Psychology

Part A
The condition that will be discussed and analyzed within this brief paper is commonly known, throughout the medical world, as the Alien Hand Syndrome. Primarily, it is an extremely uncommon psychological disease discovered during the early 1900s (Elias, Saucier, 2006), which is brought by the onset of head trauma such as injuries of the head, the brain etc, or as a by-product of extremely complicated brain surgery involving the severance of the two lobes of the brain (Bellows, 2009), for example surgery conducted in order to relieve severe epilepsy (Elias, Saucier, 2006).

Fundamentally speaking, the disease involves one hand functioning whimsically, completely on its own without any commands from the owner (Elias, Saucier, 2006). The movements can be purposeful, as brought about by a brain tumor or aneurysm, or they can be completely random, as is the case under injuries suffered by the corpus callosum, which is the part that connects the two halves of the brain (Bellows, 2009). Although diagnosis of this disease is still not complete in the medical sense, however, it can be concluded from research conducted in the past that this disease is primarily brought about by traumatic injuries to the headbrain as well as after effects of an extremely complicated brain surgery involving the part of the brain that connects the two halves together. Hence, the separation of these two parts, the right and the left side, results in physically attributable neurological disorders.

Under fairly normal circumstances, patients demonstrate generic symptoms such as involuntary movements relating to the alien hand manipulating objects on its own like tearing of clothes, buttons etc (Elias, Saucier, 2006). Also, in rare extreme cases, the alien hand has shown to clamp itself on the owners neck attempting to choke him or her as well as trying to stuff food into the mouth of the patient (Bellows, 2009). Hence, sufferers of the alien hand syndrome often face psychological problems as well as physical ones which result in socially embarrassing situations.

Part B
830 am I woke up shutting the alarm on my clock to drown out the noise that was incessantly trying to wake me up from my dream filled slumber. Since my class was at 1015 and the fact that I also wanted to make it early to the auditorium in order to get the front row seats, I would have to be ready by 945 maximum. I woke up slowly, yawning and walked towards the bathroom to wash my face and brush teeth, an activity which took me longer than normal people because I had the habit of sitting on the toilet seat and contemplating about life.

930 am I went into the kitchen to make my usual breakfast of peanut butter toast and coffee. The breakfast was ready in 5 minutes, owing to the instant coffee machine that I had recently invested in, and I sat down on the table to eat with a newspaper in my hand to catch up on the latest developments within the country. From a very young age, I had developed the habit of reading the newspaper in the morning primarily because it enabled me to remain in touch with the current scenario of the world as well as beefing up my general knowledge.

950 am I got out of my dormitory building and started walking briskly towards the auditorium where my French class was going to be held. It was 12 minute walk to the auditorium because I had actually timed myself once so that I would not be involuntarily late. The instructor was a stickler for punctuality thereby forcing me to walk hastily towards the auditorium building, without any social interactions mid way to avoid unnecessary interruptions.

1012 am I reached class 2 minutes before the instructor was scheduled to walk in and found my usual seat in the front row, dutifully unoccupied. The instructor entered 3 minutes later, sat the class down and started teaching. Blocking out any contemplative thoughts, I focused my attention entirely upon the instructor and started taking notes in order to adequately prepare for the quiz that was to be held in the next class two days later.

120 pm Since it was nearing lunch time, accompanied by a group of friends, I started walking towards the cafeteria. However, in the middle, one of my friends decided that we should all go out for lunch as opposed to the cafeteria because, after 3 years, the food had a ring of dullness to it. Since we were 6 people and only one of us had a car, it was decided that I would driver while the others would try and fit themselves as efficiently as they could at the back. Our next class was at 130 and that meant that we would have to get done with lunch quickly. In accordance with the time constraint, I expertly maneuvered through traffic and brought us to a local Chinese restaurant.  

Part C
Considering my daily activities, if I had the alien hand syndrome affliction, most of the things that I had taken for granted would be severely affected. For example, while waking up in the morning, shutting the alarm clock could prove disastrous in the sense that the alien hand, acting on its own, would by the use of excessive force break the alarm clock or pick it up and throw it across the room.

On the other hand, simple tasks like washing my face and brushing my teeth would prove to be extremely strenuous ventures because the alien hand, under the influence of involuntary reactions, would grab the tooth paste and pour it all over the sink or even worse, it could wrestle with the other hand in a battle to decide who would grab the soap.

Simple activities like buttering a toast in the morning would also prove to be extremely difficult and even dangerous because the alien hand would grab the jar of peanut butter and try to manually deposit globs of the spread into my mouth or it could also grab the knife and eventually injure me one day. Newspaper reading would also be difficult to achieve because the rouge hand would continuously distract me by slapping at the newspaper or trying to grab it out of my other hand. I would not be able to get any reading done.

Walking through campus towards classes or just hanging out with friends could lead to possibly embarrassing situations because the alien hand, acting on its own, would be prone to doing weird things like grabbing at my collar, trying to unbutton my shirt, striking other people sitting near to me etc. Such things would also taken place during classes, while taking notes I would be severely hampered because the rouge hand would continuously distract me as well as other people sitting around me by striking the table, throwing rubbers in the air, fiddling with papers etc. Driving would be almost impossible because the rouge hand would impede in my turning the steering or it would also randomly press the horn which would disturb, not only me but also everyone around me.

Part D
The fact remains that there is no readily available cure or treatment for the alien hand syndrome, however, certain techniques have been developed which can significantly reduce the problems caused by this malady (Bellows, 2009). The best thing to do is to keep the hand busy with some other manipulative object (Bellows, 2009) (Elias, Saucier, 2006). For example, while taking notes, I would provide the rouge hand with a rubber or some other familiar object with which it can keep itself occupied. In another case involving walking in public, in order to control the rouge hand, I would provide it with a walking stick or cane which would camouflage the random movements associated with the alien hand syndrome.

Talking or yelling at the hand has also been proven to work under a number of situations (Elias, Saucier, 2006). For example, while making breakfast or reading the newspaper, if the alien hand were to prove a nuisance or if it were bothering me to the extent that I was unable to get my work done properly, I would yell at the hand Stop slapping at my newspaper, Im trying to read. Another treatment has also been categorized as training oneself to perform a specific task. For example, while brushing my teeth, I would train the rouge hand to hold the toothpaste without spilling it anywhere on the sink. This is viable although it would require a lot of practice.  

A. Disorder Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder
As described in Axis II Cluster C of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition   text revision (DSM IV-TR), Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) is a  pervasive pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and mental and interpersonal control, at the expense of flexibility, openness, and efficiency, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following criteria preoccupied with details, rules, lists, order, organization, or schedules to the extent that the major point of the activity is lost excessively devoted to work and productivity to the exclusion of leisure activities and friendships shows perfectionism that interferes with task completion reluctant to delegate tasks or to work with others unless they submit to exactly his or her way of doing thingsoverconscientious, scrupulous, and inflexible about matters of morality, ethics, or values unable to discard worn-out or worthless objects even when they have no sentimental value shows rigidity and stubbornness and  adopts a miserly spending style toward both self and others and views money as something to be hoarded for future catastrophes  (2000). People experiencing OCPD believe that their need for strict order and rules is perfectly normal.Usually, they have difficulties with social relationships but tend to perform well in work environments. If they find troubles at work, the reasons are either their being overly perfectionist or their tendency to micromanage tasks to ensure that such are accomplished according to the set deadlines (Moore, 2004). OCPD is believed to have been caused by a deficiency in serotonin, a chemical responsible for maintaining a  happy feeling. Thus to help control obsessions and compulsions, levels of the neurotransmitters known to influence behavioral patterns in the brain (eg, serotonin) are being increased (Moore, 2004).

Research on OCPD suggests a possible genetic cause as it often runs in families. Two studies suggest that people with a particular form of the DRD3 gene are susceptible to developing OCPD and depression particularly among males. The role of genes may however lie dormant until triggered by the environment. For example, children genetically predisposed to  OCPD may never develop the full traits if raised in an environment where influences of OCPD are absent (Moore, 2004).

B. Sample Diary Events
Before leaving the house for school this morning, I opened my bag to check if all the important things I need to bring are all in (e.g. mobile phone, wallet, pen, books, paper, notebooks and assignments due for submission today). After checking and seeing to it that nothing was missed, I headed for school.
I visited the library during my morning break period to do one unfinished assignment due for my Math subject. The professor is particular with the accuracy and details of the solutions written so I focused on what I did.  After answering, though certain that I did the right thing, I still reviewed my answers and double-checked my solutions to ensure that no errors were committed in the process. After all, Math is one of my favorite course.

We did an oral recitation in one of my major classes today. One of my classmates, who was called by my professor, failed to give the correct answer. I wanted my professor to call me since I knew the answer to that question, but I was too shy then to raise my hand knowing that I dont usually participate in class discussions. During that moment, something inside old me to volunteer and answer the question but I was overpowered by my fear so I kept silent instead until somebody else from the class responded to the question.

After my Math course, I met with my groupmates to do a project. Our group leader almost got into my nerve. She is known to be pushy when it comes to projects. We are all aware of the deadline so she doesnt have to keep on reminding us as if we are all idiots and not mindful of our grades. She had assigned us with specific assignments but she kept on insisting to let her see the details of the work we did even if we already made a commitment to submit our output two days prior to the deadline so she can still have time to review.

