Psychology

The goal of this study was to look at significant differences between cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. The current study hypothesised that there are significant coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physical stalked victims. A 2x2 Anova Experimental design has been used. The variables for this study are Gender (female, male) and Stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). The dependent variable is the score on the Coping Questionnaire (Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, 1989). Participants in this study were 100 self identified stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). Participants were invited through networking website Facebook for this study.

What did I found What the findings mean for the real world

Introduction
Stalking behaviour has been explored in many studies. Stalking communication can takes many forms, just some of which include occur in form of letters, cards, internet and faxes. faxes,When stalking moves beyond mere harassment from a distance, its forms include visiting the victim at home, internet, telephoning, following the victim, verbally threatening violence, physical assaults, gifts, visiting places where the victim lives, face-to-face contact, and aggressive behaviour in form of property or object damaging (Sheridan, 2001). Mullen defined stalking as a constellation of behaviours in which an individual inflicts upon another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications. (Mullen, 1999). In recent years with the surge of social networking and information accessibility via websites, the ease with which an individual can track and stalk a victim has also grown exponentially.

Stalking involves obsessive behaviour toward the victim and often starts with mild harassment, often unbeknownst to the victim. This can start from with following a person, described as physical stalking to harassing the victim per email or phone calls.

Most people heard the word stalking first through the Medias media as a result of obsessed fans fixating on celebrities.

Rebecca Schaeffer was one of the first notable cases of celebrity stalking. The former 1980s sitcom star was stalked by her number-one fan Robert Bardo, who took it upon himself on July 18 1989, to visit Schaeffers apartment and put a bullet in her chest after two years of progressively-intrusive stalking. even killed by her stalker, an obsessed fan who had been stalking her for two years, It was this incident that lead that to the laws regarding stalking is now part of the legal system (who said that) (Discovery.com, 1998). Because the address of Schaeffer was given to Bardo by a detective agency that obtained the information from the California Department of Motor Vehicles, legislation giving individuals the right to keep their information from being released by the Department of Motor Vehicles (Discovery.com, 1998). This was just one of the laws that resulted from stalking as it gained national attention, and the need for protection from future acts of this nature was recognized by law officials everywhere.These

Legal issues were not the only areas that expanded because of the tragedy of Schaeffers death. As stalking came into the spotlight, psychologist began work to try to explain the mentality that resulted in this crime. This particular case falls into the category ofcategories of stalking can be categorized such as cases of known as erotomania, which includes behaviour of obsessive, excessive and delusional behaviour  (Howitt, D. (Seemann, 2002).) Erotomania is defined in the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, (1994) as erotomania. Erotomonia is a delusional disorder in which. tThere is almost no contact between the stalker and their the victim. This disorder follows the case of Bardo, butBut not all stalkers are mentally ill.

More celebrity cases of stalking that fuelled the necessary application of further legislation included the mere threat from a distance of actresssinger Madonna. A homeless man by the name of Robert Hoskins.

As with any form of abnormal behaviour, stalking is complex., Mmore than one cause and various permutations of stalking exists - from following somebody to harassing a person online through instant messagingfrom a distance via the web or instant messaging. Stalking is defined as the wilful, malicious and repeated following and harassing of another person. (Meloy, 1998, p2). However people tried to define it e.g.  As the telecommunications world advances every day, this concept has been expanded to include the term known now as cyberstalking.

Mullen classified five categories of stalkers based on motivation and context. These five categories are being rejected, feeling incompetent, being predatory, seeking intimacy, being resentful (Mullen et al, 1999). The most common stalker is called the Rejected . This stalking behaviour arises from formal intimate relationship partner, but can also include a relative, or a friend. This kind of stalker often has the feelings of loss, frustration, anger, jealousy, malevolence, and depression. The next category of stalker is the Intimacy Seeker who seeks an intimate relationship, generally with feelings of love (Mullen et al, 1999).. These are men or women who have the aforementioned erotomania. The third category classified by Mullen is the The Incompetent which contains a group of unintelligent and social unsophisticated individuals (Mullen et al, 1999). These individuals lack the ability to seek an intimate relationship through normal courting methods. The fourth category is The Resentful and it is the first category that turns toward a more malicious intent. The resentful stalker has the goal of distressing and frightening his victim, sometimes seeking revenge for feelings of injustice (Mullen et al, 1999). Finally, the fifth category is called The Predatory and involves the stalker deriving pleasure from the power and control experienced in stalking a victim (Mullen et al, 1999). The victim becomes an obsession  the stalker wants to know everything about the victim. These stalkers usually have sexual offense convictions and paraphilias of some sort (Mullen et al, 1999).

It is clearly demonstrated in many studies that women are much more likely to be stalked and attacked by a formal sexual partner than by a stranger (Sheridan, 2003) The reason could be in the perception -, how males perceive stalking behaviour compared to females. The public perception of a common stalker is generally thought as ato be male and common victim is thought of asto be a female. In comparisonDespite public perception,  Novell, (1999) found in a study that more males are being stalked via the internet than females., this Some consider this to be a result ofis result may associated with males using the Internet usually on differentfor different purposes basis than females. Male victims who are stalked by female stalkers perceive the female more as a positive riskperceive little or no danger in interacting with women via the Internet, whereas female victims perception ofn male stalkers is more negativecommon, causing an immediate distrust that men simply dont exhibit.

In most studies the majority of stalkers are male. There is still less awareness given to female stalkers. A study of 190 female stalkers found the majority met the criteria for a mental disorder. For the majority of female stalkers the reason for their behaviour included the break up of their relationship. Also it is noticed that men are less likely to define himself as a victim of a female stalker (Sheridan, 2005). This may result in the numbers being skewed, as many of the unreported cases of female stalking lead the numbers to be misrepresented. In addition it has been reported that the police are considerably more likely to arrest and report incidents involving female victims (Sheridan, 2002 (Tjaden  Thoennes, 1998)) 

Study of Sheridan, 2005 found that among 1,051 participants have been 86 female victims and 14 male victims. This study includes that 72 of stalking behaviour was through phone calls and 67  include spying on the victim. 50 of the participants had intimate relationship with their stalker. Another study between 1700 pupils has shown that there is a strong correlation between bullying in school and online bullying (Katzer, Fetchenhauser, Belschak, 2009) 

Cyber stalking is the use of internet or other technical electronic methods to harass or stalk an individual. It can include telephone calls, unwanted text messaging, internet bullying. Online stalkers harass their targets by using online communities, chat rooms or social network sites. There are many network communities such as Facebook, Netlog, and Myspace to create a personal profile with personal information. A study on  by  Hinduja  Patchin, (2005) shows that 34  of US-chatters have been claimed to be a victim of aggressions in online chartrooms (Hinduja Patchin, 2005).

