of their observation and research. In the area of moral philosophy, we have the philosopher John Locke who entirely supports the notion of the self and consciousness. He believed that we have our personal identity which gives us the reason why people know us as us and why we are different in the way we are. He mentioned that we are animal of such a certain form (Pojman, 1999, p.282). Locke presumed that a person is a thinking individual which makes such person aware of himself. That person knows how to reason and reflect on his own consciousness which is inseparable from thinking. This, according to him, makes a person recognize the self apart from any other thinking things.

If man knows himself, his actions must always be intentional. Alcoholism and drugs are common culprits for sexual aggressiveness leading to a lot of rape cases. If man knows his consciousness, therefore, environmental or any other external factors should be excluded from the self as bad. This brings us back to the question if men are bad in nature.

What sets us apart from lower animals is not objective reality but rather ability to make choices and our individual perspectives in on the world (Davis and Palladino, 1997, p. 539). I believe that human beings are innately good. Understanding humanistic perspective is the best way to explain phenomena. This is why some contest the beliefs of psychodynamic theory and behaviorism because humanistic psychologists are certain of the heuristic value of humankind. While theorists and therapists support their own perceptions of humans, humanistic psychologists such as Rogers and Maslow give more emphasis on the individuals perception of events. Hence, such psychologists were often regarded as phenomenologists, the ones who study experience apparently (Davis and Palladino, 1997).

In that case, I believe that to become moral animal, human beings should be the rational beings Locke was pertaining to and that being moral has something to do with the ability of men to distinguish what is right from wrong especially at the verge of consciousness. People need unconditional love, care and affection (Davis and Palladino, 1997) because this is what they strive to have, without exactly knowing it. As moral animals, human beings, provided that their human nature is good, aspire to be loved and cared.

A person is accepted for he or she is and not for what others would like him or her to be. This is called the unconditional positive regard by Carl Rogers (Davis and Palladino, 1997). The unconditional positive regard explains how the real self and the ideal self should match up to realize self-worth. Saying that love and praise are only received conditionally is like trying to make it hard for the individual to accept what he or she really is.

Our choices complete who we are and why we are the way we are. And these choices are quite influenced by some contributing factors. Albert Banduras Social Cognitive theory gives explanation to why we act the way we do. According to him, the person, the environment and the behavior react upon each other resulting to a combination of the three. These factors are dependent and are connected to each other. Together, they create the brand us. Our being good or being bad is being affected by this mixture. Bandura termed this reciprocal determinism (Davis and Palladino, 1997). He also believed that one factor may be the cause or effect of the other. This means that, the behavior can affect environment the way environment can affect behavior. Our personality can affect the way we behave just as our behavior can affect the way our personality is judged by others.

I agree with Banduras idea of why we act the way we do. At the same time, I believe that men are actually born good. They have this innate nature of helping out if not only driven by needs and interests. It is not human nature to desire for aggressiveness. Instead, aggressiveness surfaced because there are factors which stimulated the feeling. We then make our choices afterwards. Whether the outcome of the action was good or bad, we were left ascertained that we were already been judged according to what we did. So even though, we may believe that we are kind enough inside sometimes it is that what others perceive us to be that accounts for what we ought to be in their eyes.

Maslow may not also be absolute in his order of mans needs and the idea of self-actualization may be far beyond what is tangible. However, Maslow while believing in the positive side of human beings showed that human beings know what a better life is. Accordingly, men know what the right thing is since the time being.

Mankind experiences violence, turmoil and chaos from fellow beings. But this doesnt mean that there are only those that are completely good and those that are undoubtedly bad. All of human beings are good and it is in our human nature. All of human beings have conscience, only difference in the level of endurance. Conscience is what proves to be the heart of the people at the same time. It is something that cognitive experience cannot elaborate clearly.

Just as miracles or near to death experiences, our ability to rekindle a loving and passionate heart should not be criticized even when they seem to appear without substantial evidence. We experience miracles and these become phenomena for us. We experience heaven and this becomes our spiritual belief.

Many have explored the vagueness of things especially those values that we acquire. Science needs not to explain everything. Philosophy needs not to question each existence. Or, even psychology needs not to provide details for every human breakthrough. Things happen and they may happen the way we may not believe. In the concept of men as moral animals, acting the way they are, it is enough to argue that men are rational beings who also mark their own view of morality.

They say in ethics, there is no right or wrong answer. What matters is the decision we make and how we stand or make up to its consequences. Similarly, there is no such adjective as morally upright living. All of us live the way we want it to live. All of us act the way we want it. Its always through instinct and conscience where in the end, we are supposed to rethink if the way we acted was acceptable or not.

