Psychology

The presence or absence of mental disorder is not easy to determine as compared physical diseases which are easy to diagnose. Normal and abnormal behavior is judged differently among the society, individuals, and even mental health professionals. The society bases their judgment on whether the behavior exhibited by an individual is accepted in the present social order. Mental health professionals focus on personality uniqueness and also a personal distress. There are various types of psychological disorders which include psychosomatic and somatoform disorders, schizophrenia, panic disorders, anxiety disorders, dissociative disorders, sexual disorders among many other types. This paper examines sexual disorder in great details by giving a general description of the disorder, how it is diagnosed and treated and the current trends.
Sexual disorders
    Normal sexual behavior differs with conditions, individual, and even the culture where one belongs to, though there are sexual standards across the globe despite the culture where one belongs to. Among these standards are showing interest in sex, sexual attractiveness based on some physical features and health, and sexual relationships being concealed. There are only three types of sexual disorders which are documented and they include paraphilias, sexual dysfunctions, and gender identity disorders (Morris  Maisto, 2005).
    Sexual dysfunction is defined as the failure or impairment of the normal physical responses of sexual role. In males, it can manifest as erectile dysfunction which is the failure to attain and maintain full erection while in women, it presents as female sexual arousal disorder. Female sexual arousal disorder means failure to become sexually thrilled or to attain orgasm. These problems are quite common among people, however they are only considered as a problem when they happen quite often disrupting enjoyment of sexual relationships. Studies have shown that prevalence rate of erectile dysfunction is quite high even in men who are considered healthy. Treatment of the condition by use of Viagra has proved successful despite the cause of the disorder. This medication is also used in men with spinal cord injury to enable them resume normal sex life. The effectiveness of Viagra depends on the prior sexual arousal.
    Sexual desire disorders may mean lack of interest in sex or even strong disgust for sex. Women are reported to experience low sexual desires as compared to men and this contributes to about 40 of sexual dysfunctions. The degree and etiology of these disorders in both sexes is not easy to evaluate since some individuals just have low enthusiasm for sexual act and show satisfaction to the low interest they exhibit. Other people fail to report lack of interest in sexual act but show physiological signs of blocked crave. The above factors have led to the conclusion that the disorders may be caused by physical abnormalities.
    Individuals who feel neutral about sex or experience distaste to sex are thought to have had earlier painful experiences or even unsatisfying relationships. Some individuals are also reported to have sexual interest and maintain excitement but fail to reach orgasm which is regarded as peaking of sexual enjoyment and discharge of sexual tension. Male orgasmic disorder which is the failure to ejaculate even when one if fully aroused is uncommon, however it is rising since men like to practice the delay of orgasm. This disorder can also be linked to psychological factors like painful experiences and certain drugs like anti depressants. The problem is more prevalent in females than males. Another disorder in males is premature ejaculation which is defined as the failure of the man to hold orgasm for a period which is recommended. Vaginismus is a disorder experienced by women. It involves involuntary muscle contractions which occur in the outer part of the vagina during sexual arousal and it makes sexual act difficult.
    Paraphilias results from use of non human sex objects or situations to obtain sexual arousal. The repeated use of these objects so as to achieve sexual arousal is considered as a disorder which is referred to as fetishism. The majority of people with fetishism are male and the disorder starts at adolescent. Voyeurism is another sexual abnormality which is associated with watching other people have sex or looking at people who are naked. Other sexual disorders include exhibitionism which is exposure of ones genital organs in the public so as to achieve sexual excitement. Frotteurism is a way of attaining sexual arousal by rubbing ones genitals against a person who is not aware in a public place, and transvestic fetishism which involves putting on clothes of a person of opposite sex so as to achieve sexual excitement.
    Another example of paraphilias is pedophilia which involves repeated, strong sexual excitement, sexual desires, or even sexual behaviors involving sexual act with a young child who has not attained puberty. People who are involved in such behaviors are most of the times close relatives of the child abused. Pedophiles are unable to adjust to sexual responsibility of an adult man and only show sexual desire in children which they abuse. Turning to children may be due to stress which they experience in adult relations where they do not feel satisfied.