Before I slept tonight, I volunteered to Mom that I will be the one to check on the gate and see if it was properly locked. I also included the main doors of the house. I dont usually do this everynight. It just happened that I was outside the house to tend to my dog  so I volunteered anyway

C. Be your own case study Reflect on how your daily life might be affected
In the first event, presence of OCPD might lead me to prepare a list of the things that I need and see to it that all are present before I can leave the house. I probably would have  refered to this list from time to time to avoid missing a single detail. If suffering from OCPD, ill probably get to school late almost everyday because ill be overly conscious in ensuring that all things are set before I can proceed to another activity.

In the second event, presence of OCPD might compel me to check my work detail by detail and consume more time than what I actually spent. People experiencing OCPD are very particular with details and are very perfectionist so there is a possibility as well that ill not be able to finish my assignment because I will be spending more time reviewing each item every time I finish one.

In the third item, I dont think having an OCPD will have a greater effect in the said activity since such has no requirement for details. It was an impromtu question. Perhaps, if I have OCPD and I am a very perfectionist person, I would opt not to volunteer as well for fear of ridicule in case I am not sure of the answer.

For the fourth item, I think my groupleader will not have any problem with me because we would share a common attitude towards the project. Both of us will have the same sentiments towards our groupmates who are not overly concern with deadlines. Surely, the two of us will practice micromanagement towards our other groupmates and similar to what I felt, they will also get mad at me.

In the last item, if I have OCPD, I think I will not be able to sleep immediately and it will take me really long to finish checking the gate and the door locks. Surely, ill be checking  them from time to time and repeatedly to ensure that all details have been noted and no lock is missed. Also, ill probably volunteer to do the checking everynight instead of letting my other family members handle the job. At least if its me whos doing the task, I could assure myself that its properly done. I could have slept late as well.

D. Consider how you might adapt to andor remedy your difficulties
If I am suffering from OCPD, I think I will get better grades in class because people with OCPD are very organized and perfectionist. They want every detail to be done correctly so my grades would probably be high. I will have problems though in my relationship with my peers because they would regard me as someone who is overly pushy.

Based on the readings that I did, individuals with OCPD can be considered as more well-adjusted compared to other disorders because people having this are very rule bound so the likelihood of indulging in alcohol or drugs as a means of escapism and coping mechanism is a very rare possibility. What I need to work on though is on how to improve my interpersonal relationships. Behavioral Therapy perhaps would be a very good form of intervention.

Age and generational influences 25 years old, generation Y (Also known as MTV  Millenials)
Developmental disabilities No disabilities
Disabilities acquired later in life No disabilities
Religion and spiritual orientation Roman Catholic
Ethnic and racial identity Latino (Considered White in my country, Venezuela)
Socioeconomic status Upper-high during childhood in VenezuelaUpper-middle in USA
Sexual orientation Heterosexual monogamous
Indigenous heritage No indigenous heritage
National origin Grandparents
Dads side immigrants to Venezuela (Originally from Spain)
Moms side originally from Venezuela 2nd generation (Mothers great grandparents were European Italian, Spanish, and French)
My parents both born and raised in Venezuela (Venezuelan)
Me born in Venezuela, spent most of my childhood and adolescence in Venezuela. Immigrated to America at the age of 16. Venezuelan Immigrant
Gender Female, woman

Think about your most important identity factor. What messages did you receive about that aspect of your identity during your childhoodadolescence What messages diddo you receive about that aspect of your identity as an adult

Childhoodadolescence
Family is the most important thing in the world.
I should strive to become successful
Always be honest, be good to people, do not do to others what you don t want them to do to you.
Do not lie, cheat, or steal.
I should enjoy my life, and everything that it brings.
Believe in God.

Adult
Be responsible with the ones you love, and respect those around you.
I should still enjoy my life, especially the small things.
Take care of your significant other, children, and friends.
Keep growing and growing professionally, and emotionally.

Considering the most salient identity factor for you, in what ways are you similar or different from other individuals with the same identity

Similar
My family values are the same as those with my identity
I share similar career, love, and family goals with the people in my identity group.
Family is significant in my life
My political views are similar to those who share my identity.
I also have the same religious views as the other with my identity.
My goal is to have stability (emotional, economical, professional)
It is also indicative of people in my group to take care of their spouses. This is a trait I also possess.
Motherhood is important to me and others in my identity group.
I look to move forward, and progress in all aspects of my life.
I also have a good social life full of family, and social events.

Different

My relationship values are slightly different than people with the similar identity.
I think women are able to do anything while taking care of their household. Women should work if they want to, and can control the household. Unlike others, I believe a woman should receive help from her husband in the household.

My relationship is based more on trust, and I don t feel the need to control everything he does.
I don t believe a family should be defined are judged by their social status.
Money is important to me, but is not a major goal in my life.

Addressing Maria Martinez
Identity is one of the greatest mysteries in psychology. The complication of self is felt by so many, and truly undefined. The true experience of identity is complex and contextual American Psychological Association APA, 2002, p. 177). This was proven to be true with my interview of my neighbor, Maria Martinez. The experience was fascinating. The analysis of the interview clearly demonstrated many levels of depth within this individual, and her individual identity. According to the Random House Dictionary, identity is the state or fact of remaining the same one or ones, as under varying aspects or conditions (Random House Dictionary, 2010). Miss Martinez was particularly fascinating because she is the center of attention in the apartment building where she lives. Maria Martinez can be described as a beautiful Latina who seems to attract attention and radiates beauty wherever she goes. Its easy to see that Miss Martinez is both admired and envied because of looks, and as Ive recently found out, her personality. I have always found her interesting as a heterosexual woman and by her beauty (including her inner beauty), and certainly understand why men are so attracted to her. Our interview helped me realize that her looks were not the only attractive features of Maria, and even greater interest lies in her as a beautiful person. For me, this woman truly represents many different things all in one.

The ADDRESSING Format
Using the ADDRESSING format was critical in my analysis of Maria and her view of the world.  The ADDRESSING format helped by showing all the aspects that form a complex individual. It also solidified the old clich that every individual is complex and unique. However, it was amazing to see how this format could clarify one of the hardest things to understand in modern psychology. Maria Martinez had many layers, and they were discovered, dissected and understood by using the Hays ADDRESSING format.  Recognizing the complexity of cultural influences is more difficult than either ignoring these influences or simplifying them into a singular dimension (APA, 2002, p. 284).

Maria Martinezs Background and Cultural Group
Maria Martinez was born in 1984. At the age of 25 she belongs to generation Y, which is also known as the Millennials and the MTV generation (Howe  Strauss, 2000, p.23).  Maria was not born with any disabilities and she has not developed or acquired any disabilities during her lifetime. She was born in Venezuela and stayed there with her parents until the age of sixteen. She came to America at the beginning point of her identity, and had to envision herself in a different way when coming into the new culture. According to Goodenow and Espin (1993), the adolescent period is a successful resolve of identity formation that will result in an identity that includes aspects of the self subjectively felt to be central and valued (p. 115).

Maria Martinezs Background and Cultural Group Continued
Miss Martinez shows a mix of strong Hispanic beliefs with obvious variations. She graduated with a Bachelors in Mass Communications, and is currently working at a television company. Miss Martinez is working hard to improve her career and create a stable future for herself and her family.  She has an American boyfriend, who works in the same field as she does. They want to get married, but they are waiting to become more financially stable. Marriage and parenthood often occur early in life and are seen as stabilizing influences (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 378). This is the belief and the practice of most Venezuelans. To Maria marriage is an absolute goal, which shows the influence of the importance of marriage in her culture. At the same time, one can see that even though Maria is 25 years old, she is still working for a better economic situation to engage in marriage. For other Latinas, marriage has happened in an earlier age like Sue and Sue (2008) explained. Maria mentioned that most of her friends in Venezuela were already married and having kids she elaborated that she would like that married life, but she was still accomplishing other important goals in her life, goals she wanted to have out of the way first.

Religious Beliefs
Miss Martinez was born and raised Catholic, and her extended family is considered to be Roman Catholic. She practices her faith in her daily life. Maria goes to mass every Sunday and celebrates Catholic holidays such as Easter, Advent, Pentecost, and Christmas. She believes in the Virgin Mary, saints, angels, and Jesus. Praying is also a practice she engages in on a daily basis, and Maria believes that God is a major part of her life and everyone elses life. Doing good deeds is also a part of her Catholic faith, and Maria believes in helping others, and thanking God for everything good she has in her life. There is strong belief in the importance of prayer and religious views that include (1) sacrifice in this world in helpful to salvation, (2) being charitable to others is a virtue, and (3) you should endure wrongs done against you (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 382). Maria shares all Catholic celebrations and her religious lifestyle with her family and friends. During her childhood and most of her adolescence in Venezuela, she attended various Catholic schools, so she was taught early on that religion is a large part of daily life. Catholic teachings understand morality and ethics to be divinely prescribed and rationally ordered in ways that enable the common good (Kryszak, 2002, p.155). Now that she lives in the United States, she still practices her religion devoutly, but it is not as present as it was in her childhood. Spiritual practice is important to Maria, and she considers it an essential part of her life. According to Maria, Gods hands are included in everything she pursues.