Bipolar disorder is actually an emotional disorder, witnessed by the occurrence of many mood swings.  It is actually a serious disorder that involves the brain, and can make ones life a roller coaster ride full of ups and downs, highs and lows.  It is a tumultuous volley of emotional reactions to everyday triggers.  Learning to live with this disorder is possible, but involves drug related treatment to do so.

Attempts at Living a Normal Life with Bipolar Disorder
To live life with a bipolar disorder is a tedious task.  Most are not successful at finding a balance between meeting goal-oriented expectations and dealing with the disorder.  Every minute of each day is a constant barrier faced by bipolar manics, with their perspective outlooks being in a dark and shallow place as compared to those without the disorder.  Coping skills needed by the individual, family, and friends are an effective way to meet each day filled with a positive optimism to counteract the painful effects of the manic-depressive state.  A factor that affects and upsets family ties is that many bipolar manics use drugs and alcohol to self-treat the disorder.  This intensifies the pain and heartache for all involved (Kauer et al, 2008).

Thought the behavior is counter-productive, it tends to stay isolated to the individual.  It affects others in a negative manner that warrants wanting to keep the bipolar manic at arms length with minimal interaction desired.  The love for the individual keeps family and friends steadfast to deal with the impossible mood swings, until they must for their own sanity and keeping of the peace, take a time out, while others take up the mission.

Cognitive effects on behavior
The disorder affects the brain, disrupting cognition, and how the individual views the world, as they do not see things the same as a person without the disorder.  This disruption is like a scale that pivots to the left and to the right, but is incapable of staying in the middle.  A chemical imbalance is occurring that keeps the mind constantly at odds, incapable of finding balance.  The chemical imbalance reflects changes in the brain and neurotransmitters (Simonsen et al, 2008).

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by the brain to keep the flow of cell traffic gliding smoothly throughout the brain on their journey of gathering and building cognitive substance.  Science does not know what disrupts the release and flow of the chemicals for bipolar manics.  They do however recognize the physical response and have taken measures to control the release by treatment with medication.  This has proven an effective treatment for most.   The drawbacks faced with medications prescribed for the disorder is the fact of the drug and alcohol abuse experienced by many diagnosed with bipolar disorder.

The mixing of alcohol or other drugs can cause a deadly effect.  It can also turn an adverse mood swing into one of extreme violence.  Which could result in the harm of others or to the individual, and the risk factors for suicide increases dramatically, thus it is easy enough to say that one should avoid the use of alcohol and drugs while taking the medication.   This is a problem in itself, as alcoholism or drug abuse makes it very difficult to determine what is causing certain aspects of the behavior.  If it were suspected that the person has bipolar disorder, they would need to be diagnosed as such.  In order for this to happen, one would need to abstain from alcohol long enough for diagnoses to take place (Simonsen et al, 2008).

Refusal to Accept Treatment, or Take Prescribed Medication
Those diagnosed with bipolar disorder want to look forward to a quality life, and to do so they must take the treatment available.  Though the medication does react severely on the brain, it is the lesser of two evils at present time.   Generally, it takes 10 years for diagnoses.  This is due to other factors that impose taking precedence, such as alcoholism, or drug addiction.  Once known that the person is suffering from bipolar disorder the individual starts treatment.  Along with medication, it is good for manics to have talking sessions to slow or enhance their thought process as needed (Gruber, 2010).
Most bipolar manics will deny the diagnoses, which is one factor for the refusal of treatment.  They find an answer to their symptoms that make perfect sense to them even though it is incorrect.  The fact remains that 44 of those diagnosed are not under treatment, which is not good for them or society (Gruber, 2010).  Pharmacological therapy is not the desired way to treat the disorder, but presently, it is the only available.

There are those who refuse to start treatment, and those who stop taking their medication.  Either way conditions ascribed to are representative of non-compliance (Gruber, 2010).  This leads to higher risk of suicide.  One of the symptoms of bipolar disorder is the condition of constant anxiety.  Studies conducted to distinguish if the anxiety is concern for increased suicidal notions, has shown that there was no increase when anxiety was higher or lower in accordance with manic and depressive episodes.  Studies show there is not a set pattern on individuality, which indicates that each individuals triggers differ, and therefore the frequency of episodic value (Nakagawa, 2008).

Prognosis
Dealing with all of the fluctuations of the brain, coupled with the intense behaviors, both negative and at times positive.  The negative behaviors of course outweigh any positive behaviors.  Still and all, the disorder in itself is a most compelling one.  The constant state of anxiety is apparently a strong deterrent in the acceptance or acknowledgment of the need for treatment.  Until an individual is compliantly following a treatment plan, it is hard to make a prognosis.   Another factor is that the anxiety medication clashes with manic-depressive episodes, making it difficult to find a stable ground of which to benchmark (El-Mallakh  Hollifield, 2008).