    Gender identity disorder is a type of sexual disorder where one desires to become a member of the opposite sex e.g. a man wanting to become a woman. Such people wear clothing which belongs to the opposite sex and even their actions depict that of the opposite sex. The condition starts at childhood where the children involved do not feel comfortable with their sex. Most of the children with this disorder changes in adulthood and accept their gender while some continue into adulthood.  Adults who have this disorder can undergo sexual reassignment surgery which is coupled with hormonal therapy. People who have been operated on have low level of nervousness and dejection. Though the possible causes of gender identity disorders are not known, there is a suggestion that biological factors contribute to their occurrence.

Abstract
In an organization, we need to deal with workers having different personaliteis.  We need to analyze their behavior in order to resolve issues relating to productivity.  The situation is precarious that the workers give only 50 of their capacity.  How to improve the situation  How to utilize their fullest potential.   We need to develop suitable strategy to prepare action plan in a systematic way. This will help to resolve the problem to a considerable extent.

X Company Ltd is facing facing problem due to unproductive workders. 
Mr. K. P Mishra, General Manager  Human Relations was was facing the precarious situation .  He is a well-trained Manager working for Alkem Laboratoires Ltd for the past 10 years.   Unfortunately, he has to face the challenge of improving the situation immediately.

The workers have become irresponsible and totally unmovtivated. They working less during the office hours and they giving us same output during the over time hours so that they can acquire more money . And the result of all this is the less productivity and more costing to the company . The situation need to be improved because
There is an urgent need to enhance productivity
The quality of the output must be in accordnace with the prescribed standared.
It is essential to impart discipline in the work place.
So, the company decided to change the  policy where current workers dont run away as there is labor shortage too but at the same time should be more responsible and motivated so they can work in office hours more and less on over time hours so that i can cut some of the their over time hours and reduce my cost.
Following measures will help to improve the situation
1.   To counsel the works     You need to engineer the work environment to encourage value-added behaviors and discourage inappropriate behaviors. Understanding the problems of workers will help to resolve their issues amicably.
What supervisors say and how they say it is the most significant tool available in the organizations quest to manage work behavior. Simply acknowledging specific behaviors that demonstrate extra effort, add value to the product, show creativity, or identify potential problems will encourage more of the same behavior.
2.  Specify goals candidly    Employees must be aware of what they need to do to be successful, not how you want them to be - like loyal, creative, committed, engaged, proactive, team-oriented, conscientious, and so forth.
3.   Analyzing performance   Try to find out formal and informal problem-solving tactics depending upon the situation. employee making extra effort might be one or any of the following.
Obviously, it is essential to create congenial atmosphere to enable workers to enhance productivity. However, workers must focus their efforts to utilize the time judiciously and give optimum productivity.
4 Give freedom   Close monitoring will not help workers to increase productivity.  If we give them freedom, it will help to improve their performance progressively
5.   Remove barriers     it is of utmost importance that the barriers to the production must be removed. To increase productivity and profitability is to remove the barriers and constraints that dysfunctional systems and processes create for employees.
The average employee often has to work extremely hard to overcome the outdated policies, procedures, and processes that create bottlenecks, redundancies, parallel processes, and work delays. Even the best performers quickly grow impatient in an environment where extra effort is diluted by systems restrictions.
6.  Employee participation   if we involve workers in the process of decision making, they will be motivated to work better and give more productivity.
7.  Employees are aware where the opportunities reside. On any given day, employees can give you a list of at least three specific behaviors that will improve quality, service, productivity, or timeliness. But they are seldom asked.
7. Decide your strategic objectives into the results, tasks, and most importantlythe specific behaviors required from every employee to achieve those objectives.
8.  Asserting Objective   Arrange to have dialogue with employees about the specific job behaviors that will support the companys strategy. For example, some strategic customer service objectives can only be achieved through changing the behavior of employees who deal with customers face to face.
We need to keep in mind that the unstated purpose of employee motivational programs has always been to change employee behaviorto encourage employees to perform tasks more quickly, seek more tasks, put forth additional effort, and increase value-added behavior.
At managerial level, changes need to be implemented.  If we start changing in this way, the consequences for behavior, behavior will change the objective of motivational efforts almost directed toward outcome achieving the change.
These kinds of exercises can not be sustained unless the work environment supports new behaviors.  Hence, we need to formulate a policy to implement discipline.  This should be done in a prudent way to avoid resistance from workers.