Cyber stalking is defined as seeking and compiling personal information on the victim in order to harass, bully, threaten or frighten the victim via use of electronical methods. These methods include such as repeated unwanted e-mailing or electronically harassment as spamming or sending online viruses to the victim, identity theft, signing the victim up to receive services which might be chargingcould result in money being charged, buying goods and other utilities and services on victims behalf behalf, and finally, posting materials or vulgarize misinformation. Studiesy haves concluded that cyber stalking does not significantly differ from physical stalking in terms of the trauma inflicted on the victim (Sheridan  Grant, 2007).

Another questionnaire study demonstrates that 3.7  of 756 participants have been identified as cyber stalked victims. The Mmajority of stalkers have been identified as mates or formeral intimates of the victimsparticipants. And Iit was also likely that these participants have been stalked physically (Alexy, Burgess, Baker, Smoyak, 2005) Much cyber stalking behaviour can develop into physical stalking. 

Internet offers broad opportunities for stalking. A cyber stalker can easily find out personal details about their target with anonymity, including personal details such as home address, phone numbers, personal details and work place. The iInternet can provide anonymity for the stalker, allowing them to falsely identify themselves to an unsuspecting target.. Stalkers can present themselves different to their targets
(Cooper, 1998).

Study of Sheridan, 2005 found that among 1,051 participants have been 86 female victims and 14 male victims. This study includes that 72 of stalking behaviour was through phone calls and 67  include spying on the victim. 50 of the participants had intimate relationship with their stalker. Another study between 1700 pupils has shown that there is a strong correlation between bullying in school and online bullying
(Katzer, Fetchenhauser, Belschak, 2009) 

Another study explored that sex perpetrators have used the Internet to easily find their targets. There are few information how these stalkers are selecting their victims  (Malevsky, Alvin, L. 2007 (Armagh, 1998) )

Stalking has become one of the fastest growing crimes. UK first anti stalking legislation was legitimised in 2000 by Jack Straw to overcome the increasing behaviour of stalking crime (Howitt, 2009). There is still no clear legal definition of stalking. Stalkers want to make their victims fearful.  Many Western countries passed laws after the death of Rebecca Schaefer, in 1989. Schaeffers death increased the media attention. The term stalking is used to explain a behaviour that describes the unwanted and repeated communicating or following of a person in a way in which the person find this behaviour distressing or fearing. In addition the term stalking is also used in association with harassment to describe this behaviour. The stalking law is comparatively relatively new. Law is still requiring a foothold on this field. For all types of stalkers, for the certain types of psychiatric disorders, the relationships between the victim and stalkers can help to build on the legislation and to distinguish the stalker within categories. The UK government approved the protection from Harassment Act in 1997.

This Act has a criminal and civil regulation to deal with stalking behaviour. And every state in America has also passed anti-stalking legislations. There is no reason for stalking or any specific psychological profile in case on stalkers personality. Stalking alone is very complex and cannot just organised eradicated by set of laws. There is almost no physical contact between the victim and stalker, therefore difficult to prove their actions to the police. Therefore it is suggested the legislation could gain additional insight into stalking by evaluating the literature and by categorizing the different types of stalking behaviour, with more specific empathy on classifying characteristics and various types of such offenders. 

Stalking can have severe psychosocial impact on victims and can cause psychological and physical effects on victims such as post-traumatic stress disorder following a post-intimate stalking. A study conducted by Kamphius aimed to find out the affective and cognitive responses following formal intimate stalking. 131 Dutch females were participants in this study. Affective responses were found including fear, shame, loss and liability. Post traumatic stress was associated with stressor-related and person-related variables, involving violence and passive coping (Kamphius etc al, 2003).

Stalking has been categorized as a crime because of the seriousness for the victims. Victims normally describe their feelings of violation, and as a loss of control over their private environments. Victims explain their perceptions with words such as emotional rape or psychological terrorism. The impact of stalking are is often experienced over a long period even after the stalking has been stopped.

Treatments are available for victims. Effective support for victims at the earliest stage reduces long term stress. (diseasedness). Support for stalking victims will lead the significant relaxation of the victims distress, social and occupational effective operation. Treatments with stress related symptoms are available.

Study 2x2 Anova Experimental design has been used. The variables for this study are Gender (female, male) and Stalking victims (cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). The dependent variable is the score on the Coping Questionnaire (Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, 1989)

It is hypothesized that there are significant differences in coping styles between physical and cyber stalked victims. Coping explains a set of responses how to deal with everyday hassles and stressors. It involves though processes and actions how victims in this case responding to their situations. There are many events of stressful situations which can influence the way of coping styles. In a previous study it was concluded that cyber stalking does not differ significantly from physical stalking (Sheridan  Grant, 2007)

Method
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of East London. (See attached application form for the ethical approved in Appendix A)
Participants were informed about the Procedure of this study. Participants who were willing to take part in this study received a consent form and an information leaflet (see attached in Appendix B) which they had to sign in before receiving the questionnaire. The consent form informed them that they could withdraw at any time during the study (see attached in Appendix C) 

Participants
Participants in this study were 100 self identified stalking victims (self identified cyber stalked victims and physical stalked victims). Participants (72 Female, 28 Male) took part in this study. 50 participants are used in each group. Participants were garnered recruited via the Internet by posting a request for participants on Facebook for self-identified cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. Participants ranged from 17-59 years of age. (M    , SD .)

Materials
A questionnaire developed by Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, (1989) was used to compare the coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physically- stalked victims. A questionnaire was used to explore the coping skills after the stalking has been stopped for the victims. The questionnaire consists of 60 items, about how participants respond and deal with stressful and difficult life events. Participants needed to respond to the items by choosing one number for each item. 1 I usually do not do this at all 2 I usually do this a little bit. 3 I usually do this a medium amount. 4I usually do this a lot (see attached in Appendix D)

The questionnaire Cope is made of 15 scales (four questions for each scale). The scales are Active coping, planning. Seeking Instrumental Social Support, Seeking emotional support, Suppression of Competing Activities, Turning to Religion, Positive Reinterpretation and Growth, Restraint Coping, Acceptance, Focus on and Venting of Emotions, Denial, Mental Disengagement, Behavioural Disengagement, AlcoholDrug use, Humour.