Ethnicity and National Origin
Born in Caracas, Venezuela, the capital city, Miss Martinez is seasoned in living the fast-paced life and enjoys life in the city. Maria has lived in America for many years, but she still identifies with the Latino ethnicity. Visibly she is a Hispanic woman, but it is almost impossible for Americans to begin to guess which ethnic background she comes from. Throughout Latin America, the immigration of European, African, and Asian populations has resulted in a wide range of physical characteristics (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 376). These physical characteristics determine in which social group a person belongs. However, in her country she is considered White, which she explains that in Venezuela, socially, you are White (Light skin), Moreno (A little dark), Black (Dark skin), or Indian (Native). The description of the different Venezuelan races goes back to the times when Venezuela was a Spanish colony and many different European immigrants inhabited the land. However, these concepts are not accepted socially, even though many people still speak of these profile descriptions (Dineen, 2001).

Racial Identity
In Venezuela, having white skin is considered the best and most desired feature (Dineen, 2001).  Miss Martinez recognizes that in the United States she is considered a minority, and doesnt expect or even seem to want to be in the majority of another country. The United States is obviously full of Americans, not Venezuelans, and I respect and understand that (Maria Martinez, personal communication, April 20, 2010).  In the United States (US) Maria is considered Latina, and this fact does not affect her, for she wears this title proudly. An ethnic identity provides a sense of belonging and group membership (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 383). Bernd Simon (2004) believed that membership in a minority group is a rare self-aspect, but membership into a majority is a frequent self-aspect. For Maria Martinez, she identifies with both the majority of the American culture and the minority of her Venezuelan culture in America. Living in the US since the age of sixteen has given her a strong understanding of American culture.

Racial Identity Continued
Acquiring American customs was easy for Maria, and now she celebrates all American holidays with her boyfriend. Although she enjoys living in America and lives the American life, she is vehement on staying true to her Venezuelan culture. Hispanics are currently the largest minority group in the United States. Hispanic Americans are a highly heterogeneous population with the large between-group and within-group differences. Some individuals are oriented toward their ethnic group, while others are quite acculturated to mainstream values (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 376). In Marias case, she is a combination of both groups. She embraces her Latina identity and practices, but at the same time she loves American culture and participates with her boyfriend in the celebrations of the US.

Immigration to America
During her time in Venezuela Maria was a part of the upper social economical class. Upon moving to the United States her status changed to upper middle class. Her parents had to literally start again in their professional careers. Her father had an Masters of Business Administration (MBA) from Boston University as he had studied in the US and got a degree, then moved back to Venezuela after graduation to start a family. He married his wife, and they had Maria and her younger brother. Marias father had the acquired career skills and the tools to start over in America, but started from zero after having a long career in his native country. Acquiring good jobs is vital for the economic success of immigrants (Bohon, 2005, p.34). Their careers and lifestyle changed drastically after moving to America. Although it doesnt seem like a big jump, going down a class can be very dramatic. Social events such as attending clubs, parties, going to nice restaurants, and having fantastic vacations were all taken away (Orces, 2009). So it may not seem major, but the Martinez family had to give up a lot of luxuries. Marias family worked hard to start a new life in the United States, and become financially stable after the big move.

Educational Background
Moving from one country to another can be a major shock to the system as culture and the value of money changes (2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, 2003). Marias family became established in their careers and made enough to send their daughter to college. She graduated with a Mass Communication degree and is working to follow in her parents footsteps. Maria wants to work hard and become a member of the upper middle class society like her parents. Hispanics are overrepresented among the poor, have high unemployment, and often live in substandard housing (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 376). In Marias case, she does not share the economic reality of the majority of Hispanics. On the contrary she enjoys a stable economic situation and a professional career. Miss Martinez is still living with her parents however she explained it is part of her culture for in the Venezuelan culture young people live with their parents until they are married. Family tradition is an important aspect of life for Hispanic Americans (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 377). For Maria living with her parents until marriage is normal aspect of Venezuelan life, and also a part of her religious and moral beliefs.

Sexuality and Marriage
Maria is heterosexual and in a monogamous relationship. She has an American boyfriend who believes in American courting practices. On the other hand she believes in marriage and not living together until you are married. Those with ethnically diverse networks have expanded opportunities to find a partner from a different ethnic or racial background (Clark-Ibanez  Felmlee, 2004, p.294). Her major goals in life entail a marriage, children, and a fulfilling career, which are goals for many people across all cultures. Maria knows she will have a major responsibility taking care of her kids and husband, but she will try to do both things (work and family) always giving priority to her family. Getting married in a church is also a part of her belief as a Catholic woman, and a belief many Catholics share (Korotayev, 2003). For her, Gods approval and blessing is important when marrying someone. Maria follows the religious guidelines of not living with a man until marriage, but she disagrees with staying a virgin until you are married.

Sexuality and Marriage Continued
The sexual behavior of young people has seen a dramatic change with a shift in sexuality and sexual attitude (Twenge, 2006). Maria Martinez is not immune to this shift, and shares the beliefs of many other Generation Y members. Maria believes that if you love the other individual there is nothing wrong with making love to them. She told me though, that when she had her first sexual experience it took a long time to get used to it psychologically and emotionally. Today, Maria has learned how to balance her religious life and her sexual life. On the other hand, Maria still deeply wishes that she could have waited until marriage. In practice and in reality waiting for sex after marriage did not work the way Maria wanted. She does believe in being faithful and committing to one man, even if its not in marriage. This belief is not practiced in her religion, but it is a common in todays Catholics and her Venezuelan culture (Weil, 1999).

Cultural Identity
Maria Martinez has no indigenous heritage. She is an immigrant, and left her country with her parents in search of a safer and freer life with her parents. According to her, Venezuela suffers from a corrupt government, insecurity and a high rate of homicides and robberies. Opportunities for young people are limited in terms of job outlook, growth, and financial independency. Maria loves her country deeply and she will always celebrates her culture, language, and customs, but she feels safety and freedom is important. America has provided the safety and freedom she desired, and the opportunity for Maria to become an independent individual, professionally and economically. She also explained that when she came to the United States, ten years ago, many people from her country migrated. Upon her arrival to the United States she met a lot of immigrants from her country and other Latin countries, such as Colombia, Ecuador, Cuba, Peru, and Argentina. All of the immigrants were looking for basic freedoms and rights.

Familial Background
This young woman came with fear and hope to the United States of America. Stress was prevalent in her family after coming to the United States. The stress was not present because of a legal issue, as they had the proper visas and documentations, but from their financial situation. The family spent thousands of dollars to immigrate and become legal citizens, and they were riddled with debt in the beginning. A lot of the familys stress was also caused by lawyers and government officials, who in managing their legalization were often negligent. For Maria Martinezs family, the process to become citizens of America took much longer than expected. Today, all those problems are gone, and the family is much happier and much more stable. They have recuperated monetarily, and of course are legal citizens of the United States.

Female Identity
Miss Martinez is a woman biologically and socially. She celebrates being a woman, and thinks women are strong creatures. Maria believes women have the ability to make the world greater and keep the earth turning. The status of her professional women in todays society has given Maria much pride and hope. She is excited to see all the opportunities women have and will have in the future. Her belief is that women can get married, have children, and have a great career.  However, family must be first in a womans life. Maria also believes that it is a womans job to maintain her household and family.

Beliefs in Comparison to Cultural Group Beliefs
According to Hays the Hispanic Latino group have many similar beliefs, which are very clear in Marias interview. Latinas come from diverse backgrounds and may or may not identify with any Latin American culture or political identity (Flemmer,  Huerta, 2001, p.272). She believes in the old theories of the light-skinned and dark-skinned people. Although she thinks its wrong, she cant help speaking those old words and even sometimes believing dark is less beautiful and desired than light. Maria also shares many of the same beliefs about marriage and sex as many other Hispanic groups. Sex before marriage is seen as an inevitability, but it is wrong.  In the Catholic religion it also seen as wrong to be unfaithful to your partner (Cahill, 2003).  Like her cultural group, she also has a strong sense of family. People in Marias group think that a young person must follow their parents footsteps and obey them accordingly. However, Maria and her familys independence is not the same as many other Hispanics.

Maria Martinezs Beliefs Compared to Others
Maria Martinezs interview definitely illustrates the complexity of identity. There are many factors that interfere in the determination of who she is. The concentric circles of the Tripartite Development of Personal Identity circle are reflected throughout the interview. At some points, All individuals are, in some respects, like no other individuals (Hays, 2008, p.30). At home she saw her parents stable, happy marriage, and she saw her mom working and taking care of herself, her children, and her husband. Maria also developed a strong outlook on education, as both of her parents graduated from college and worked hard to make a good financial environment for themselves. The Martinezs belief and practice of religion has given Maria a strong moral and ethical sense, while making her a kind considerate person. Her familys financial situation is desirable, but having a lot of money is not her main goal in life.

However, she believes money is a necessity and a definite plus in her life. In Generation Y it is common that people have no financial commitments, and 70 of a young persons income is spent arbitrarily, especially on food and entertainment (McCrindle, n.d., p.2). Going to clubs and parties is a part of Marias social life, but its not a part she saw in her family. Apparently, Maria never saw her parents intoxicated, and its led her to believe that you can have fun without getting drunk and losing control of yourself. Maria is a person whos very in control, and would never let alcohol or parties affect her negatively.