 References
Based on research in respect of human relations pertaining to working conditions.
Practical situations faced in Alkem Laboratories Ltd and Mukand Ltd.,Mumbai.

The aviation industry, primarily in the commercial sector, has a vast experience with regard to application of the state of the art technology which majors in human support systems, for instance the flight regulation instated in modern glass cockpits. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) initiated research at INEL to find out common errors by pilots which were rampant when the pilots were operating automated systems in space in advanced technology aircraft. The study researched the major causes and potential remedies to pilots inability to keep on the track delineated by on the ground air traffic controllers. In order to reach the objective of the research, NASA assessed deviation events with regard to altitude that were recorded by the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). ASRS was an initiative by NASA which maintained a database of all flight occurrences that had been recounted by pilots as well as air traffic controllers.  In response NASA came up with a model of the tasks that are expected of pilots so as to track and maintain the delineated altitudes assigned to them by the air traffic controllers on the ground. The reports that were acquired from the database of ASRS were used as a referral page to design the models.
    In the recent times the aviation industry together with the efforts of NASA and NTSB has stressed the importance of in-flight airline personnel coordination as well as intra-cockpit coordination together with the social grooming of professional relationships among crew members. Ideally the concept of cockpit resource management (CRM) stemmed from the need of strategic and organizational framework reformulation in the way the crew managed the aircraft while amidst flight. This implicated that their management of the flight was supposed to be the effort of a team as opposed to singularity in action (Foushee and Helmreich 1988). In glass cockpit, CRM refers to the practice of the flight crew, cabin crew and cockpit crew, which ideally encourages them to enhance each other.
    In a bid to tame accidents that were primarily attributed to controlled flight into terrain (CFI) that dipped the aviation industry mainly in the seventies, the FAA in the beginning of the eighties initiated a strategy dubbed FAR 121.542  to reverse this trend This strategy, FAR 121.542, postulated that all flight crew personnel were prohibited from undertaking any measures in the event of a critical phase of flight with the exception of only those practices that had been exemplified that would see the secure operation of the plane (Amalberti 1998). The portfolio of this critical phases practices of flight constituted of all operations on the ground including taxi, landing as well as takeoff together with all other flight practices and operations that were undertaken below ten thousand feet with the exception of cruise flight. The strategy further particularized that all flight crew personnel were restricted from any practice during an aircrafts critical phase that could result in the distraction of another member of the crew ultimately resulting in the improper conduct of the aircraft. As such this communication that delineated the interaction of the crew members assigned each crew member with expected duties thus eliminating the element of confusion as well as clash of duties as each crew was aware of hisher expectation and thus engaged in practices that were all beneficial to the flight and not to its detriment. The cabin crew only passed information that was judged as critical to the pilot in the cockpit avoiding unnecessary panic.
    The initiation of state of the art auto pilot, flight control as well as flight monitoring systems in todays aircraft such as the one in the air bus series, the Boeing together with the McDonnell Douglas has led to immense changes in the operation of the said aircraft. The pilots together with the co-pilots as well as other technical attendants in air have reversed their role from in-the loop pilots to managers of an advanced system. The state of the art technology has implicated that more of the duties formerly assigned to human labour has been taken up by technology thus resulting into airlines reducing the crew to two from three. The role of the flight engineer has been assumed by the computerised system that manages the flight through out its tenure in the air. The workload that was assigned to the numerous in-flight attendants has significantly diminished for some but for others there has been an increase in expected roles with their work schedules seeing additional tasks added. A case in mind is the FMS reprogramming that may be called up by air traffic control that expects the pilot to implement several modifications to the flights initial plans.
    The current level of safety in aircraft can also be attributed to glass cockpit aviation. Safety indexes are proof of the fact that glass cockpits in comparison to previous generation of aircraft have accident ratings that are approximately half the rate recorded for the traditional aircraft. The safety ratings recorded as a result of the invention of glass cockpit aviation can be compared to the safety standards that are exhibited in the railway system as well as the nuclear industry. One though has to put in mind the contribution of other variables in conjunction with glass cockpit aviation which include air traffic control together with airports as well as the employment of simulators in training.