Procedure
Participants were invited through networking website Facebook to participate in this study. A group site was placed on the social networking site Facebook to request victims of stalking (cyber stalked and physically stalked victims to take part in this study). The group was named VICTIMS OF STALKING. A group invitation was posted to all other victims of stalking groups which exist on Facebook. Announcements were made requesting participants for this study. Interested members had been members of the group which was created by the researcher. Group members who confirmed their participation received an invitation leaflet and were asked to take part in this study and to send their email address via Facebook.  This was to send via email the consent form ( see attached in Appendix ). They were asked to sign and scan the consent form and send it back either via post or email back to the researcher. Once they had completed and returned the consent form (signed) participants received the questionnaire with detailed information regarding the study. Again they were reminded to complete and return the completed questionnaire. Participants were informed that the data would be kept confidential, and that participants could withdraw at any time during the study, in addition participants were reminded to contact the researcher at any time if help was needed either through Facebook or via email. Participants are identifiable on Facebook as a group member of the created victims of stalking. Once participants had completed their questionnaire and consent form their data werenot kept together, therefore nobody will able to identify any participant from their completed questionnaire. Participant were also reminded that they will not be identifiable in this study in any way.

In addition participants were directed to a website  HYPERLINK httpwww.stalkingvictims.com www.stalkingvictims.com (see information leaflet attached). Participants have the ability to receive support and further detailed information about stalking in general. The website contains information about their legal right as a stalking victims and participants have also the possibility to join into communities where they can share their emotional feelings about their experiences anonymously and also have the opportunity receive support from other stalking victims.

Participants who are returned the completed questionnaire received a debriefing sheet which was posted via email. This is part of the ethical procedure. The Psychology Departments Ethics Committees, ethics code dictates the treatment of human participants in psychological research design. The main reason is to minimize the level of distress or anxiety that participant may feel during the study. Researcher has to be responsible and fully aware of the British Psychological Societys (BPS) Ethical principles and need to be approved before conducted by the BPS.

Results
Scores of each scale are calculated by adding the scores on the four questions that make up each scale. The scores for each scale range from 4 to 16 and indicates the extent to which each type of coping was used. First the average age of those who claimed to be the victims of different forms of stalking was approximately 28 years.

Out of the fifty individuals who claimed to be cyberstalked, the average age was 27 years out of the fifty individuals who claimed to be physically stalked, the average age was about 28-years.

Using a questionnaire developed by Weinnman, Wright and Johnston, (1989) was used to compare the coping skill differences between cyber stalked and physically-stalked victims.

One-Sample Statistics
 NMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanGender1001.2800.45126.04513Age10028.42006.73177.67318

One-Sample Test
Test Value  0 tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean Difference95 Confidence Interval of the Difference LowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperGender28.36599.0001.280001.19051.3695Age42.21899.00028.4200027.084329.7557

Group Statistics
VictimsNMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanAgeCyber stalked victims5027.90006.51607.92151 physical stalked victims5028.94006.96759.98537

Independent Samples Test
Levenes Test for Equality of Variancest-test for Equality of Means  FSig.tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean DifferenceStd. Error Difference95 Confidence Interval of the Difference  LowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerAgeEqual variances assumed.057.812-.77198.443-1.040001.34912-3.717291.63729 Equal variances not assumed  -.77197.563.443-1.040001.34912-3.717441.63744

Discussion
The aim of this study was to explore whether there is a significant coping style differences between the physical stalked and cyber stalked victims.

Society has often brought on major influences on people that comprise it.  An individual s actions are sometimes instigated by what society dictates so does an individual s inaction. The Bystander effect is one example of the ability of society to affect a person s willingness to act in the presence of an emergency situation. The Bystander effect is a phenomenon wherein the presence of a greater number of people as onlookers lessens the likelihood of a person who is in distress to receive help from them. Moreover, with fewer people present, a person in distress is more likely to get help. The Bystander effect is also called the Genovese Syndrome (Mcshane, 2007) which is attributed to the murder of Kitty Genovese outside her Queens apartment. She allegedly called for help and was heard by 38 witnesses however, none of them came to her aid. One of the witnesses was said to have called the police 30 minutes after the assault, at which at that time, Kitty Genovese was already dead. This incident raised an alarm in the United States as to the inability of people in the society to help other people in emergency situations. Studies have tried to come up with explanations regarding this inaction and some have come up with the main reason of diffusion of responsibility. A person may fail to engage in prosocial behavior in the presence of other people due to the belief that someone among the other onlookers will help the distressed individual. People also fail to act if among the onlookers, there is no immediate reaction, which gives them the idea that a situation may not be a possible emergency. Others are afraid to help since they are afraid to get caught up in the situation. Prosocial behavior is defined as the actions done for the greater good or benefit of an individual or a group of individuals. In other words, it could also mean the deeds done in order to help other people.

Mammals are said
to have innate qualities of helping each other however, human actions at some point, are affected by their environment and thus, the people around them.

Participants
In this study, 12 people were interviewed. The subjects were a 25-year old female, a 27-year old male, a 34-year old female, a 31-year old male, a 47-year old female, a 43-year old male, a 54-year-old female, a 56-year old male, a 62-year old female, a 66-year old male, a 71-year old female and a 72-year old male.

Methodology
The interview is set to understand what worries people and how they cope with those worries. Two people from each age range of 20   30, 30   40, 40   50, 50   60, 60   70, and 70 years old and above were interviewed. Of the two people from each age range, one was female, the other male. The participants were interviewed on a one on one basis with the interviewer taking careful notes and accounts of the interview. The participants were also selected randomly with no other qualifications except age and gender.

Results
On an average, the subjects  worries composed of 5 things. The most frequent things that worry the subjects are pain due to injections, with the most unusual worry being failure. The subjects state that the most frequent coping mechanism they do include staying away from the sources of their worries. The most unusual coping mechanism includes immersing themselves with their worries. The number of worries seems to be greater with the younger ranges (20   30, 30   40 and 40   50 years old) with a slight difference with the older age ranges in the types of worries. The younger age ranges seem to be worried more about pain and crawling insects while the older age ranges worry most about their health and dying. Coping methods also differ among the age ranges in that the younger age ranges are more engaged with their worries than doing something about it.  Gender differences on the other hand affect the types of worries slightly. Men are more afraid of injections while women are more afraid of pain not necessarily induced by injections. As for coping methods, male and female of some age ranges share the methods (20   30) while the others differ.