Maria Martinezs Beliefs Compared to Others Continued
Her strong familial background and grounded lifestyle has made Maria a responsible person. Responsibility is a big issue in her household, so being irresponsible is inadmissible for her. Honor is valued in her Venezuelan culture and household. The most honorable person is said to be the most responsible and dependable person (Benedict, 2005). Being a responsible person has become less common in todays society. So being responsible for herself and her actions makes Maria different from many common people. The way she practices her faith is different with Maria than in most people. She says many people she knows are Catholics, but they do not practice it. They just say they are Catholic, but they dont go to church or pray, God is part of my life every day (Maria Martinez, personal communication, April 20, 2010).   She goes to church on a weekly basis, prays, gives charitable donations, and even goes to confession to ask for forgiveness for anything she believes shes done wrong.

Beliefs in Comparison to Cultural Group Beliefs Continued
Marias outlook on love and marriage is also based on what she saw at home. She expects to have the same partner for the rest of her life. Maria also expects to be faithful to the person she marries, and have them be faithful to her. Miss Martinez explained that some of her friends lie to themselves about their partners fidelity, and this is something she could and would never do.  Infidelity is unacceptable in a relationship of any type for Maria Martinez. She also personally believes that a married couple should be close, but they should still be able to do the things that make them individuals. Individuality is important, and she believes that her partner has to be able to have his individuality. Having a separate individuality includes keeping his friends, and doing the leisure activities he enjoyed before they were married. Of course, this belief and practice is age-old, and like many others Maria does not believe in forcing her partner to be who she wants him to be. In the Venezuelan culture it is common that the man or the woman must lose themselves when entering a marriage (Chick, 1997), but this does not apply here. Miss Martinez is adamant in remaining an individual even when married. Marias American boyfriend also poses a problem to many in her culture, and even her parents. The people in her culture typically dont believe an individual should marry outside of their culture. This belief of marrying within ones culture is common in many Hispanic groups. However, Maria Martinez believes that love is love, and no one can or should tell another person who to pledge their love and life to. Crossing the borders of race, ethnicity, and culture carries social and psychological implications for couples, raising questions about group and family loyalties and partner and couple identities (Killian, 2001, p.41).

A Womans Role According to Maria Martinez
A womans role in a family is very serious to Maria Martinez. Her belief is that a woman should work if she desires to work. However, in her life family is number one, so if work interferes with family then you should not work. If you are able to go to work at least half time and be active and take care of your family and children the rest of the day you should do it (Maria Martinez, personal communication, April 20, 2010). Some of Maria friends revealed that they think a woman should stay at home all the time and they should not work. Her responses and attitudes showed that Maria and most of her friends while having similar backgrounds, being from the same country, same age, similar economic status, and families, had totally different experiences at home. Their different home lives made Maria and her friends think of marriage and a womans role in a different way.

Beliefs in Comparison to Cultural and Generational Group Beliefs
In Marias cultural and generational group many people have the same beliefs and goals including Maria herself. She agrees with the group that that you must believe in God, you must work hard to be a productive member of society and family is the center of your life. Family is the nucleus of the Hispanic life (McKay, 2010 p. 2). She believes in family, religion, conservative political views, motherhood, sensuality as public, and sexuality as private.  This is a shared view by Maria and her friends. However, through all those beliefs there is something inherently different in Maria. She is categorized in Latina ethnic group, but her individuality puts her in a whole different category, and separates her from many of her Latina sisters. Maria Martinez is seen as different from many people in her culture on the universal level. However, her interview shows that Maria, just like any other individual is looking for emotional, economical, and professional stability. She wants to feel like she is doing the right thing with her life and the lives of those she affects.  Maria has a bicultural orientation that combines her Venezuelan heritage with the American culture. A bicultural orientation allows individuals to maintain some components of the native culture and to incorporate some practices and beliefs of the host culture (Sue  Sue, 2008, p. 382).

Identity According to the Hays Document
Identity is a complex issue, as Hays explained with her ADDRESSING format, it is important to identify ones biases and background as well as our patients. The only way to understand an individual completely is to analyze them through different categories, not to include them in just one (Hays, 2009 p. 19). Hays showed that a persons identity is made up of different aspects and two people can come from the same place with similar backgrounds, but different life experiences can make them very different from each other. This happens in people all over the world, even in identical twins. The ADDRESSING acronym is a useful framework, which permeates every chapter of the book, calls attention to the multiple memberships and identities both therapists and their clients hold (Schwarzbaum, 2002 p. 1). The ADDRESSING format offers a way of doing a real assessment of a persons identity, and who they identify themselves to be. Nettle mentioned in his book that there is no discrete types of person (Nettle p. 40), and Maria Martinez certainly demonstrates this point.

Maria Martinezs Identity
The different aspects of age, developmental and acquired disabilities, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, indigenous heritage, national origin, and gender give a clearer view of the individual. (Felix-Ortiz, Myers,  Newcomb, 1994, p.110). One label or category is not enough for the full understanding of the individual, and Maria Martinez has clearly shown that fact.  Shes in the category with many other young Venezuelan Catholic women, but her life and beliefs are very different than many of those young women. The simple information and lack of insight when categorizing people can lead to error (Garcia, 2000). If one does not know Maria and her beliefs, then one might believe she is just like everyone else in her generational group or cultural group. Hays format helped offset this room for error, and gave light to individuals such as Maria, showing them for the people they truly are. The ADDRESSING framework is an excellent and welcomed addition to the field (Hays, 2009 p. 87).

Final View of Maria Martinez
Maria has shown me that people are different and alike in so many ways. Cultural diversity is less a problem than a challenge that offers the potential for personal growth, creativity, and deeper human connections (Hays, 2009 p. 66). In the past she represented the Latina next door, but now shes someone whos similar to me. She shares the same relationship problems and views as me. Identifying with people from different races and cultures is essential for a successful assessment of yourself and your environment. According to cultural competence models, psychotherapists must cultivate an awareness of their cultural identities and beliefs to better understand how their perspective impacts their perceptions of their patient (Dadlani  Scherer, 2009 p. 61). The information found in the ADDRESSING format can be useful in many areas, such as work, social life, and love life. This format can help towards the understanding of people and the understanding of peoples differences.

Final View of Maria Martinez Continued
Maria Martinez has shown in her interview and model that our perceptions are not enough in identifying a person. It is important to know all of the factors their background and beliefs before making a decision on whom they are. She had to adapt to a new culture in America, but she did not become a new person. Culture encompasses the ideas, concepts, and skills available to us as a society, so with this definition Marias identity would not be based on cultural surroundings (Nirmukta, 2010). Although some may think that culture played a huge role in what type of person she identifies herself to be today, it is feasible to see that its not the only thing to affect her view of identity. No matter where she is, and what culture she lives in, Maria Martinez will always be the person she is.

This paper explores the subspecialties of forensic psychology providing a detailed evaluation of their components. Forensic psychology has received extensive attention from the public and professional practitioners over the years. Quite distinct from other areas of psychology, forensic psychology is defined as a field which is inclusive of the application of science and law professions in questioning issues which relate to psychology and the legal system. The subspecialties included in this paper are criminal, juvenile, civil, investigative, police and correctional forensic psychology. This discussion addresses such aspects as roles of forensic psychologists, ethical dilemmas encountered by forensic psychologists, remedies for resolving ethical dilemmas, controversial issues in the field of forensic psychology, and other relevant research studies.

Forensic psychology has an extensive history which dates back to the 20th century at the time when psychology was first applied in the legal system. Miller and Reynolds (2003) highlighted the 1921 State vs. Driver case when the first psychologist testified as an expert witness and marked the onset of professional practice of forensic psychology. Since then, forensic psychologists have been involved in numerous cases and their expertise has become more recognized (Miller  Reynolds, 2003). Forensic psychologists are ideally different from other psychologists, especially due to their unique roles. While clinical psychologists are involved in diagnosis forensic psychologists rarely perform any diagnostic procedures (Freedheim, Goldstein  Weiner, 2003). Other distinct differences include their heightened conceptualization of human behavior, their focus on evaluation of involved items, and their capacities to derive conclusive proof of occurring events.

This paper will extensively explore the criminal, civil, investigative, police, and correctional subspecialties of forensic psychology. Criminal law focuses on the acts against society and involves pursuing criminal matters while civil law caters for the violations against individuals (Riber, 2002). In these two areas forensic psychologists have different roles, one of them being expert witnesses in court cases. They also evaluate criminals competencies for trial involving both juvenile and adult offenders. This indicates that other areas such as juvenile forensic psychology are also entwined in criminal forensic psychology (Ribner, 2002). This paper will also highlight the specific roles for different subspecialties and also provide a comprehensive account of the historical components of their origins, issues, and controversies as well as the relevant research developed in the specific subspecialty.
Criminal Forensic Psychology
In the subspecialty of criminal forensic psychology the focus is often on legal competency which thus fosters requests for forensic psychological assessments. Furthermore, psychologists are engaged at different levels of criminal law and tend to interact with a wide range of criminals (Walters, 2007). In this application, forensic psychologists are observed to take on such responsibilities as validating the competencies of witnesses in testifying in court or the capacity of criminals to face trial (Smith, 1993).

Criminal forensic psychology was influenced by the State vs. Driver court case of 1921 and the Jenkins vs. United States case of 1962 (Bartol  Bartol, 2004). In the State vs. Driver case a psychologist was requested to provide expert testimony in court while in the Jenkins vs. United States case of 1975 forensic psychologists were allowed to provide testimonies on the capacity of the defendant to testify after a thorough psychological evaluation. This was significant because forensic psychologists were recognized as qualified professionals to render expert testimonies regarding mental disorder (Bartol Bartol, 2004). However, the court further asserted that the determination of a psychologists capability to render an expert testimony based on his or her results as to the absence or presence of mental defect or disease must depend upon the extent and nature of his or her knowledge (Bartol  Bartol, 2004).