      One advantage that glass cockpit aviation has significantly gained the aviation industry is within the field of Electronic Flight Instrument Systems. Ideally aircrafts became most sought after means of transportation when both accurate as well as secure instruments of flight eliminated the option of the pilot having to constantly maintain visual correspondence with the ground to gain information with regard to the various needs that arose. Electronic Flight Instrument Systems are absolutely critical to the pilot especially when heshe is expected to carry out flight operations and practices that are deemed safe. It is important for the said pilot to have primary working knowledge of the instruments. Glass cockpit aircraft has an array of instruments that aid the pilot in operating the aircraft. These include the altimeter as well as the magnetic air speed indicator together with the air speed indicator (ASI). These instruments are a requirement as delineated in the visual fight rules (VFR). Instrument flight rules (IFR), in addition to the above instruments also expects that all in-flight aircraft also consist of other instruments that primarily include, a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator as well as a device that the aircrafts flight crew use for taking barometric pressure indexes generally referred to as the sensitive altimeter adjustable. In addition to the above instruments glass cockpit aircrafts also have slip-skid indicator as well as a flight-clock that displays seconds, minutes as well as hours. This clock has a sweep digital pointer which primarily displays digital information. Moreover the aircraft also has a gyroscopic pitch-and-bank indicator which the flight crew uses for ascertaining a digital horizon together with a gyroscopic direction indicator. The Electronic Flight Instrument Systems exhibit unsurpassed flexibility which enhances coordination of the flight crew members with its system that is adequately located to enable flow of information among the crew members. The glass cockpits en route ADI as well as terminal modes of display come with the advantage of alleviating unwarranted pieces of information. The glass cockpits air speed and trend displays feed the pilot with the necessary information that allow him to integrate multifunction of the plane with the resultant advantage of balancing within the operations. Glass cockpits Electronic Flight Instrument System makes use of the architecture integrated within the system making the aircraft capable of performing extensive reversions in its operation in critical times. Moreover, during critical moments the glass cockpits extensive capability to perform diagnostic tests with its integrated technology elevates it favourably in comparison to the traditional aircraft as it diminishes the pilots need for equipment to perform line tests. This saves the pilot and the crew on time which might be critical in times of crises. The systems full-sky ADI as well as its 3D runway which is capable of accessing satellite views of the outside world provide the crew with more realistic images upon which they can make sound decisions. The electronic flight instrument systems work together with the attitude director indicator as well as the multifunction display to derive an articulated flight deck display. The attitude director indicator is capable of providing satellite images of the earth as well as the sky that ideally add up to fifty percent more to the pilots comprehension of the intended terminal. In addition to this the en route formats realized from this instrument are also larger than the ones realized from the standard 5 electromechanical instrument. The attitude director indicator blends several formats of display with the radar for the weather and the integrated NAV source selection to derive an easy to understand and follow systemization of all flight practices together with tasks that are ideally endeared to avoid detrimental weather.   
        Many changes that have been introduced to the aviation industry by automation have resulted into significant benefits. This benefits would not have seen the light of the day were it not for the technology that the automated systems derive. The complexity of the aircraft without the automated system is very difficult to operate, as such, the modern technology benefits complex processes such as nuclear power plant operation as well as and aircraft (Sheridan 1992). A vast array of the automated systems in glass cockpit aviation have been received favourably and found to be invaluable by the flight crew thus cancelling the argument from some quarters that argue out automation to be for its owns sake (Peterson 1984). Such advantages include the horizontal situation indicator used by pilots. This instrument is placed at the artificial horizon assuming the position of the standard directional gyro (DG). In conjunction with another instrument known as the course deviation indicator it derives display for the pilot and thus diminishes instruments under the scope of the pilots watch. The HIS instrument is also integrated with a glide slope needle which implicates that the ILS instrument that is primarily located on the ground to provide critical information during landing, can be flown by singularly referring to the six primary flight instruments. Among other merits of the HIS instrument include its freedom with regard to the mix-up of reverse sensing. 
Some invaluable changes have also resulted from automation of the aircraft primarily changes that regard safety as well as user satisfaction. Human error that is usually associated with operating complex machinery has been eliminated by the glass cockpits embracing of computerised systems to run its complex flight operations. These complex operations were in the traditional aircraft under the command of the flight engineer. In the traditional aircraft, as a result of the flight engineers human error, these planes were prone to aviation accidents. Such is not the case for the glass cockpit as there operation is the subject of state of the art computer systems with the capability to calculate solutions and derive logical answers to complex systems with utmost precision as well as speed. Successful implementation of these changes needs highly trained pilots.   