Conclusion
In conclusion, age differences affect the types of worries and coping methods more than gender differences. The younger participants seem to be more attached to their fears so that they stay away from activities that could bring about these worries. The older generation (60 years old and above) seems to think that they are helpless with their situation especially those who worry most about their health but they say they do the best they can to maintain a good health and thus, lessen their worries. In connection to the Bystander effect, younger people should be able to help more than older people. However, depending on the abilities of older people, they can also help in emergency situations though physically, some of them won t be able to. Also, due to inexperience, younger people sometimes fail to help due to fear of getting involved. In relation to gender, men should also be able to help actively compared to women since men s physique allows them to be stronger than women therefore, they should engage more in helping people in distress. This happens most of the time though, men helping women.

The Kitty Genovese incident has raised awareness in society so that more and more people are becoming proactive hence, engaging in prosocial behavior. However, older people or people with experience tend to understand the situation of a person in distress more than younger people so, at young ages, children should be educated regarding prosocial behavior in order that when
they grow up, they will be able to understand people who are in distress so that when they witness one, they will be able to help, either actively or passively.

The bystander effect (Genovese effect or syndrome) is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals fail to assist in an emergency situation where other people are present. In the past, the probability of help has been thought to be inversely proportional to the number of bystanders, thus the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that one will help you. The people around assume nothing is wrong because nobody else looks concerned. Observers are more likely to take action if there are a few or no other witnesses. The opposite of bystander effect is bystander intervention, which states that if a person requires help, another person, unaccompanied by friends or witnesses is much more likely to offer help.

When a group of people witnesses a person in need of help, confusion begins to arise about who should assist and most people assume that another person will intervene thus ending up not assisting the one in need (Christensen, n.d). In their research, Latane and Darley found out that the amount of time it takes the participant to take action and seek help varies depending on how many other observers are present (1969). They found out that the bystanders go through a five steps process during each of which they can decide to act or not.

The first step is where they notice the event or they are in a hurry and pretend not to notice. The second step is where they realize the emergency or assume that because others are not acting it is not an emergency. In the third step they assume responsibility or assume that others will help. The fourth step is where they know or do not know what to do. And in the last step they act i.e. they worry about danger, legislation or embarrassment (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d)

There are two major factors that contribute to the bystander effect. The first one is the presence of other people which creates a diffusion of responsibility. Because there are other observers, individuals do not feel much pressure to take action. The responsibility to take action is thought to be shared among all the present individuals. The observers assume that the other party will intervene and as a result they feel less responsible. Secondly, there is the need to correctly and in a manner that is socially acceptable. When other observers fail to intervene, individuals in the scene take this as a signal that a response is not needed or not appropriate. The onlookers may also fail to intervene if the situation seems ambiguous (Baron, Branscombe  Byrne, 2008).

There are several reasons why people may choose not to help. To begin with, individuals assuming other bystanders are more qualified to help in times of need for example presence of police officers or doctors. As a result, they feel as though their intervention would be unhelpful and therefore unnecessary. The other reason why people fail to act is as a result of evaluation apprehension, where some people feel self conscious about the image they portray to other bystanders. To avoid losing face, the individuals choose not to respond to a person in need of aid. Other factors that lead to one not offering help are fears associated with perception, which include fear of being superseded by a superior helper, fear of offering help that is unwanted, or fear of facing legal consequences as a result of offering inferior and perhaps dangerous assistance. There is also fear of victimization where people avoid conflict because they dread being attacked if they help.

The most frequently cited example of the bystander effect by psychologists is the brutal murder of a young woman whose name was Catherine kitty Genovese, on Friday march 13, 1964 (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d). The young lady was returning home after work. While at her entrance she was attacked and stabbed by a man who was later identified as Winston Moseley. Despite her repeated cries for help, none of the witnesses called the police early enough to save her life. It was not until after 30 minutes that the first person contacted the police. If anyone intervened immediately, maybe Genoveses life would have been saved (httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesbystander_effect.htm, n.d)

There is a five step cognitive model for avoiding the bystander effects as developed by the psychological community. The steps include, noticing something is happening by basically paying attention and knowing what is going on. Try to asses the situation as best as you can from your own knowledge and do not turn to others to see what they are doing.  Interpreting the situation if it is an emergency, then, taking responsibility and lastly choosing a form of assistance and implementing it immediately (BBC, 2001).

In order to overcome the bystanders effect, there are some things that you need to do when you witness an attack. First, use your cell phone or any other phone and dial whatever the emergency number is in your region you can do it at a distance from the attack and you can remain anonymous if you want. Secondly follow your gut instincts if you sense that something is not right, it probably isnt. The third thing is to suppress your what if I am wrong, what if I embarrass myself inside voice. The effects caused on the victim as a result of the attack might be worse than the effect of a little embarrassment on you. The fourth thing is to empathize with the person being attacked. One should be able to help irrespective of whether you share the same social group or if you have connection with the victim in some way. You should see the victim as another student, sister, brother, or in fact another human being just like you.

The fifth thing you need to do to overcome this effect is to get training. This is because the major reason making bystanders not intervene in times of emergency is quite simple, they do not know. Bystanders know very well that they should do something but have no clue what course of action to take and are scared of doing something wrong or make things worse. So if for example you want to stop sexual assault, you should research on how to identify and stop such situations. This will prepare you and also make you confident on what to do when the right time comes. Then you should know that your intervention will help no matter what. Some actions like yelling, shouting loudly, or calling the police do not need special training. The more you are knowledgeable about something, the more you are capable be of dealing with it in the right manner. If you convince yourself that the reason you cannot help is because this effect is distorting your judgment, then, you are more likely to overcome it and take action.       

While it would appear like a person in a public place is relatively safe from an attack, it might not be the case as proven by research on the bystander effect. To counter this effect, if you are attacked in front of a crowd, you should appeal to one person in the crowd only, eye contact with that person may also be helpful in gaining help. The other thing that may help is to make people understand that the bystander effect exists. Being aware of this means that when you see a crime occurring you should possibly try to offer some help (Baron, Branscombe  Byrne, 2008). Shouting at other people watching the crime with you might also be very helpful as this will motivate others in the crowd to intervene. The other thing is that if you see a crime happening do remember to call the police, do not just assume that another person might have called already.