Recovery from episodes for bipolar manics involves a dual process.  The first is Symptom recovery, followed by functional recovery.   Studies have also shown that dysfunction is high, but not necessarily caused by mood swings.  There are many cumulative issues resulting from the billions of cells that make up the neurotransmitters then released in their tumultuous and unorganized manner.  That is why it is so difficult to understand the causes for bipolar manic disorder, and due to the instability even harder to provide a prognosis.

In Conclusion
The reason may still be unknown in how or why people have bipolar disorder.  The current pharmacological treatment may not be the best way to treat it, but it is the only available recourse at this time.  The factors that preclude correct diagnoses are that with anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorders, and bipolar manic disorders all bearing very similar symptoms.  Along with alcohol and drug addiction, the difficulty to diagnose, may take several years to complete.  Once a diagnosis of bipolar manic is determined, it is hard to get an individual to start treatment, let alone maintain it.  For this reason, there are many individuals in need of family and friends in a supportive measure to remind them that they are not alone, and to keep them up when they are down, and balanced when they are up.  Most of all, support them to stay on their medication in keeping balance mentally overall.

Introduction
Bulimia, medically known as Bulimia Nervosa, is an eating disorder whereby the victims experience episodes of secretive binge eating followed by a feeling of guilt and an obsession with weight control (Medline Plus, 2010). People with bulimia use inappropriate means to control their weight like inducing vomiting, abuse of laxative substances and diuretics or punitive exercise routines. As is the case with most psychological disorders, bulimic people experience excess emotional pain (Stoppler, 2010). This research paper aims to expound on this condition its symptoms, effects and treatment options available.

Causes of bulimia nervosa
Just like is the case with anorexia, there currently exists no medical evidence to explain the exact cause of bulimia (Parker, 2006). Bulimia is a very complex psychological disorder and its dynamics are still being explored. However, it is believed to start when a person harbors extreme dissatisfaction with his or her body (Parker, 2006). Such feelings lower self-esteem and individual confidence. When a person is either overweight or underweight, he or she looks in the mirror and sees a person different from what they ideally want to be. Extreme dieting then begins, escalating to bulimic levels.

Certain neurological or medical conditions may also be present in an individual resulting into disturbed eating habits while the psychological disorders characteristic of bulimia (obsessive concern with body weight and physiological structure) are absent. For example when an individual is suffering from depressive illnesses, overeating is a common symptom (Kalapatapu, 2008). Such a person will not result to improper weight-loss activities and is not obsessively concerned with his or her physical appearance and body weight reduction as is observed in bulimic people.

Research about possible connection between bulimia and hormonal abnormalities is underway. Sufficient evidence suggests that there could be a possible link between eating disorders and abnormalities in the chemical composition in neurotransmitters within the nervous system, especially serotonin (Stoppler, 2010). Some bulimic people have exhibited fluctuations in their rates of metabolism, alterations in their perception of satiety and unusual neural endocrine regulation.

Diagnosing Bulimia
Just like anorexic people, people with bulimia keep it secret and are in denial if confronted about their condition, making the diagnosis of bulimia a complex process (Stoppler, 2010). Bulimic people do not often seek professional help until late after secondary medical or psychological effects, usually serious, begin to manifest themselves. For this reason, it is recommended that people who have this kind of disorder be truthful and seek redress as early as possible.

One of the most common symptoms of bulimia is recurrence of binge eating episodes (Medline Plus, 2010). When a person eats more food within a specific time interval that an ordinary person would eat within the same time period under the same circumstances, then this could be a sign of bulimia (Stoppler, 2010). There is also loss of control over what or how much the person eats during such an episode. After a binge eating episode, the victim will be engulfed with a feeling of guilt, resulting in indulgence in inappropriate and punitive behavioral patterns aimed at preventing weight gain including self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives and diuretics, enemas, weight-loss medicines and fasting or overindulgence in physical exercises (Stoppler, 2010).

People with bulimia are either overweight or underweight or even have normal body weight. However, periodic induced vomiting after meals, compulsive exercising and other physical manifestations like swollen throats and jawbones due to induced vomiting are signs that the person could be bulimic (Parker, 2006). Finally, such people will be overly concerned with their physical appearance, image or body weight.

Medical complications and effects of bulimia
Due to continuous binge eating and self-induced vomiting, bulimia harms the body of a victim in various ways. Purging exposes the throat and the mouth cavity to acidic gastric juices from the digestive system eroding the tooth enamel (Parker, 2006). This increases the sensitivity to cold or hot substances and leads to the formation of mouth cavities. The thyroid, parotid and salivary glands may swell due to repeated vomiting, causing soreness.