    Monitoring of operations in the glass cockpit has been at most efficient. In general flight personnel have performed well in their diverse working environments that constitute the cockpit crew as well as the cabin crew. These improvements in their performance with overall decrease in aviation accidents can be attributed to the state of the art technology that glass cockpit hires in its computerised system. In a sense, when an array of probabilities for failure is rallied against the rate of success that has been realised in the crew, both on the ground as well as in-flight which ideally encompasses every single second of this continuous process, the relatively diminished occurrences of human error is impressive.
    One benefit that the computerization of the glass cockpit has resulted into is the reduction of the mental workload of its crew members and other flight operators. This was brought about by the fact that the complexity of the operation of the flight implicated momentous mental distress for the flight engineer. This was especially true, putting in mind that the flight engineer was a human being who would be much distressed especially in times of complexity. The human mind has its limits when it is faced with problems to solve. In critical situations when for instance the plane is in distress, the flight engineer might be distressed thinking about the plight of his family in the event of something going wrong in the plane. As such his divided mental attention might be much to the detriment of the operation consequently resulting into a crisis. In contrast to such circumstances, glass cockpit offers sophisticated technology that is able to realize probable and sound solutions without the burden of mental interruption unlike humans, they are bereft of these feelings. As such glass cockpit reduces human error and at the same time gains the crew the advantage of safety.
    In general glass cockpit has had a significant impact on aviation industry. Though some of these impacts have been negative, the significant benefit to the crew with regard to duty that was assigned and expected of them has either diminished or the said duties have been assumed by machines, creating a more simplified working environment.

The changes that are happening in the society nowadays are largely influenced by the development of technology. The emergence of different technological innovation also paved the way for the mass media to have a larger influence among people because communication and propagation of information has never been as easy during this period of time. Nevertheless, the influence of mass media also has its corresponding challenges, especially when it comes issues that are regarded as unethical because it go against the concept of what is right. This kind of adage is exemplified in a current event regarding Forbes Magazines list of most powerful people in the world. In this list, Joaquin El Chapo Guzman, a reputed Mexican drug lord ranks no. 41 in the list. This event shows that media has a way of adversely affecting the perception of people by making them believe that doing something illegal could actually make someone powerful.
    The list of the most powerful people in the world that was published by Forbes Magazine raises ethical issues, especially with the inclusion of Joaquin Guzman. Guzman even ranks higher in the list as compared with some head of states, such as Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, French President Nicolas Sarkozy, and Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez (Cable News Network, 2009). This event raises ethical issues regarding Forbes Magazine definition of power and its effects to the public. Including a drug lord who achieves affluence in life because of doing something illegal, which also adversely affects other peoples life because of addiction, is unethical.
    Social contract theorists might claim, though, that since the purpose of the Forbes Magazine list as a product of journalism is to treat every potential candidate with objectivity. Their definition of powerful could have been treated with an objective approach which enables all potential candidates to be included without considering how they came to be powerful. Because it is the magazines virtue or purpose to provide objective report and avoid discrimination of subjects, it is not unethical to include Guzman on the list as he could actually be considered powerful in his line of industry. The weakness of this perspective, though, is the idea that they seem to have not considered the consequence and sensibilities of their readers which could lead to major ethical problems in the society.
However, based on the deontological perspective, the action of Guzman is unethical because the end does not justify the means, he might be rich but he achieved through illegal means. Duty ethicists would most probably be fixed on the idea that Forbes actions are unethical because how could glorifying drug pushers by publishing them in a magazine as one of the most powerful people in the world be any good In line with this, they will most likely assume that Guzmans way of life is already unethical in the first place. However, one of the weaknesses of the perspective is that they are focusing too much on the idea of Guzman being on the list and not on the objectives of Forbes Magazines with regard to putting him on the list. The point is how the magazine defines powerful.