Anyone on the street has the power to intervene when we see something wrong happening. More often than not, all it takes is just a single word or gesture to show the perpetrator that people can notice. The only problem that people face, is overcoming the social forces and tiny voices that run through our heads telling us that we cannot for one reason or another. In other words, we should not be afraid or insecure to take action no matter how difficult it is since the little action you take can save a life.

Many studies have been done regarding the behavior of children and the reasons why some interact with others in a negative andor disruptive way and why others do just the opposite.  In this research paper we looked at the different possibilities leading to negative behavior such as, parenting techniques, development of empathy, self-esteem and even such disorders as autism, attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as well.  At the conclusion we hope to have gained a valid perspective into the behavior of children as well as summed up several different theories involving this matter.

It is difficult to pinpoint exactly why some children behave negatively in social situations and why others do not.  Much research has been done on this matter and many theories have been developed.  Which ones are correct  How do we know exactly what causes children to be sensitive to social interaction when every child and situation is different  What about the lack of empathy, or even, too much empathy  Can diagnoses such as autism, attention deficit disorder (ADD), and its close cousin, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) be solely responsible for such behavior issues in some children.

In this paper we attempt to answer these questions by looking at the research surrounding the issue of child sensitivity to interaction.  Parenting models, development, or non-development, of empathy and self-esteem and even increased or decreased heart rate will all be analyzed as possible causes behind this issue at will be looked at in greater detail.  In summary, a general theory about the reason(s) why children behave in a positive or negative fashion will be introduced and supported through research of academic journal articles related to this matter.

Oppositional, aggressive children are characterized by a tendency to act on their negative impulses, often without apparent attention to any effects upon the well being of others (Hastings, 2000).
It has been discussed that lack of empathy is one of the main reasons why some children behave in a negative way toward others in social situations.  Children who do not understand the effects their behavior has on others, generally tend to not care when they act out or behave in a negative way.  They simply dont understand why others feel bad when they do so.  Some will even feed off of the others behavior, which can result in the inducement of more negative behavior and have a snow-ball effect. 

These children who lack in the empathy department also see attention given to others as being a threat to them.  They have a hard time understanding why people would feel bad or even good about someone else when they clearly dont have those feelings themselves.  This usually will result in either, negative behavior patterns, or total shutdown and seclusion from the social activity or interaction. 

Studies have been done showing a link between a childs lack of empathy and their upbringing.  Mainly two different parenting styles have been identified authoritative and authoritarian which pose as polar opposites of each other.  Authoritative parenting includes being warm, responsive, and supportiveauthoritarianism centers on harsh, restrictive, punitive and inappropriately controlling parenting (Hastings, 2000).  The latter being one of the main causes of lack of empathy in children.  The former usually results in socially appropriate behavior and children who are aware of others feelings. 

It appeared that the strongest connection to parenting styles and effects that it has on children happen around 2 to 3 years of age.  Even though it is eminently discernable to see empathy, lack there-of, and negative and positive behavior taking place beforehand as a result of parenting styles, a strong connection exists between those in the 2 to 3 age group and the influence their parents have on them.
Now that doesnt mean that how a parent treats a child at that age will ultimately determine how that child will behave in social situations.  Certainly there is a stronger correlation between parenting style over the course of the entire childhood and social behavior, however, according to studies that have been done, the ages of 2 to 3 are critical in establishing a baseline as to how sensitive a child will be in social interactions.

There have also been studies linking a childs heart rate and the correlation with empathy.  Those that have a lower resting heart rate are more likely to show less empathy toward others versus those that have a higher resting heart rate. 

How about those who have too much empathy  Not many studies have been done regarding this, however, is it possible that too much empathy could result in children who are withdrawn for fear of hurting other peoples feelings  Perhaps they are afraid of doing something that would cause others to not like them and probably over-analyze everything based upon what others would probably think or feel.  This could result in a distorted perception of reality and detachment from social interaction.

A child who is withdrawn, non-attentive to others, lacks in empathy, easily distracted or lazy, or suffers from low self-esteem can be diagnosed with ADHD-PI (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive) or commonly referred to simply as attention-deficit disorder or ADD.  These children are more susceptible to being overlooked, however, because they are not usually disruptive.  Instead, many will receive negative feedback from teachers stating that they are just not trying hard enough or are not participating and applying themselves.  Failure to diagnose and treat these children can have severely negative affects on their outcomes as students and therefore, as productive citizens later on in adulthood. 

ADHD is commonly diagnosed in children under the age of 7 and is a bit easier to catch than ADD.  Children with ADHD have difficulty in pretty much any social situation in that they are generally disruptive and will act on impulse.  For these kids, the social filter simply is not present and there is seldom any resemblance of empathy.  They may display feelings of empathy toward others after the behavior took place, however, rarely will that affect them the next time they act out on their impulse.

Studies have been done regarding children diagnosed with ADHD implying a connection between their behaviors and lack of empathy and their working memory (WM) deficits.  This study shows that WM can be improved by training in children with ADHD.  (It) also improved response inhibition and reasoning and resulted in a reduction of the parent-rated inattentive symptoms of ADHD (Klingberg, 2009).  These were with children that were not on their normal medication for ADHD in order for real results to be exposed.  Although this is definitely good news in regards to the treatment of ADHD in children, there hasnt been anything done yet that implies long-term solvency.  Until then, medication will continue to be the proper treatment.

Autism continues to be somewhat of an enigma in the psychological and medical community as it is not clear as to what the causes of this disorder are.  The fact that the autism spectrum is so great poses a significant challenge as to determining the causes and treatment of those diagnosed.  There are those that display very low cognitive functioning and virtually no social awareness and then there are those with Asperger syndrome that display some of the attributes of autism, however, they are able to function at a fairly high level in society with some assistance.

Doctors are usually able to diagnose Autism within the first two years of a childs life through a screening process called the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers or CHAT.  The CHAT can be used to identify cases of Autism and related pervasive developmental disorders at 18 months of age.  It is emphasized that the CHAT is not a diagnostic instrument but can identify potential cases of autism spectrum disorders for a full diagnostic assessment (Baird, 2000).  Follow up is then done up to six years of age.