Purging may also cause strictures, ulcers and ruptures in the esophagus and the large intestines (Kalapatapu, 2008). When acidity backs up from the stomach through reflux, it may deteriorate pre-existing ulcerations in the digestive system. Just like in patients with anorexia nervosa, bulimic females may experience irregular menstrual periods or no menstrual periods at all, a condition known as amenorrhea (Slade  Duker, 2003). This results from the virtue that they are either malnourished or are having weight fluctuations as is characteristic of bulimia patients.

The intestines are also systematically affected. Having frequent enemas or abusing laxatives and diuretics could lead to abnormal build-up of liquids in the digestive system. When laxatives are overused, the patient could develop dependency since the normal excretion process becomes dysfunctional (Stoppler, 2010. All these side effects inhibit normal function of the colon and there may emerge the need for surgery as an intervention of restoring normality. Additionally, continued abuse of laxatives and diuretics puts the patient at a risk of suffering electrolyte imbalance thus inhibiting normal physiological and psychomotor functionalities, a condition that is life threatening. Bulimia in pregnant women poses a threat to the unborn child due to continuous bulimic tendencies of the expectant mother (Slade  Duker, 2003). Finally, bulimia leads to the manifestation of serious psychological disorders if left unchecked.

Statistics
Due to higher levels of self consciousness, bulimia is most common in young women. In fact, over 10 percent of all women in colleges or women bearing college-going ages are affected by bulimia (Medline Plus, 2010). Out of all diagnosed cases of bulimia, only about 10 percent occur in men. Due to the primary and secondary medical complications arising from bulimia as outlined above, about 10 percent of bulimic people die either from malnutrition, cardiac arrest, suicide or other related factors (Medline Plus, 2010).

Treatment of bulimia
Bulimic people develop various medical and psychological conditions which, luckily, are reversible when approached from different perspectives (Slade  Duker, 2003). The professional qualified to offer help may be a physician, a psychiatrist or a clinical psychologist. The disciplinary approach embraced in the management of bulimia depends on the severity of the complications arising. But on average, a psychiatrist with background training in medicine and psychology is best suited to help.

A variety of antidepressants have been proven to be effective while treating bulimia, mainly those that selectively inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and monoamine oxidizers like Fluoxetine and Buspirone (Parker, 2006). Serotonin inhibitors are however the most commonly used since they cause minimal side effects. Other drugs are still under development as the underlying factors leading to bulimia are being established.

Depending on the extent of physiological and psychological detriment in an individual, hospitalization is sometimes necessary but most cases are advised to seek outpatient help, particularly if diagnosis is done sufficiently early whereas beginners need only be subjected to occasional counseling or therapeutic sessions (Slade  Duker, 2003). Most doctors prefer to begin treatment by first stabilizing the patients condition physically especially if the condition has reached life threatening proportions.

Treatment of bulimia focuses on addressing both the physical and psychological requirements of the patient so that physical well-being and normal eating habits can be effectively restored (Slade  Duker, 2003). Bulimic patients need to be open to their doctors and openly bring out any internal feelings and perceptions that could have led to the acquisition of the disorder. Any issues regarding personal self-control patterns, how a person perceives him or herself and their social dynamics need to be accurately established so that the solution to the condition is appropriately tailored (Slade  Duker, 2003). The doctor then can offer advice on ensuring a correct and sufficient diet and promoting the desired behavioral and attitude management. Bulimic people should learn to perceive themselves on the positive side to increase their chances of restoring their mental and physical health. A positive attitude coupled with personal effort and patience is a very essential component if a person is to fully recover from this condition (Slade  Duker, 2003).

Conclusion
People suffering from bulimia can have a very normal outward appearance despite having a condition that is very detrimental to their health. The diagnosis of bulimia should thus begin at a personal level (Parker, 2006). If an individual notices any of the symptoms outlined above that set the criteria for positive diagnosis, he or she should seek expert help as soon as possible. However, to minimize the chances of developing bulimia, a person should always have a positive outlook and appreciate his or her appearance and body weight.

Contemporary classrooms are populated by students with dissimilar talents, abilities and cultural backgrounds. For many students, the traditional teaching practices established in North America might  be to certain extent unacceptable, or in simpler words, less workable and effective in the educational process (Hollins, 2008, p.135). The other important points of division include gender,  religion and socioeconomic status which also need educators attention. In order to meet this challenge, teachers and school staff in general are expected to take a culturally responsible pedagogic approach.  The recent research suggests that school completion rate varies by culture in this sense, about 85 White Americans, 75 African Americans and 56 Hispanic students  complete their school education (Hollins, 2008, p.136). Besides, racial attitudes after the age of 9 are likely to stay the same if the child does not get a defining experience associated with culture. One of the ways of embracing diversity is recruiting school staff from different cultural groups for the purpose of exposing students to authority figures that look different then the majority (Dalhouse  Walker-Dalhouse, 2006, p.2).