Hess and Weiner (2006) presented other influential cases in the practice of criminal forensic psychology with one of them being the Hidden vs. Mutual life Insurance Co. in 1954. In this case the plaintiff argued that he had a nervous condition which would not allow him to engage in any occupation. In order to examine whether the insured had a mental illness, a forensic psychologist administered projective tests and testified in favor of the plaintiff (Hess  Weiner, 2006). Even though the court later disregarded the psychologists testimony, they also acknowledged the critical role forensic psychologists played as expert witnesses in court cases (Hess  Weiner, 2006). The following years saw their recognition as expert witnesses in the legal system.

In their role of determining legal competency amongst criminals, forensic psychologists are meant to evaluate whether offenders understand the proceedings being made against them (Trager  Brewster, 2001). After the evaluation of a rational understanding of court systems, they are also expected to evaluate mental health capacities, particularly for instances when the sanity of criminals or witnesses is questionable. Using various assessment tools, Bartol and Bartol (2004) illustrated that forensic psychologists are able to determine the genuineness of such conditions as insanity and establish whether offenders are indolent or not. This aspect is considered important in court cases as mentally retarded or insane individuals are accorded differential treatment in court cases (Bartol  Bartol, 2004).

These forensic psychologists are allowed to express their opinions on the mental capacities of such defendants or witnesses. Developments on issues of competency made by a forensic psychologist are valued and more often than not critically considered by judges and juries.

Forensic psychologists have been influential at providing expert opinions on the reliability of certain witness testimonies. The fate of criminals and victims are often dependent on eye witness testimonies which heighten the need for forensic psychologists at determining accurateness (Trager  Brewster, 2001). Hess and Weiner (1998) indicated that courts have shown an inclination at allowing psychologists to educate and enlighten judges and jurors on eyewitness testimonies. Apart from this, forensic psychologists are allowed to assess the criminal responsibility of a defendant at the time they committed the crime. While doing this, forensic psychologists must also present what forms of disturbances were present at the behavioral, volitional, and cognitive levels and provide a clarification of how they relate to the crime committed (Meloy, 2006)..

Criminal forensic psychologists are also given the responsibility of evaluating the risks posed by criminals to society. These assessments are done at times when the court considers bail provisions for the defendant, especially if they are charged with violent crimes and the resulting assessment determines whether to award bail or not (Meloy, 2006). Another important role relegated to forensic psychologists is in sentencing of offenders. As explained by Fabian (2003), in matters regarding such harsh sentences like the death penalty, psychologists are called upon for evaluating the competency and sanity of offenders. These insights may be what mitigates death penalties and instead offer rehabilitative andor correctional alternatives for defendants.

Ethical considerations are relevant in the field of forensic psychology. The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (American Psychological Association APA, 2002) are used as guidelines for ensuring professionalism and ethics in psychology. Among such considerations is the issue of confidentiality where forensic psychologists are mandated to disclose information on their findings and only use it with informed consent. They are also obligated to have an awareness of the legal standards and implications which may limit their relationships with offenders or witnesses to whom they are assigned (APA, 2002).Ethical dilemmas for forensic psychologists handling criminal cases arise when they are expected to disclose crucial information to involved third parties (APA, 2002). In cases where the relationship between the psychologist and offender has made them privy to information which indicates eminent danger to others, psychologists must seek to protect the third party (APA, 2002).  Hart, Ogloff, and Roesch (1989) asserted that the importance of protecting third parties cannot be overemphasized.

In this field of forensic psychology, there are emerging controversies especially with regard to the ethical role of psychologists when dealing with cases where a not guilty by reason of insanity has been delegated. This is also observed when issues of competency are involved and it is in these circumstances that the forensic psychologists ethical role needs to be clarified. Palermo (2003) argued that there are numerous factors which must be put into consideration when defining these ethical roles. Among these factors are the different moral values upheld by society, and the differences in ethic issues of clinical and forensic psychologists (Palemo, 2003). Furthermore, the relationship between forensic psychology experts and the legal systems are crucial in clarifying these ethical issues. Among the relevant research studies carried out in criminal forensic psychology are those by Gejdenson (2006) and Archer, Buffington-Vollum, Handel, and Stredny (2006) who attempted to advance the knowledge of forensic psychology instruments often used in determining the competencies and credibility of witnesses and defendants. In these studies, the researchers evaluated such instruments like the multiscale inventories, single scale tests, personality tests, and psychopathy instruments among others used in forensic assessments in the legal system (Barrack  Mount, 1991).

Juvenile Forensic Psychology
Juveniles are a special population in the society usually considered as minors and whose care is assigned to adult individuals (Randall, Rachel, Craig, Leistico,  Alecia, 2002). Over the years, this population has becomes increasingly engaged in crime and the legal justice system, however as a result of the observable differences between juveniles and adults it has been crucial to devise ways of ensuring their genuine culpability. Forensic psychologists are expected to evaluate the competence of juveniles to either stand trial or provide testimonies (Randall, Rachel, Craig, Leistico,  Alecia, 2000). At an era when crimes involving juveniles are rampant, forensic psychologists play a critical role in juvenile court systems. Following the creation of Miranda rights in 1966 which are meant to protect constitutional rights of individuals, juveniles capacities to understand these rights have become an integral issue in criminal courts. For evidence provided by a minor to be admissible in court, they are expected to fully comprehend their rights and understand their actions. Forensic psychologists as explained by Ribner (2002) are requested to conduct a complete evaluation of the juvenile by considering the totality of circumstances.

The California case of 1967 People vs. Lara (Ribner, 2002) influenced the practice of forensic psychology with its total consideration of circumstances by psychologists as they seek to establish the competency of juveniles to waver their Miranda rights. Furthermore, psychologists are also delegated in establishing a juveniles competency to stand trial as noted by Benedek, and Cornell (1989) where the minors rational competence is scientifically evaluated. Ribner (2002) also sights other influential cases such as Fare vs. Michael C. in 1979 and West vs. United States in 1968. In these cases, forensic psychologists were allowed to evaluate the circumstances under which the juveniles had been interrogated and also whether they possessed the mental competency to stand trial. In 2005, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision by abolishing juvenile death penalty (Roper vs. Simmons, 2005). The court ruling was based on the developmental science that drew expansively from amicus curiae brief submitted by the APA (Steinberg, Cauffman, Woolard, Graham,  Banich, 2009). In making the ruling, Justice Kennedy drew his attention to three definite aspects of juveniles immaturity which diminished their unlawful culpability their immature sense of responsibility, their heightened susceptibility to peer influence and the unformed nature of their characters (Steinberg, Cauffman, Woolard, Graham  Banich, 2009). This case affirmed the earlier mentioned statement that forensic psychologists are expected to evaluate the competence of juveniles to either stand trial or provide testimonies in the courts of law.

Forensic psychologists who are involved in juvenile court cases are also assigned the role of determining the juveniles amenability to rehabilitation. There is a growing controversy on how juvenile offenders should be treated. In cases where juveniles are likely to benefit from rehabilitation, forensic psychologists are requested to establish their capacity to do so. This aids the judge and jury in formulating the appropriate sentence. As highlighted by Arrigo, and Shipley (2005), there are those who perceive that some juveniles are merely troubled and only need treatment while there are those who perceive them to deserve extreme punishment. In such instances forensic psychologists encounter ethical dilemmas especially when they have formed a bond with the minor in question (Arrigo Shipley, 2005). If their emotions interfere with their judgment, their ability to make impartial decisions regarding the provision for rehabilitative treatment may become limited. In these situations, forensic psychologists should withdraw from the court case as their findings are compromised and inadmissible in court (Arrigo  Shipley, 2005).

Among the growing controversies in the practice of juvenile forensic psychology is the issue of the utilization of developmental considerations in juvenile cases. Since children are involved in a constant process of change their behaviors and characteristics are rapidly dynamic. Grisso, Miller, and Sales (1987) asserted that these developmental issues must be critically evaluated and considered in juvenile cases. This is especially important in determining the legal capacities and culpabilities of juveniles at their level of development and that is vital in establishing their levels of rationality and comprehension. Forensic psychologists are urged to develop assessment tools for measuring these developmental perspectives (Grisso, Miller,  Sales, 1987)). This issue has led to the emergence of numerous research studies of juvenile offenders and their capacities in legal system providing ample empirical foundations for use in forensic (Arrigo  Shipley, 2005).  

Civil Forensic Psychology
This subspecialty of forensic psychology involves civil issues especially in court cases with regards to individually executed proceedings. Such civil proceedings range from child custody cases, discrimination and harassment issues, and injury litigation cases among others (Bow  Quinnell, 2001). Forensic psychologists as observed in earlier discussed subspecialties are consulted in establishing competency capacities of involved parties. In child custody proceedings, forensic psychologists conduct evaluations on the capabilities of individuals seeking custody in raising the child or children in question. Civil competency is also mandated in civil disagreements involving will contests (Bow  Quinnell, 2001). Psychologists are expected to perform assessments to establish the mental competency of particular individuals during the time of writing their will. The findings provide guidelines on whether there are grounds for contesting it or not.