Socially, those that are diagnosed with Autism are impaired and show a lack of communication skills, obsession with certain interests and will repeat certain behaviors over and over again.  These traits generally continue through adulthood and constant supervision and support is needed for them to have their needs met.  Studies have shown that those afflicted with this disorder seldom have feelings for others.  They lack a concept of the effect that their behavior has on others.  Therefore, just like those in the above examples, they lack empathy. 

In conclusion, although there are many different reasons why some children act the way they do in social situations, one factor seems to dominate in all of the cases that were studied.  The lack of empathy seems to be the common denominator when looking at social impairments, whether they be negative, disruptive, withdrawal, or just inability to interact at all.  Those children that are unable to understand what others are feeling and be able to process that information in an appropriate way are generally susceptible to having a social behavior disorder of some sort.  Therefore it is imperative that parents, educators and those in the medical and psychological field properly adhere to the signs of social impairments so that proper treatment can be given.   

An extensive literature review conducted by Narcoss (2002) demonstrated that in therapy, the relationship is one of the most important factors in outcome variance (as cited in Tursi  Cochran, 2006, p.393).  The clinical interview is the first step in initiating and developing this client-therapist relationship.  Discussed in the succeeding paragraphs is an example of a clinical interview conducted with a mother and her teenage daughter who was arrested for hitting her teacher.  The daughter has been mandated by court to seek professional help to better manage her anger issues.  I will be evaluating the conduct of the interview in the next few of paragraphs.

At the beginning of the interview, the mother and daughter appeared somber and nervous, spoke softly and slowly, and rarely engaged in eye contact.  I mirrored the daughters soft spoken tone and was careful to match her pace of speaking.  This was done to make her feel that I am not rushing her and I am genuinely interested about what she was saying.  I also observed that the more I mirrored the mother, the more she became relaxed and warmed up to the interview.  She seemed to take interest in looking for my discomfort that it took it off her.

Attending behaviors, such as eye contact, leaning forward, open posture, head nodding and relaxed manner, were very helpful in encouraging communication during the interview.  According to Murphy and Dillon (1998), it is important that we convey our continuous interest in each person by making periodic eye contact even if eye contact is not returned (p.58).  I noticed that when speaking to her directly without looking at her mom, she too looked less at her mom when answering.  The mother was also attempting to explain the circumstances surrounding her daughters behavior.  Through shifting eye contact during the interview, I was able to convey when questions are meant for the daughter alone and when the mothers opinion was welcomed. 

I employed reflective listening while not engaging into deep conversation about the incident.  At this stage of the interview, the goal is to establish rapport and convey empathy to the client.  I went through the paper asking all the questions systematically and consistently paraphrasing their answers.  According to Sommers-Flanagan  Sommer-Flanagan (2003), this assures clients that you hear them accurately and allows them to hear what they said (p.70).  This also is a way of clarifying that the interviewer accurately heard what the client expressed.  Clinical interviewing serves as basis for the therapeutic approach so information gathered must be accurate.  As expressed by Watson (2006), before implementing any approach, therapists need to be attuned to their clients needs and goals so they can collaboratively choose the best course of action to realize them (p.14).

The challenging part of the interview was expressing empathy while trying to explain to her that this was important for her to do so she would be able to complete her requirements to the judge.  During one of the questions, I merely asked her if she needed a case manager.  Reflecting on the interview process, I believed it would have benefitted her more if I explained clearly what entails a case management as she may have no prior knowledge about what it is.

Human civilization has been roaming this world since the span of time.  Approximately about two hundred thousand (200,000) years ago, man has started building their society by building their own language, writing their literature, using the natural resources around them and most especially cultivating the land they own.  Centuries after, man has made large advancements since the era of farmers and hunters but despite those achievements he still has insecurities.  These insecurities have many forms but have a common point to them  fear of the unknown.  Man fears of the unknown date of the todays tomorrow that will never come  the judgment day or the apocalypse.  And yet despite the fear, he has been engrossed in studying this possibility.

Eschatology Death by the Notes
In starting with the understanding of death, however, we do not seem the dilemma for language. (Schwarz, 2009)

Due to mans passion to the predicament of the last days, a study with about the imminent ending of humanity and the world as it is have emerged  that is Eschatology.  It has long been present in civilization dating even back to the ancient world but the word eschatology has said to have been used in the mid -1500s.  Eschatology is widely acknowledged by different sectors worldwide.  In fact, each religion has their own stories of the apocalypse. The Muslims have Isa, as their Messiah (Savior) who shall come down to Earth before the End of Days.  On another note, the Jews have an almost similar plot line from the Muslims -  Messiah will come forth during the days of the end.  Meanwhile, the religion Buddhism never predicted that there should be such ending to the humanity.  They, along with their closely related religion Hinduism, firmly believe that samsara shall never cease. Samsara is the cycle of life and death  that one goes through everytime they have died.  After which the person is reincarnated into another life or will proceed to Nirvana.  (Nattier, 2008)   The most influential religion perhaps, to have touched this matter and have probably gained believers despite different faiths is Christianity.  Their massive number and highly advertised celebrations have reached many people of different religions even. One can probably ask anyone of any religion different from Christians about Christianitys apocalypse and most of them can answer accurately correct. 

Fascination of Apocalypse
Throughout the many centuries of predicting what-not predictions, eschatology has developed.  It is the official or non-official study of anything related to the ending of the world. This happened as a result of the humans very peculiar fascination with the death of itself and the world.    Today, many (most especially Christians) have joined this practice in the hopes of finding answers to the questions about humanitys end. As mentioned earlier in the introduction, man may only be insecure as to the tentativeness of the date this shall occur  it is only the fear of the unknown.  This fear takes control of the situation and drives us into setting the dates for our own assurance.  This is still not proven though but it is most likely how mans thinking is, whether it is consciously or subconsciously done.  By consciously, means the instigator of the predicament and by subconsciously means the man only follows. 
 
Regardless of faith, people will always believe for the best- should the day come, man shall be saved.  That duality of the mind only shows how complex and beautiful mans thinking is. 