However, according to Bingham, only 3-5 Education students are of minority background and his research shows the need for pre-service teachers to have a common working knowledge of diversity throughout heir coursework and continue during their field-based experiences(Bingham, 2006, p.7).  Inclusive education is another approach to diversity which consists in providing equal access to each public school to all children regardless of place of residence, race, religious beliefs and social class.
As a school psychologist, I will be able to conduct issue training on diversity for school staff and students. Both teachers and learners have to understand that cultural sensitivity is not merely a theoretical concept, but also a set of practices aimed at making school study productive for each student. Furthermore, I will need to provide the service of diversity counseling to teachers and students, and casework would also be a useful method of preventing discrimination and harassment. I will also regularly conduct internal research in order to understand the dynamics of racial attitudes, culturally sensitive behaviors  and diversity-related practices in the educational institution.

Late adulthood is a period n human lifespan which begins approximately at the age of 60 and lasts until death. At this stage, both decline and development take place and moreover, voluntary and controlled development is initiated in order to compensate for the loss of certain functions. The main physical change which occurs in brain at this age is the slowdown of information processing and decline of memory function. At the same time, according to Louw, a new type thinking evolves in this age, which is called post-operational or transcendental thinking. In particular, although elders are less likely to think critically, the application of transcendental operations implies that individuals reflect on the knowledge they have gained through their life experiences and on what they have produced.   They can create new, or suggest better rules on which to base decisions and judgments (Louw, 1998, p.605). This new mode of thinking is associated with wisdom seniors acquire. Wisdom includes the knowledge of life course, its goals and difficulties, understanding of the meaning of life, excellent knowledge of social dynamics and social relationships, knowledge of human nature and ability to give advice concerning the important yet still unclear (to the younger people) issues (Louw, 1998, p.606). From Eriksons perspective, this development greatly depends upon the success the person makes in this period, categorized as the crisis of ego-integrity v. despair. At this age, people tend to review their life and when the results of the analysis are satisfactory, then they gain peculiar inner peace, or experience the sense of ego-integrity (Louw, 1998, p.611).

Due to the fact that at this age the person is still productive in the cognitive dimension, I can plan my own career for a longer period of time, not merely until the formal retirement.  After 60 I and my colleagues will still be capable of doing scientific inquiries, developing new models and approaches in psychology and teaching students, because in late adulthood it is highly important to transmit the knowledge accumulated to the younger generation. In addition, I believe it would be useful to create learning programs for elders in colleges, universities or simply in community clubs. As a psychologist, I will be able to provide counseling services to older adults in order to help them manage their cognitive development and canalize their wisdom into the productive direction.

According to several researches, early years of life are particularly important in the growth and development of an adolescent behavior. According to Werner-Wilson et al. (2004), at this developmental age, media can influence adolescents thoughts and behaviors. Adolescents have been a major target by the media as they are constantly attached to it and regularly lking for information from it. It has become important to learn how media is leading adolescent to substance abuse, sexual activity, eating diUrderU and how we can take preventative measures.

Substance Abuse
When adolescent watch their beloved UtarU uUing drugs 0nd alcohol, 0nd making it lk like cl, they fancy to do it, t. When adolescent bUerve these prominent personalities in rehabilitation programs, these Hollywood celebrities make it look like a trip to the spa. When adolescents play their preferred video games featuring the substance-abusing stars, they are viewing these examples of  cl  (Werner, 2004). Upon my own investigation of this matter, I found websites such as oddfilms.com, cduniverse.com, and eopinions.com. All of these websites contain categories devoted to finding the top movies to view substance abuse some even recommend the film because the abuse was depicted as accurately done.

Some non-profit organizations have developed their own programs and methods to address drug prevention. Narconon International is a drug prevention and rehabilitation organization with centers around the world that assist educating millions of people and rehabilitating thousands of addicts (Narconon International, 2010). Narconon also has its own website that helps promoting constructive lifestyles that discourage alcohol abuse, as well as promote development of social environments that facilitate alcoholdrug-free lifestyles (Narconon International, 2010).

Obesity
One of the most serious consequences of regular television use is its contribution to a sedentary lifestyle. A child today typically spends more time with television than heshe spends talking to parents, playing with peers, or participating in recreational activities. As children and adults spend more and more time with television, their physical activity decreases that can result in obesity. Action for Healthy Kids (2010) has a wonderful website with many resources and programs on preventing childhood obesity, as well as the opportunity to volunteer and become an active member for the state.