    Utilitarians would most probably conclude the actions of Forbes Magazine to be unethical too as the effect of the inclusion of Guzman in the list would be negative as he could become a model for others who wish to become powerful. Millar (n.d.) gives importance to perceptual knowledge and the way by which it affects an individuals decisions and actions. The decision of the Forbes Magazine to include Guzman in the list of most powerful people in the world and even rank him higher that some world leaders is unethical. The Forbes Magazine reinforces an idea among the public that doing illegal things could make you powerful, which makes them believe that good results could be obtain from bad actions. The concept of right and wrong is greatly challenged by this list, which could adversely affect the perception of people when it comes to engaging to untoward behavior.
    In my honest belief, I think that the argument of the duty ethicists is most superior among the other ethical arguments. The issue of illegal drugs in the society is one of the major contributors of crime and poverty in the world and therefore, could never be considered as a good means. Drug pushing is an absolute destroyer of a persons life and future. With regard to its weakness in correlating the definition of power, it is important that journalists consider the short-term and long-term effect of the concept that their articles may convey to their readers.

Raymond Fowler (1990), in his address to the American Psychological Association (APA), refers to the concept discipline, as it used in the academe, as the knowledge and information base of a broad field of study and instruction. In line with this, he recognizes Psychology as a core discipline . Such is the case since Psychology stands as a theoretical and applied science which provides the foundational knowledge used in other disciplines. He states, it provides a basic core of knowledge thatcontains concepts and content that are basic to the effective functioning of other disciplines . In his address, Fowler further specifies that the reason for Psychologys position as a core discipline may further be traced to the knowledge it provides regarding human behavior which is necessary to understand in order to further the different researches in the social sciences
    At the onset, it is important to note that there is a distinction between psychology, the reflection on human actions and conduct, and Psychology, the discipline that provides scientific and practical knowledge regarding the reflection on human actions and conduct. The distinction lies in the latters existence as the discipline which tackles the different aspects involved in the former. Within this context, in order to determine the necessary phenomena involved in the formation of the discipline of Psychology, the focus ought to be on the different intellectual, cultural, and social aspects that led to the formation of the field that problematizes psychological actions and its components. Such an approach would thereby take into account the intellectual, cultural, and social aspects that led to the problematization of psychological events and how the problematization of these events led to the formation of a distinct field in science, that being the field of Psychology. It is important to note at the onset that the various phenomena which are considered to be necessary in the development of the discipline of Psychology in this discussion merely take into account the current characteristics of the field as it exists today.
     The intellectual, cultural, and social phenomena that led to the formation of Psychology as a discipline may be roughly divided into three parts (1) the introduction of psychology in philosophical thought, (2) the shift from philosophy to Psychology, and (3) the formation of scientific Psychology. The discipline of Psychology, in this sense, may be seen as a discipline whose concepts have been derived from both the pre-scientific and the scientific age. This is apparent if one considers that the basic questions that the discipline aims to answer involves the (1) problem of knowledge, (2) problem of conduct, and (3) problem of the polis. Given that these problems have been tackled since the Hellenistic period in Greece and even in the period of Confucianism in the East, one may state that the intellectual roots of the discipline may be traced to that period. Examples of these are evident in the philosophies of the Hellenistic philosophers Plato and Aristotle.
    Both Plato and Aristotle were concerned with the problem of knowledge. In the case of Plato, he situated the problem within the context of his Theory of Forms. As opposed to this, Aristotle situated the problem within the context of his Scala Natura or the ladder of nature. Both philosophers utilized their theory of knowledge in explaining the conduct of individuals as well as the organization of state. Although these concepts were rejected by the Behaviorists, they were reintroduced in Psychology through the works of Brentano and other contemporary Psychologists. The initial refusal to accept the Hellenistic philosophies in the discipline stood as a result of the shift from philosophy to Psychology wherein the later is perceived as a purely scientific discipline. This shift, which was made possible by the developments in science during the 17th and 18th centuries led to the reassessment of philosophical questions thru methods that were then perceived to be purely scientific in nature. An example of this shift from the philosophical method to the scientific method in the assessment of issues pertaining to psychology is apparent in Bacon who forwards the following claim, We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. It was also Bacon, who initially distinguished between what would later on be referred to as theoretical and experimental psychology as he claims,
Human Knowledge which concerns the Mindhath two parts one that enquireth of the substance or nature of the soul or mind, the other that enquireth of the faculties or functions thereof. Unto the first of these, the considerations of the original of the soul, whether it be native or inventive, and how far it is exempted from the laws of matter. These general characteristic of intellectual developments during the 17th and 18th century, as can be seen in Bacons thought, led to the institutionalization of the discipline of Psychology during the 19th century.