Goldstein (2007) highlighted a number of landmark cases, which changed the processes of civil law. Such cases include that of Jackson vs. Indiana (1972) established a significant principle in regard to civil commitment when the plaintiff who was retarded and deaf therefore declared incompetent to stand trial leading to his involuntary commitment in a mental institution. In Atkins vs. Virginia case of 2002, Renard Atkins together with his accomplice William Jones were convicted of armed robbery, abduction and capital murder and sentenced to life imprisonment (Lori, 2003). The jury based its decision on interviews with persons who knew Atkins, a review of court records and administration of intelligence tests which showed that Atkins was not mentally retarded as evaluated by Dr. Evan Nelson, a forensic psychologist.  However, after sentencing Atkins to death, the Virginia Supreme court ordered for a second hearing, alleging that the trial court had utilized a misleading verdict. Dr. Nelson testified at this resentencing. The State provided a forensic expert disproof witness, Dr. Stanton Samenow, who evaluated Atkins and concluded that he was normal with average intelligence, but with antisocial personality disorder (APD). The jury at the Virginia Supreme court again found Atkins guilty and sentenced him to death (Lori, 2003).

As showcased in these cases involuntary civil commitments are also subject to civil forensic psychology.  In circumstances when individuals are not competent to consent to psychiatric treatment forensic psychologists are sought after in order to establish whether involuntary civil commitment is warranted. As established by Petrila (2003) minors are not considered competent enough to consent to treatment and custodians are expected to take this responsibility, however, with this responsibility are other issues which may compromise the wellbeing of the child. It is under such circumstances that forensic psychologists are able to make concrete evaluations of the culpability of custodians in denying minors access to treatment. Mentally ill individuals who are considered incompetent in decision making are admitted to mental institutions through involuntary commitment only after psychologists have established the presence of the mental illness.

Ethical dilemmas are very common in child custody evaluations because they are laden with emotionally vulnerable children and parents. Ethical considerations are very crucial in these cases as the failure to maintain impartiality of judgment in the psychological evaluations may render evidence inadmissible. Forensic psychologists encounter difficulties in providing viable evidence when they conduct evaluations with a preconceived preference on one part as pointed out by Ackerman, and Ackerman (1997). If acquainted with one parent, they are biased against the other parent gaining custody.

Together with following ethical guidelines for psychologists that are available to forensic psychologists they must find alternative replacements when they establish that their impartiality has been compromised. Petrila (2004) addressed controversies within civil law with regard to forensic mental health psychologists who have been used to practicing their profession within mental institutions. Considering that mental health forensic experts have often worked under institutionalized jurisdictions, emerging civil decisions are shifting their focus and pressuring them to deinstitutionalize. Petrila (2004) observed that even though they have questioned their capacities and responsibilities in offering expert testimonies in civil courts, it is eminent that they need to integrate their expertise cohesively with civil law while doing this.

Since civil forensic psychology involves many personal evaluations, a majority of researches are carried out with the aim of assessing issues involved. Knapp, and VandreCreek (2001) addressed ethical issues involved in conducting personal assessments and further provide information which can guide forensic psychologists in carrying out ethical evaluations consistent with the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2002). Another relevant research involves the study of trends and the state of professional practice among psychologists in child custody evaluations (Bow  Quinnell, 2001).

Investigative Forensic Psychology
This subspecialty refers to the application of forensic psychological research and principles to investigations of criminal behaviors. As described by Canter (1995) in Arrigo, and Shipley (2005), investigative psychology is deemed to have begun in 1985 when the author was requested to explore the possibilities of integrating investigative techniques and procedures with psychological concepts. Central to investigative forensic psychology is the determination of significant behavioral features of crimes which can aid prosecution of the offenders.  This creates inferences on characteristics of offenders which can lead to their identification and also establish the likelihood of such offenders to have committed other crimes. Forensic psychologists are tasked with the responsibility of profiling during investigations. Profiling is done especially on the psychological and demographic features of involved individuals. Mcgrath (2000) asserted that as a profiler a forensic psychologist is mandated to make inferences on offender characteristics using gathered information of crime scene behavior and form interpretations made from collected crime scene evidence and victimology. A forensic psychologists expertise is also considered very instrumental in investigating serial crimes as they are capable of identifying crimes which were carried out by the same person(s). Douglas, and Munn (1992) expound that forensic psychologists may not be considered the best criminal profilers but are better placed to build substantial profiles due to their forensic training. They add that their work is quite extensive and rather difficult. Recently, forensic psychologists have also been involved in conducting psychological autopsies where they attempt to recreate personality profiles of deceased individuals in collaboration with law enforcement officers (Douglas  Munn, 1992).

The field of investigative forensic psychology includes the investigation of the Boston strangler in 1964 cited by Turvey (2008) where the defendant Albert DeSalvo confessed to being the Boston strangler. In line with the DNA evidence found on the strangled women it was clear that DeSalvo had not committed the crime. A forensic investigation was carried out and while in prison a forensic psychologist evaluated his confession and concluded that there were anomalies. The psychologists claim was validated when DeSalvo recounted his confession and denied being the Boston strangler. Bartol and Bartol (2004) highlighted the 1971 case of the mysterious hijacker of the Northwest Airlines Boeing 727 in Portland. In pursuit of the hijacker, forensic psychologists were involved in the investigations as criminal profilers (Turvey, 2008).

In making contributions to criminal profiling forensic psychologists are expected to be aware of the weight of their expertise during investigations. As such they must conduct their investigations accordingly so as to avoid compromising cases. Ethical dilemmas in criminal profiling emerge when forensic psychologists lose their objectivity and professionalism. Kocsis (2006) argued that it is crucial to remain objective and independent throughout criminal profiling proceedings. At times psychologists may have a differing opinion from those they are engaging with during investigations. In order to avoid compromising the investigations it is important that they remain objective and distance themselves from engaging with either side of the investigation.

Controversial debates in investigative forensic psychology have emerged in offender profiling. Alison and Goodwill (2007) expanded the debates on the possibilities of inferring offenders features using details from crime scenes. They also set out to ascertain the possibilities of profiling an offenders age from the victims age in cases of stranger rape. Processes and methods used during criminal profiling by forensic psychologists suggest that factors present in crime scenes can indeed have differential moderating effects on the outcomes of predictions. Other relevant researches in investigative forensic psychology involve formulating an understanding of the roles of forensic psychologists in offender profiling under different contexts. Annon (1995) described the concepts and theories behind the practices of offender profiling and the critical roles forensic psychologists play in behavioral analysis of different crime scenes.  

Police Forensic Psychology
Policing in the 21st century has shifted from incident driven perspectives to problem solving stances which have further integrated the necessity for forensic psychologists. Police psychology distinguishes roles played by police officers from other law enforcement officers. Forensic psychologists are expected to provide services to policing in areas such as the recruitment of police officers and fitness for duty evaluations, juvenile policing and community policing (Bartol, 1996). Cochrane, Tett, and VandreCreek (2003) pointed out that psychological expertise is required by police departments during procedures for selection. It is the responsibility of the forensic psychologist to conduct tests on the similarity of police personalities with those of aspiring individuals. In fact they are often requested to conduct research and create ideal police profiles which can be used during recruitments. During police interrogations forensic psychologists are often requested in order to offer insight on the capacity of individuals to respond to interrogations. Confessions are only admissible in court when they have been derived accordingly and forensic psychologists play a big role in advising police officers on the credibility of confessions (Cochrane, Tett,  VandreCreek, 2003).

Hess and Weiner (2006) claimed that the first practice of police forensic psychology was in 1917 when mental tests were used as screening devices in the selection of police officers. After that other psychologists were involved in developing assessment tools for the recruitment of law enforcement personnel such as the Army intelligence examination.  Bartol and Bartol (2004) presented a study in 1992 where forensic psychologists administered personality inventories like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), Citizen Police Academy (CPA), Sixteen-Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) and the Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI) in measuring the integrity levels of police officers. It was evident that police officers engaged in corruption possessed common personality characteristics such as immaturity, delinquent histories and signs of maladjustments (Bartol  Bartol, 2004).

In todays world, police officers are highly involved in the lives of juveniles especially with the rise of delinquent youths. Their interactions can be quite demanding as they are expected to develop amiable relations with juveniles (Alec  Richard). There are emerging controversial issues in this regard as police officers find themselves in situations where they are conflicted on how to implement intervention strategies. In the midst of such interventions are the conflicts of addressing the juveniles best interests and their responsibility of maintaining public safety and security. At this point forensic psychologists offer valuable services of conducting risk assessments in areas where juvenile delinquency is highly prevalent. This helps police officers in identifying high risk areas and therefore considering relevant strategies (Alec and Richard).

Fulero and Wrightsman (2009) depicted that ethical issues are often present when forensic psychologists consult with law enforcement. For instance, an ethical dilemma arises when forensic psychologists are obliged by authorities in the police department to disclose information on individual officers who are evaluated for promotion (Fulero  Wrightsman, 2009). In such circumstances if they are under threats, forensic psychologists are expected to uphold their code of conduct and honor the confidentiality privilege however they can seek to terminate their services when they encounter such circumstances rather that break their code of ethics and conduct. Moreover, the ethical problem of dual roles is continuously raising controversial debates in policing forensic psychiatry and as explained by Alec and Richard (1998).  There have been various mechanisms which have been invoked as experts attempt to provide a common ground for practice.