Sexuality
Several types of media can influence teens sexual behavior. Among most others, these forms of media include movies, television, 0nd music videos. According to the Troubled Teens Help, their website is dedicated to help teens, 0nd parents coping with these issues, as parents play 0 critical role in determining influencing factors related to their teens.  The wise parent teaches his teen to be discerning about media choices. Setting harsh, unbending rules may only drive the teen towards negative choices (Troubled Teens Help, 2010). The website provides several tips to parents regarding the way they can avoid accusations of unfairness with open communication about entertainment choices (Troubled Teens Help, 2010).

Conclusion
In conclusion, adolescents are 0 prime target of today s media. When adolescents rely on the media to seek for help and information, they are being attacked by negative messages. These messages can encourage adolescents to have a vague image about them.

This chapter considers important aspects and variables in selecting tests to review. Here, it considers relevant processes that differentiate types of examinations. These dynamics in turn provide effective strategy for educators to create assessments that are congruent with the desired objectives and goals of instruction.

In particular, the chapter reviews specific aspects associated with assessments which include its purpose and corresponding elements that make up these oral and written examinations.

Principles of test content and assessment procedures constitute better dynamics in administering proper mechanics in associating functions and principles relating to a specific topic.

Similarly, the ideas surrounding scores, norms, and reliability were also discussed in detail to provide readers with effective ways on how these parameters impact the creation of assessments. At the same time, it also allows the educator to become fully involved with formal mechanisms that targets essential aspects related to the course.

Also, reliability and validity is discussed in the chapter to consider what important principles can shape greater elements in advocating fair and accountable practice. These elements are indeed necessary to achieve these crucial points and highlight effectiveness of pinning down the assessments based on the curriculum provided.

The last part seeks to convey the relevance of using summative evaluations. Here, it takes advantage of using this principle to further and sum up all these aspects together. By creating this, the educator can capitalize on providing both a simple and comprehensive review of the qualitative and quantitative variables that are equally important in measuring competency and effectiveness of instruction.

Chapter 10 Assessment of Academic Achievement with Multiple-Skill Devices
This specific chapter focuses in determining the variables involved in a multiple skills assessment. It considers the principles that shape assessments and tries to categorize each one according to the specific functions it tries to show. Similarly, these examinations also induce better capacity to develop appropriate principles in determining what elements induce academic achievement.

Given these, a particular section includes the significance of using assessment within the context of measuring academic achievement. The principle behind this revolves around justifying whether or not the strategies used for instruction are effective and efficient in achieving mandated goals and objectives.
In particular, the chapter outlines different types of assessments that can be used by educators in testing achievement of their students. The author then provides a description of each and justifies its significance and usage. These types include (1) Stanford Achievement Test Series, (2) Terra Nova, (3) Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised-Normative Update, (4) Wide Range Achievement Test, (5) Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, and (6) Diagnostic Achievement Battery (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

Given these strategies, each aspect of achievement testing coincides with specific standards and protocols that seek to measure the abilities of students in key areas (e.g. reading, writing, and speaking).

The last section of the article focuses on what benefits can educators get if they have a firm background of these strategies. It not only furthers their capacity to create effective assessment to students, it also brings about a responsible and accountable teaching practice that is congruent with existing educational standards.

Chapter 11 Using Diagnostic Reading Measures
The focus of this chapter surrounds the available reading assessments that educators can use to measure the competency of students. It takes into account the basis for these tests and justifies important principles shaping these assessments altogether.

Seeing this, the first section points out the main reasons and arguments for measuring reading skills and comprehension. It takes into account the strategies of how reading is taught. The existence of these measurements seek to promote better ways to understand the effectiveness of these strategies as it relates with the increasing needs of students.

Given that particular skills are necessary to achieve reading comprehension, the chapter also indicates different variables that educators can use to enhance these processes. It points out criteria for evaluation and considers the purpose of using these diagnostics in order to determine appropriateness. Such process then allows the educator to pinpoint effective patterns that can induce appropriate levels of competency and expectations among their respective students. In particular it seeks to address key areas such as (1) word recognition, (2) word attack, (3) reading comprehension and (4) other reading behaviors.

At the same time, the chapter also seeks to illustrate the available standards in measuring reading competency. These assessments are present to provide readers the ability to synthesize and capitalize the value and significance of classroom instruction. Here, emphasis is given towards (1) Group Reading Assessments and Diagnostics Evaluation (GRADE), (2) Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and (3) The Test of Phonological Awareness Second Edition Plus (TOPA 2) (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

Chapter 12 Using Diagnostic Mathematics Measure
Measuring competency in Mathematics is the key feature of this chapter. Here, the authors point out the significance of using assessing competency in this field because of it represents a core discipline within education and teaching. Due to this, the overall chapter highlights these aspects accordingly and justifies different strategies in doing so.