Previous Predictions
The earliest prediction of the apocalypse date back from 2,800 BC  the prophecy was inscribed on an Assyrian clay tablet and goes as follows, Our earth is degenerate in these latter days. There are signs that the world is speedily coming to an end. Bribery and corruption are common. (Moran 2008)  In 1st century AD, Jesus has predicted the end to happen thousands of years after his death.  The prophecy goes as follows,  Verily I say unto you, there be some standing here, which shall not taste of death, till they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom. (The Bibles Book of Matthew 1628) in 2nd century AD, the Montanus founded Montanism and established a base in Anatolia, Turkey where they have awaited the end.  The Montanists distinguished themselves from Christians  they clearly defined their movement as the New Prophecy not Christianism. (Butler, 2006) In March 25, 970 AD, Lotharingian (lower part of nobility) computists have predicted that the end would be on a Good Friday when the Annunciation fell on it.    This has troubled people for years after many Good Fridays have passed.  In 1284, Pope Innocent III predicted that the Messiah would come again on that same year although it never did happen.  In February 1, 1524, London Astrologers along with Johannes Stoeffler predicted that there would be a Great Flood (in reference to Noahs Ark) that will start in Thames river. In 1648, Sabbatai Zevi predicted the Messiah to return in the same year but recalculated it after a new year emerged. (Moran, 2008)  In 1666, many believed that the unlucky year with the imperfect-perfect number 666 was the end. In December 25, 1814, Joanna Southcott claimed that she bore Christ and that she would give birth on December 25 but rather than the end of the world, it became the end for her.  In 1836, the John Wesley of the Methodists predicted the Great Beast in the Bible to emerge on the same year.  In 1881, the Jehovahs Witnesses and pyramidologists predicted that the world would end that same year.  Another prediction by Mother Shipton in the 16th century stirred a commotion among the people - The world to an end shall come, in eighteen hundred and eighty one. In May 18, 1910, scientists have not predicted but have hypothesized the end of the world as Halleys Comet returned  the threat was the vapors from the comets tail. It was the first assumption based on a more scientifical view.  Decades later, on the 29th of April 1987, the Halleys Comet hypothesis was brought up once again. In March to May of the year 1997, Chuck Shramek made a statement about the end of the world and somehow found its way over the internet.  The Heavens Gate cult seized on these combined rumors as their signal to commit mass suicide in March of this year. (Moran, 2008) In the year 2000, many believed that it will be the year of Christs second coming.  The latest prediction of the end is the Mayans prophecy of the date December 21, 2012  they have predicted that at the stroke of midnight of the said date the world will take a new face.  (Burton, 2006)

The Bibles Prediction
The Christians Bible is one of the widely known sources of text which talks of the end of the world.  Christians worldwide uphold what is written in the Bible to be absolute as such, they are one of the most devoted believers in the worlds coming to an end.  The bible has been quoted numerous times of which the second coming or the end has been mentioned.  These are present in several books and the most common quoted are from the Book of Mark, Matthew, James, Peter, John and Revelations.

Jesus Christs prediction
Jesus Christ, the Christians Messiah, have been stating of the end even before the world is in no shape to have been predicting the horrible thought.  He said to his disciples, Truly, I say to you, this generation will not pass away before all these things take place.  (The Bibles Book of Mark 1330) Jesus told his disciples of the signs that the end is near the presence of false prophets rumors of famine and war shall surface his followers will be persecuted and the antichrist shall take hold of the Holy Land.  By false prophets, he meant that many will claim to be him and those prophets shall delude people into following them thus, tripping the people to the right faith.  Centuries after his death, many people did and are still impersonating as him.  The rumors Jesus have stated are far from the whispers he said they would be  - famine and wars are already happening in the current world.  Many of his men and those followers who spread the true word of God will be condemned by the people believing in the anti-christ.   And this antichrist is pointed out to be someone, whom the Apostle Paul described in the Book of Thesalonians, Let no man deceive you by any means for that day shall not come, except there come a falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition Who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God. 

The Four Horsemen
In the book of revelation, the end is just as Jesus has described in the Book of Mark although more symbolic figures are involved in the foretelling it.  In the nearing of the end, four horsemen with significant missions will come to earth  the white, the red, the black and the pale horsemen.  The white rider stands for those who rise to power and fame much like the anti-christ and the false prophets earlier stated.  This rider shall bring forth the next  the red rider.  This horseman brings war and bloodshed like what Jesus has stated in the Book of Mark.  The red horseman shall bring forth the black rider who brings famine and hunger. Lastly, the pale rider shall appear and bring forth death.  The exact passage goes as follows

And I saw, and behold a white horse and he that sat on him had a bow and a crown was given unto him and he went forth conquering, and to conquer. And when he had opened the second seal, I heard the second beast say, Come and see.And there went out another horse that was red and power was given to him that sat thereon to take peace from the earth, and that they should kill one another and there was given unto him a great sword. And when he had opened the third seal, I heard the third beast say, Come and see. And I beheld, and lo a black horse and he that sat on him had a pair of balances in his hand. And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say,A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny and see thou hurt not the oil and the wine. And when he had opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth beast say, Come and see. And I looked, and behold a pale horse and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth. (Book of Revelations 62-8)

2012 Mayans Calendar Prediction
As the Mayans are very fascinated by time, they often made calculations to make calendars for them regardless of the less equipment they have.  They have at least twenty (20) calendars with fifteen (15) published worldwide and all of those derived from the celestial bodies  such as the Sun, the Moon and the other planets. Throughout the years of making long calendars, their astronomers have calculated the exact date of the end of the world  that is in the 13  baktun cycle in the Winter solstice. Today, the date is marked as the twelfth of December of the year 2012.  They believe it to be the completion of the world cycle.  Joseph (2007), the author of the book Apocalypse 2012, met Mayan Guatelema and found out that their prediction werent only from mere calendars.  These control their life and people have different calendars for every type of person  for example, there is a separate calendar for preganant women.  And so, when the astronomers of the Mayan civilization have predicted this date more than a thousand years ago, they have marked it well like a personal organizer on will open up until when the date is near.

Optimism despite the end
Man continues to be enticed by the darkness of the future - that is by nightmares of death and despair the abyss of sins and tales of world abolition.  But believe it or not, this is not mans true wish.   Man naturally seeks the brighter side of the road.  He always has a positive knack for things that surround him.  His natural color is blue  Of the cheerful sea and sky.  He shall alwaysalways turn to the light.  That is, despite the catastrophes that have come or will come, man will always see things through.  He shall hope and in that tiny speck of faith, the Lord shall shelter him. 