Relevant researches in police forensic psychology have included the evaluations of risk assessment techniques and tools such as the Historical, Clinical, Risk Management-20 (HCR-20), violence risk assessment technique (VRA) and the MMPI-2 for adolescents among others used by forensic experts in judging delinquency (Arrigo  Shipley, 2005). In the Tarasoff vs. Regents of California University (1979) landmark case, the court ruled that forensic psychologists should be in position to assess their clients for any possible mischief to an identifiable victim. Therefore, this decree brought the theme of risk assessment to the lives of forensic psychologists, and was significant as it led to a major controversy among forensic psychologists about the effects of such risk assessment on the remedial processes and moral principle of confidentiality (Trager  Brewster, 2001). Experts have time and again agreed that forecasting risk for prospect violent behavior in their clients is a remarkably tricky role. However, its expected that the courts will carry on demanding forensic psychologist to provide risk assessments, in spite of the difficulties distinguished in giving precise, accurate or exact predictions (Arrigo  Shipley, 2005). The courts have continually ruled that forensic psychologist provide expert testimonies about predictions of violent behavior (Schall vs. Martin, 1984 Barefoot vs. Estelle, 1983 Saleno vs. United States, 1987). This makes the forensic psychologist plus other mental health professionals to uphold their principled duty and acknowledge the setbacks of their proficiency in providing such predictions (Arrigo  Shipley, 2005).

Correctional Forensic Psychology
Corrections in the world today are considered a complex and extensive form of operation which relies heavily on psychological expertise. This field addresses correctional facilities and issues involved in the rehabilitation of individuals (Walters, 2007). In prison correctional facilities forensic psychologists play a role of conducting evaluations on inmates in the consideration of a variety of factors. In circumstances where inmates are indicative of aggressive behavior and need further restriction, forensic psychologists assess their behaviors and report on their qualifications for prison transfers.

Bartol and Bartol (2006) explained that forensic psychologists are expected to observe the inmates behaviors paying close attention to the aggressive responses they elicit. In prison psychological assessments are carried out at the entry level of inmates, when they are about to be released and when there are psychological crises. In addition, when inmates involved are facing death penalties forensic psychologists are very influential in establishing the mental health of such inmates (Walters, 2007).. This can help if the inmate has been wrongly incarcerated and investigations are being carried out on their involvement in particular crimes. Since the constitution prohibits the execution of inmates who are mentally handicapped and who do not comprehend the extent of the punishment forensic psychologists have been vigorously involved in catering for inmates on death row (Bartol  Bartol (2006).

Noteworthy developments of the practice of correctional forensic psychology occurred in 1964 as explained by Hess and Weiner (2006) where the introduction of a unit management system was established in federal prisons. These systems involved forensic psychologists dividing prison populations of both staff and prisoners with regard to the prisoners rehabilitation needs and the staffs areas of expertise. Prior to this development forensic psychologists had been more involved in working with offenders and offering them treatment services (Hess  Weiner, 2006).

More often than not, psychologists working in correctional facilities encounter ethical dilemmas with regard to the informed consent of inmates. Inmates are often subjected to psychological evaluations without their consent and forensic psychologists may encounter problems especially when inmates believe that they have no choice but to take part in the evaluation (Trager  Brewster, 2001). This also capitulates to the problem of dual relationships when forensic psychologists are expected to honor both the correctional facility and the individual they are evaluating. Further controversies arise in cases where forensic psychologists are expected to offer expert opinions with regard to the rehabilitative capacities of juveniles in correctional facilities (Trager  Brewster, 2001). In recent times, the majority of juvenile offenders are assigned rehabilitative treatments as opposed to punishments as this has increased the involvement of psychologists in juvenile correctional facilities. As they are charged with the duty of determining the capacity of rehabilitated juveniles to cope in their former home environments they can develop deep bonds with them. This may induce ethical problems of lack of due diligence and objectivity while carrying out evaluations. Althouse (2000) highlighted a case of choosing freely vs. freely choosing, where Uri Gofman, a man blamed for arranging a major mortgage scheme in the history of Ohio being enrolled in a rehabilitative program by a correctional forensic psychologist.  The program was intended to assist rehabilitate Gofman, such that when he is released and rejoins the general public, he would be obligated to follow the law (Althouse, 2000).

Correctional forensic psychology has not been operative for long and there has been limited relevant research assigned to this field of psychology. Linda and Shoba (1994) have researched on the above mentioned ethical and professional conflicts often observed in correctional facilities. Although this has been relevant it has not indicated specific reference to the practice of forensic psychology, however there are future considerations being made for more research on the roles of forensic psychologists in correctional facilities (Linda  Shoba, 1994). Also, there is a general need to conduct surveys in correctional facilities on the provisions made for forensic psychologists evaluating aggressive inmates.

Summary
From the above discussion, it is evident that the paper has extensively addressed the field of forensic psychology. With specific attention being paid to the different subspecialties, it is observable that forensic psychologists are tasked with a vast range of roles. Forensic psychologists working with criminal courts are responsible for carrying out evaluations and providing expert opinions on competencies of offenders to stand trial and witnesses in providing testimonies. They also assess the criminal responsibility of offenders and even provide insight on the competencies of offenders during sentencing. Ideally, forensic psychologists are valued in all the subspecialties as their expert opinions are utilized during judging of cases. Other roles discussed include their capacities as criminal profilers during criminal investigations, their involvement in police selection processes and the evaluation of police officers fitness for duty. They are also instrumental in child custody cases filed in civil courts where they are expected to evaluate the credibility of custodians and also in assessing the best provisions available for the childs wellbeing. Furthermore, they are engaged in correctional facilities where they offer services to death row inmates in evaluating their mental rational capacity.

In the practice of forensic psychology, there are emerging ethical issues which have been detailed in the discussion with regard to the various subspecialties, however eminent issues include the aspects of dual agency and a lack of objectivity in handling various circumstances of their work. Regardless of this, the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2002) has been showcased as a valuable source of guidance which can aid forensic psychologists in handling any ethical issues that they may experience. From the above mentioned landmark cases in dissimilar subspecialties of forensic psychology it is also evident that these ethical issues have been subject to controversial debates in the field of psychology. However with the rampant growth of forensic psychology research, these controversies will be solved. Even though the subspecialties are indicative of distinct fields of practicing forensic psychology, there are common roles which can be deduced. Forensic psychologists ultimately play the role of rendering expert testimonies and knowledge to all these subspecialties of forensic psychology. Therefore, their competence takes precedence along with ethical guidelines to follow, and coupled with continuous search for more relevant knowledge. The many roles of forensic psychologists are and will be invaluable to society.

The widespread and usual notion about being exceptional, successful, extraordinary, or about being an outlier is that it comes from the inherent or innate nature of a person. That person is thought of by other people to be talented and gifted with great abilities to stand out in a crowd and fulfill the destiny of success. Significant factors of triumphs such as educational attainment, training, culture, family background, and the aptness of the moment to grab an opportunity, are often pushed aside in defining what makes a person an outlier.

On the other hand, one cannot discount the contribution of these factors to the way of success of any person. These factors are all significant in being successful. Being an outlier cannot be attributed alone to an individuals innate talent or characteristic. More so, the factors abovementioned are always present in a persons story of victory. These factors may be the incredible secret to every outlier. This is the very claim of Malcolm Gladwells Outliers, the Story of Success.  

Before we take on the success of evaluating Gladwells Outliers, it is of great assistance to initially know something about him. Aside from Outliers, the Story of Success, Malcolm Gladwell is also the author of the two best selling non-fiction books namely The Tipping Point and Blink. The common about Outliers, The Tipping Point, and Blink is the discussion about singularities or about things we often consider as unusual and out of our league. Gladwell usually explains these singularities in the light of details that are ordinarily disregarded in giving the main reason for those events, things, and persons that are extraordinary. Gladwell is always interested in bizarre and remarkable things.

Malcolm Gladwell does not have any psychology or sociology degree as one expects from his exposition of success in Outliers. He has a degree in History. Before becoming a best-selling author, Malcolm Gladwell is a correspondent of The Washington Post and then a writer of The New Yorker.

Now that we have been familiar with Gladwell, it is of the proper time to be deeply familiar with Outliers, the Story of Success before making an evaluation.

The book is divided in to two parts. The first part of the book is entitled opportunity and the second part is called legacy. The first part of the book contains chapters one to five. These chapters expound on the often taken for granted factors such as appropriate timing and series of great opportunities that determine the success of a person. The second part of the book has chapter six to nine and epilogue. This part of the book discusses the traits, values, beliefs, and ideas that people have imbibed from their culture and family background in becoming successful.

The first chapter of the book as its rubric suggests, The Matthew Effect, is about the advantages of birth dates in qualifying for big time national leagues in hockey, baseball, and soccer. Malcolm Gladwell points out that birth dates are often neglected and attributed to have no effect on a success of a person. In this part of the book he presented data about the correlation of the birth dates of team superstars to their success in the sport they were in. In his account Gladwell presented that in Canadian hockey because the cutoff date for joining a team is January one, most of the famous and great hockey players in Canadian teams are born on the first months of the year. Most of them were born on January, February, and March.

The Matthew Effect says that those who have given an advantage to be born on the first months of the year will receive more advantages because of that first advantage. Since they have qualified to be on the team because they were lucky to be born on the first three or four months of the year, they were still luckier because of the series of training that the team will invest on them. Consequently, they will be the ones who will receive more contracts and will play more games. Since they have underwent a myriad of practices and trainings as compared to others they will be the future superstars. Their advantage started only with a single advantage, to be born on the first months of the year.