The first section deals with establishing the purpose of gauging mathematical competency. It tries to argue on how this method can supplement educators in merging instruction towards student capacity to appreciate and value the mathematic process both as a discipline and an effective component in different situations.

Likewise, the chapter also highlights the value and significance of using these tests as an effective gauge in understanding the purpose and value of behaviors. Seeing this, it argues on studying these values in order to justify appropriate instruction mechanisms necessary in the classroom.
Given its significance, the chapter then contends on the appropriate measures that can facilitate these data accordingly. Here, it derives from different testing standards that try to measure specific variables and behaviors by students. Such ability then creates better capacity to determine achievement capabilities of students and at the same time decipher strengths and weaknesses associated with mathematical instruction.

These standards that the chapter provides information about includes (1) Group Mathematics Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (G-MADE) and (2) Key Math-3 Diagnostic Assessment (KeyMath-3 DA) (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

Chapter 13 Using Measures of Oral and Written Language
This chapter considers the value and application of using oral and written language assessments. It provides specific reasons for applying and using strategies in both written and oral language by elaborating on specific strategies induce learning and appreciation.

One section deals with understanding the purpose of observing language behavior and how language can be used towards application and interpretation. In particular, it considers elements related to specific oral and written language tests.

Specific features conveyed in this aspect of usage spontaneous language, imitation, elicited language, and the advantages and disadvantages of each procedure. This then encourages better application of analysis by pointing out specific factors that influence its facilitation. Likewise, particular attention is also provided on these elements specific advantages and disadvantages towards assessment and classroom interaction.

To supplement this endeavor, particular testing standards are provided to induce better ways to gauge the abilities of students. This then enables effective correlation between instruction and the aspect of highlighting patterns that induce changes. By comparing these standards altogether, educators can create better decisions on what is the most applicable standard to correlate with oral and written language.

It involves (1) Test of Written Language-Fourth Edition (TOWL-4), (2) Test of Language Development Primary  Fourth Edition, (3) Oral and Written Language Scales (OWLS) (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

The chapter highlights these particular issues and detailing the avenues that can stimulate and provide effective patterns for effectively measuring competency.

Chapter 14 Using Measures for Intelligence
This chapter offers readers the perspective in using measures for intelligence. It corresponds to the usage and application of different patterns that influence aptitude. In particular, it considers several behaviors and allows people to correlate these by indicating each one within the parameters of specific standards mandated by the State.

It first starts by elaborating important elements that induce such behavior. These essentials are often stimulated by factors such as vocabulary, pattern completion, induction, generalization, etc.

Similarly, the factors influencing test behaviors are also elaborated by the paper and try to address specific issues that influence these areas accordingly. By seeking to elaborate on these issues, sufficient interpretations can be obtained and influence better patterns of identifying intelligence.

The last part of the chapter tries to indicate the different types of inteligence tests that can be administered and what these standards entail. In essence, it is more of a comparison that tries to deduce which ones are most appropriate given a specific factors and behaviors. These include (1) Nonverbal intelligence tests, (2) individual tests, and (3) group tests.

In the end, the chapter identifies different established and formalized testing structures that coincide with the need to identify intelligence among students. Descriptions and parameters for measurement are determined within standards such as (1) Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children IV, (2) Woodrock-Johnson-III Normative Update Test of Normative Abilities, (3) Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- Fourth Edition (PPTV-4) (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

Chapter 15 Measures of Perceptual and Motor Skills
The main objective of this chapter is to allow educators to determine the significance and relevance of using perceptual-motor skills. It tries to argue its relevance within the classroom and how educators can use these as effective instruments to induce achievement and competency in disciplines.

To correspond to this endeavor, the main focus of the chapter is identifying the different patterns that shape this idea altogether. This section argues on the available measuring parameters that influence and provide justification for its usage within the classroom. In particular, it tries to provide specific identification of motor skills and how they can be measured by established testing standards.

Given these, the chapter takes into consideration identifying these testing schemes which include (1) Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, Second Edition, (2) Development Test of visual motor integration (Beery VMI) (3) Koopitz-2 Scoring System for the BVMGT-2, and (4) The Bender Visual  Motor Gestalt Test Family (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

All these testing standards coincide with the capacity to induce better ways to measure and identify patterns that shape competency altogether and generate effective patterns of determining what students need and how instruction can be adjusted to suit these endeavors.