The Lord will roar from Zion and thunder from Jerusalem the earth and the sky will tremble. But the Lord will be a refuge for his people, a stronghold for the people of Israel. (Joel 316 New International Version)

It is not much of a deal should apocalypse come in a few years or so. Just keep on living the way youd want and obediently listen to His words.  He shall protect you everyday up until the last of days

Alzheimers disease is the most common form of dementia. It is a very serious disorder that adversely affects the daily life of a person through loss of memory and cognitive changes (Jalbert, Daiello, and Lapane, p. 15). As per the DSM IV-TR criteria (2000), disorders of dementia are characterized by numerous cognitive as well as memory insufficiencies (Weyandt, p.79). They are however categorized as different disorders according to their causes. Prevalence of dementia varies widely depending on the subjects sampled, type of dementia, seriousness of the disorder, and the areas studied. On the other hand, according to the DSM IV-TR, approximately 3 of the whole population suffers from serious cognitive disorders (Weyandt p, 81). Almost half of the dementia cases in clinical and hospitals studies are of Alzheimers type. Population based studies reveal that most of dementia cases are of Alzheimers type. Dementia of Alzheimers Type, according to Welsh-Bohmer and White, develops from Alzheimers disease (p, 10). These disorders involve gradual alterations in memory, thinking and language. Chemical imbalance in conjunction with structural changes in the brain leads to slow destruction of the ability to develop, learn, recall, reason and interact with others. Excessive death of critical brain cells, as illustrated by Schwartz, leads to deterioration of personality and failure of the whole body system (p, 71). These problems may start as minor problems later becoming grave conditions requiring serious medical and family assistance.

Dementia of Alzheimers Type
Dementia of Alzheimers Type is exemplified by numerous cognitive deficits manifested by both memory disorders and cognitive disturbances that result in significant deterioration in social and occupational functioning. These disorders, which have progressive onset and continuing decline, do not occur as a result of substance induced or medical conditions. They usually occur after a person has attained the age of 65 years. Age is therefore a predisposing factor to this disorder. Rates of prevalence of the disorder increase considerably with increase in age. According to the DSM IV-TR (2000), Dementia of Alzheimers Type is more common in females than in males (Weyandt, p. 82). Dementia of Alzheimers type is characterized by excessive loss of cognitive capability. This comprises of disrupted thoughts, recollection, way of thinking, language, as well as cognitive speed.

This disorder is degenerative in nature it is characterized by deterioration of cognitive functions with time either gradually or more rapidly depending on the etiology of dementia and the individual (Schwartz p, 75). The early stage of dementia is referred to as mild cognitive impairment. This stage involves mild problems of memory, language and other cognitive abilities. At this stage, a person is still able to carry out various cognitive functions. Most people with mild cognitive disorders in the long run develop Alzheimers disease (Weyandt p, 85). However, some people with mild cognitive impairment eventually attain normal health. Head trauma, leading to brain damage, and stroke are believed to be causes of this disorder. Genetic factors increase the risk of developing dementia. Diagnosis of dementia, as asserted by Tonarelli, includes clinical examination and presence of insufficiency in at least two areas of cognition (para, 2).

The following are the symptoms of Dementia of Alzheimers Type as illustrated in the DSM IV-TR 2000 development of numerous cognitive insufficiencies manifested by memory impairment and cognitive disturbance. In memory impairment, a person cannot recollect previously learned information or learn new information. Various cognitive disturbances include aphasia also referred to as language disturbance, apraxia or the inability to carry out motor activities properly in spite of an undamaged motor function and Agnosia. Agnosia is the inability to recognize objects although the sensory function may still be intact. The last cognitive disturbance is the disturbance in executive functioning (Weyandt p, 84). Other symptoms of dementia include changes of personality, intellectual impairment, inability to carry out normal chores leading to neglect of personal hygiene, hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia, inappropriate habits, disorientation to time and place, and problems in maintaining balance and gait (Jalbert, Daiello and Lapane p, 18). These effects are not as a result of old age and they may be serious enough to affect the daily life of a person, interactions and autonomy. The effects of dementia, as per Brian, come from a wide range more than the recorded neuropathological alterations in the brain of an individual thus diagnosed (p, 155). These effects can be made worse to some extent by the way an individual is treated by others in the day to day activities of the social world. Through critical evaluation of the position an individual suffering from dementia is put by others in the process of interaction, it can be appreciated that these interactions have profoundly negative or positive effects on the subjective experience of the individual with dementia the extent to which an individuals can reveal the remaining intact cognitive capabilities the aptitude of an individual to carry out various day to day activities and the value of an individuals social life as well as the meaning found in everyday (Weyandt p, 85). Welsh-Bohmer and White agrees that social interaction of a person suffering from dementia becomes limited to the examining health professionals (p, 12). People suffering from dementia appear too ill to be taken out to attend functions away from home.

Jalbert, Daiello and Lapane note that the effects of dementia can have a deteriorating effect on very many aspects of a persons life (p, 20). It is therefore beneficial, as noted by Brian, to know the signs as well as symptoms that may occur in case the brain function is affected (p, 122). After developing dementia, a person finds it very hard to complete tasks that were previously easy for himher. Short term memory of a person is greatly affected (Schwartz p, 22). Such a person therefore keeps on repeating one thing for a long time. A person suffering from dementia easily forgets that heshe had asked a certain question, for example, and keeps on asking the same question time and again. In case there is no information in the short term memory, information in the long term memory is then lost forever. A person also becomes lost in time and space. Personality and mood of a person are seriously affected. Such a person easily forgets simple information and it becomes difficult for him or her to learn new information. People suffering from dementia also do not have motivation.

Conclusion
Alzheimers disease is the most common form of dementia. It is a very serious disorder that adversely affects the daily life of a person through loss of memory and cognitive changes. Dementia of Alzheimers Type develops from Alzheimers disease. This disorder is degenerative in nature it is characterized by deterioration of cognitive functions with time either gradually or more rapidly depending on the etiology of dementia and the individual. Age and genetic factors are the main predisposing factors of Dementia of Alzheimers Type. Diagnosis of dementia includes clinical examination and presence of insufficiency in at least two areas of cognition. Various symptoms of Dementia of Alzheimers Type include changes of personality, intellectual impairment, inability to carry out normal chores leading to neglect of personal hygiene, hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia, inappropriate habits, disorientation to time and place.