The second chapter of the book is about the ten thousand hour rule. In this part, Gladwell claims that as it is showed by history of great personalities, successful in their chosen path, it is an imperative to have at least ten thousand hours of practice of doing what they want to be in order to master that skill. He has enumerated the case of The Beatles, Bill Joy and Bill Gates in pointing out his contention.

As an example, he said that The Beatles has more than enough of the ten thousand hours of practice when they hit the top of the charts in the music industry. It is because when they are still in Hamburg, The Beatles has been invited by a local club owner to play in his restaurant for eight hours of seven days a week. Since they must play up to eight hours a day, they must innovate the way they perform in front of many people. They must learn all kinds of songs they must have their own rendition of every song so that they must appeal to the customers and patrons of the restaurants.

Another example that was given by Gladwell is the case of Bill Gates, the one responsible for the most of the operating systems of every personal computer in the world today and Bill Joy, another computer genius. Gladwell discussed that every successful person in every world whether musicians like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart or computer geeks like Steve Jobs, the owner of the superior and posh Mac laptops and other electronic gadgets must have ten thousand hours of exposing themselves into the field that they love in order to be overly successful or to be an outlier.

The chapter three and four of the book asserts that IQ or the measurable intelligence of a person is not tantamount to the measurement of success. In this part, Gladwell contends that high and exceptional IQ does not necessarily translate into being an outlier or an overly successful person. Gladwell says that IQ has a threshold. Of course it is essential that one has a high IQ in order to be an outlier but when one compares a person with an IQ of 120 to a person with an IQ of 195, it does not necessarily follow that the person with the IQ of 195 will be more successful than that of the one with an IQ of 120. According to Gladwell, the threshold of an IQ as a factor for measuring success is 120.

To elaborate the argument about IQ, Gladwell cited the example of the comparison of the capacities of a person based on being creative and based on measurable intelligence. He says that there are people who has very high IQ but lacks imagination. In order to be successful Gladwell says that apart from being exceptionally intelligent one must also be creative in order to be successful and to significantly handle problems and trials in ones endeavors. Measurable intelligence is called analytical intelligence and creative capacities belong to practical intelligence.

Another point made by Gladwell about intelligence is that if one is extremely intelligent but has no great and solid family background, there is a great tendency that one cannot manage the adversities that one can encounter and fail like the most unwise person in the world.

To elaborate this assertion Gladwell mentioned the case of Christopher Langan, a man with an IQ of 195 and Oppenheimer, one of the men who are responsible for the creation of atomic bombs.

Christopher Langans father has left them when he was still young. They were financially underprivileged and his step father is always beating him and his mother when he is still young. Also Chris mother is not that familiar about scholarship acquiescence in universities. When the time came that Christopher has been bereft of the means to sustain schooling, his mother has failed to accomplish the requirement of the university Christopher was so Chris has eventually stopped schooling.
Different from Langan, Oppenheimer came from a very wealthy and well-known family. Since his early childhood, Langan is already exposed in the intricacies of dealing with people and asserting for ones rights and desires. His father is a businessman and Oppenheimer definitely handles negotiations in uptight situations magnificently.

So even though Oppenheimer and Langan experienced the same adversities and difficulties in life and even though Langans IQ is higher than Oppenheimer, Oppenheimer has become more successful than Langan later in life.

The fifth chapter of the book expounded on the notion of cultural background and demographic background as the determining factors of success. Gladwell mentioned the case of Joe Flom and Maurice Janklow. Joe Flom is a Jewish immigrant in the United States that became successful in the clothing industry because of a Jewish background. Jewish immigrants in that day are advantageous in the clothing industry because that is there staple living in the place where they have left.

Maurice Janklow is one of the owners of the greatest and biggest law firms in New York. He is a Jew. In his days, New York law firms do not involve themselves in litigation cases. They just perform services related to taxes. In terms of suing other companies and merging or buying out other companies, New York law firms at that time are hesitant. Janklow even though he is a very good law student did not land a job easily because he is physically not that appealing to be a lawyer compared to other aspiring lawyers.

However when he has decided to collaborate with other Jewish lawyers and instituted a law firm, it started to grow with an enormous propensity. It is because Janklow and his other associates accept those cases that other big time New York law firms do not accept. So after many years, Janklow has become the trend setter in New York law firms. It is for the reason that law services related to litigation matters are already the primary problems of law firms when Janklows firm is already rising up.

The sixth part of the book stressed the role of cultural background in determining success or the attitude and behavior of a person. Gladwell indicated the situation of the Appalachians which are the ancestors of the Southerners in the United States of America. He claims that Southerners have quick tempers and are easy to be annoyed once you triggered and placed them in uptight situations. He says that this behavior and attitude can be attributed to a long way to the culture of the Appalachians that are the ancestors of this Southerners because of the core of values that Appalachians uphold. As Gladwell stated, legacies that culture left are very powerful force in determining success. Legacy in the sixth part of the book is connected to the ancestral cultural legacies that are passed down to families after families.

In the seventh part of the book, cultural legacies or cultural background is also discussed but it is connected to the culture, valuation and tradition that every country upholds. This is demonstrated through the analysis of factors contributing to plane crashes.

Gladwell pointed out that the usual reason of plane crashes are neither unskillful pilots nor terrible weather but communication barriers among or between the chief pilot, the second pilot and the chief engineer of the plane and the International Airline Traffic Enforcer. It is because when those officers are placed in uptight situations such as maneuvering through a very terrible weather and landing down in the airport it is usually the miscommunication between those responsible officers that make the maneuvering of plane very difficult.

Gladwell asserted that communication problem is the very source of plane crashes of Korean Air. It is because in this country the subordinate gives a very great regard for his or her superior to the point of sugarcoating suggestions that must be made in urgent situations. Also, euphemisms are used by subordinates to assert something to their bosses. In Korea, Gladwell asserted that subordinates must pay respect to their bosses to the point that subordinates must treat their superiors for lunch and must buy those gifts. Subordinates must let their superiors to drink first in a luncheon or dinner meeting. Subordinates must greet their superior first before talking to them.

Because of the reasons abovementioned, Korean Air have been experiences a great number of plane crashes thus diminishing their effectiveness and decreasing the trust of their patrons and clients. Another situation is that of Colombia. Gladwell said that there are countries that are have strict regard for rules and regulations and for their superiors regardless of the circumstances. Also there are other countries that have a great regard for circumstances than strict regulations and rules.

The eighth chapter of the book discusses that the dexterity of Asians regarding mathematics is connected to the long period and culture of their industriousness and hard work. It is because counting has become embedded in their culture for a myriad number of centuries. Counting is greatly needed for agriculture in planting rice in rice paddies.

In the ninth chapter, academic performance is attributed to financial family background. Data showed that children with great financial family background are smarter than those children with poor family background. It is because rich families plan the future of their children and invest in training their children by enrolling them in enrichment programs to develop their talents.

The epilogue part of the book discusses the historical background of Malcolm Gladwell from his grandmother to his mother. Summing up all those factors mentioned above. Gladwell emphasized that being an outlier is not about ones inherent talent or ones attitude but it is about the circumstances, opportunities and appropriate timing of events that can put an individual into the route of success.

The general statement of the book or the primary argument of the book is that being successful is not about ones talent, IQ, or putting it more direct to the point, being successful is not about the person or the individual. Being successful is about the circumstances that give opportunities to persons in order to be successful. It is about the historical events that transpire into ones life that determine if that person will fail or will succeed.

The greatest advantage of the arguments of Gladwell is that he gives importance to the factors that are often pushed aside by other people in determining ones triumph and victory in life. However it is also his greatest disadvantage. It is because by doing such, he has downplayed the greatest factor of success  the individual.

It is always the individual that always determines ones success. It is because it is always up to the individual on how he or she will manage his or her self in uptight situations. Even there are great circumstances and opportunities in life that will be presented to an individual, if the individual is weak and always pessimistic he or she will never be successful. However, even if there are no opportunities and all circumstances in an individuals life are not that positive, the individual can make out of his way to find opportunities and turn out bad circumstances into good one to be successful.

The very problem of Gladwell is that his definition of being an individual is that he separates and detaches the definition of an individual from his family background, cultural legacy, circumstances, and opportunities. But the very question is what makes the opportunities and circumstances It is the individual. If Gladwell assimilates the definition of being an individual with the individuals educational attainment, culture, family background, values, and circumstances. He will see that in the very definition of an individual, there is no point to claim that the influences, opportunities, and legacies are the primary factors in determining success.

In the case of Canadian Hockey players, those who are born from Jan to April are not outliers if we will really look at the definition of being an outlier, that is the norm in that, and the only people who might be considered an outlier in that situation or that context are those who arent born of those months and are still more successful than those players who are born on Jan to April.

10,000 hour rule is most likely true but it is not the only key to success. If it is a very great or enormous factor, then all people can be extraordinary just by practicing up to 10,000 hours. And how about those people that have just reached 9,000 hours of practice, can they not be successful
Bill Gates has been lead to those opportunities not because of the timing and circumstances but because he already like computer programming and because he chose to find those opportunities.

Being a history major, Gladwell has treated the explanation of outliers through their history and the history of the country and the period in which an individual belong overlooking the power of the individual to have the last human freedom  the freedom to perceive.