Chapter 16 Using Measures of Social and Emotional Behavior
This particular chapter identifies how behavior (social and emotional) can influence the capacity of students to perform in the classroom. It considers generating new dynamics that can induce and justify assessment so as to provide appropriate intervention and support from educators.

The first section tries to identify different strategies to identify emotional and social behavior among students. It takes into consideration both internal and external factors that influence the capacity of students to be motivated and feel left out in discussions and patterns of social interaction. Among the processes that the chapter includes involves (1) interview techniques, (2) situational measures, and (3) rating scales (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

After this, the chapter then gives an explanation of the need to assess social and emotional behavior among students. In particular, it takes into consideration the value and perspective of cultivating patterns that shape these ideas and what options are readily available for the educator to use in such times.

Given these, the chapter then provides the justification for using functional and behavioral analysis. It takes into account factors that influence such behaviors and allocates appropriate solutions and recommendations that the educator needs to do in order to facilitate the needs of the students accordingly.

In particular, this section provides steps in creating effective and efficient steps in completing a comprehensive functional behavior assessment. Here, it tries to consider effective dynamics that equally shape involvement and uses specific measures to assess social-emotional behavior. This then brings about the introduction to Behavior Assessment for Children Second Edition (BASC-2) (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

Chapter 17 Measures of Adaptive Behavior
This particular chapter tries to define adaptive behavior and its corresponding impact within the classroom as it relates with the ability of students to adjust to these trends and gain achievement in their corresponding subjects.

This takes into account factors that shape these areas accordingly. Here, it tries to address issues in aspects such as (1) performance vs. ability, (2) social and cultural expectations, (3) age and adaption, and (4) physical environment (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009). All these things hold equal importance in identifying and portraying effective patterns that shape and continue to sustain student and educator motivation.

Similarly, the chapter also indicates the existence of maladaption and how it can become a hindrance in achieving the objectives of adapting to the classroom environment. Specifically, it tries to look into patterns that coincide with reinforcing the limited abilities of students to understand the classroom environment. Given these, the chapter points out the context of its application as well as the frequency and amplitude of the process.

Given these, the chapter indicates the different patterns in assessing adaptive behavior. It takes into consideration numerous principles that shape these features and tries to supplement each one with a dynamic approach that takes into consideration its inclusion within the ability of educators to devise effective patterns for change.

In the end, the chapter then explores the question of the need to assess adaptive behavior. It tries to consider its impact within the classroom and the ability of educators to respond to these. This then brings about a greater responsibility for educators to come up with new strategies to increase patterns of involvement and facilitate an environment of learning.

Chapter 18 Measures for Infants, Toddlers and Preschools
This particular chapter focuses on the different measurement and testing standards available for children particularly those who are infants, toddlers, and preschools. These remain to be essential in creating a continued pattern of measurement in the cognitive, social, and emotional abilities of these individuals to adjust to classroom life in the future.

The first section of the book outlines purpose of these measurements and tries to identify the different factors that shape this endeavor altogether. In particular, it uses specific factors determined by particular testing standards in order to allocate and create new ways to understand the abilities of students to respond to the educational environment.

Given these, the chapter then indicates numerous testing standards that are available and the educator can use. The existence of these examinations seeks to identify available patterns and induce new parameters towards cultivating the creation of new lesson schemes and instructional methods. By determining these patterns accordingly, it can help sustain educational goals even at a young age and create educational responsibility in imparting appropriate outcomes for development.

The testing standards that were introduced and specified in this article includes (1) Bayley Scales of Infant Development Third Edition (Bayley-III), and (2) Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning  Third Edition (DIAL-3) (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

Chapter 19 Using Technology-Enhanced Measures
This chapter specifically argues about the relevance of technology in instruction and how it can be improved with the creation of testing standards that synchronizes these devices or methods towards what the classroom needs.

These patterns accordingly provide effective simulation of key subject areas such as Science and Mathematics by providing educators with complementary options in order to guide students in responding to these changes accordingly. By providing specific options particularly Continuous Technology-Enhanced Assessment Systems, it can facilitate the achievement of its objectives as it relates to classroom management and curriculum development (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).
Similarly, the chapter also provides different strategies that create opportunities to recognize the value of technology. Using different subjects as baseline, the chapter points out the relevance of using technology measures as a means to complement assessment and provide better ways to determine competency of students. In particular, it tries to discuss the value of using the Periodic Technology-Enhanced Assessment Systems and its value within the overall goal and objective (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).

These assessment systems include areas such as (1) STAR Math, (2) STAR reading, and (3) AIMSweb (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009). These options then properly determine the impact of technology and what areas are still needed to be improved. In addition, other measurements are also indicated by the chapters which are (1) computer scoring systems, (2) handheld observation systems, and (3) classroom response systems (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2009).