    It is at this point that it is important to show the relationship between the intellectual, cultural, and social phenomenon that led to the formation of the discipline. Without the intellectual developments from the Hellenistic period until the 19th century, the cultural and social phenomena which led to the formation of the discipline would not have taken place. Consider for example that without the publication of Galileos works, the shift from the focus on religion to the human being would not have enabled the beginning of the Renaissance period in history. At the same time, without the focus on scientific thought, the necessity for the formation of universities would not have happened during the 19th century. In consequence, the discipline of Psychology may not have the current characteristics and components that it possesses as of today. 
The Role of Behaviorism in the Development of North American Psychology
(Answer to Question Number Two)
    In the beginning of the 20th century, there was shift from behaviorism to cognitivism in Psychology. Evidence of this can be seen in the shift from the conception of Psychology as the description, prediction, control, and explanation of behavior to the conception of Psychology as the description and explanation of consciousness. The former is a result of behaviorisms focus on objectivism, environmentalism, and reinforcement . The later, on the other hand, is a result of cognitivisms focus on positivism, cognition, and representations. The main reason for the occurrence of such a shift may be attributed to the limitations of behaviorism, one of which is its inability to provide explanations for the existence of mental states.  In addition to this, the other criticisms of behaviorism may be inferred from the following characteristics of the theory (1) Its hostility to metaphysics, (2) Its acceptance of purely pragmatic goals, (3) Its pure materialism, (4) Its subjugation of human science to social ends, (5) Its narrow data base, (6) Its commitment to utilitarianism, (7) Its focus on experimentation (Behaviorism, 2009). Overall, these characteristics of behaviorism led to the minimal application of the theory when it comes to the assessment of psychological phenomena.
    As a result of the shift from behaviorism to cognitivism, there were those who argued that behaviorism has slowed the progress of Psychology for almost 50 years. Such a claim however is unwarranted for several reasons. First, to assume that behaviorism slowed the progress of Psychology for almost 50 years involves the assumption that behaviorism was not a necessary component for the development of cognitivism and the other psychological theories which followed it. Second, to assume that behaviorism slowed the development of Psychology for almost 50 years involves the assumption that behaviorism is no longer relevant in Psychology. Finally, to assume that behaviorism slowed the development of Psychology for almost 50 years involves the assumption that the elements which were necessary for the formation of cognitivism and the other theories that followed it already existed during the time-frame of behaviorisms dominance within Psychology.
    The refutation of the first assumption merely involves a presentation of the influence of behaviorism on cognitivism. It is important to note that one of the main achievements of behaviorism lies in its introduction of experimental psychology. The experiments of Pavlov, Watson, Skinner et. al. introduced the means through which quantitative methods may be used in psychological research. This was incorporated in cognitive psychology as can be seen in the experiments of Piaget, Bandura et. al. In line with this, Robert Sternberg  J. Mio (2008) explicitly state cognitivisms influence on behaviorism as they claim, Cognitivism is, in part, a synthesis of earlier forms of analysis, such as behaviorism and GestaltismLike behaviorism, it has come to use precise quantitative analysis to study how people learn and think.
    Given that the developments in cognitivism were also influence by the methods of behaviorism, it follows from this that it is not the case that behaviorism is no longer relevant in Psychology which thereby debunks the second assumption against behaviorism mentioned above. The reasons for this are as follows. First, the continuous relevance of a discipline may be traced to its ability to provide pertinent answers to certain phenomena. The shift from cognitivism to behaviorism was a result of the laters limitations, one of which was mentioned in the initial part of the discussion. Second, the continuous relevance of behaviorism may be traced to cognitivisms expansion of the early behaviorist theory presented by Angell (Leahey, 1992, p.311). According to Leahey, the development of cognitivism today merely expounds on the initial definition of behaviorism presented by Angell. He claims, The coming of cognitive psychology isthe appearance of a new form of behaviorism based on a new technology, the computer. It is in line with this claim that one may provide a counter-argument against the third assumption against behaviorisms pertinence in the development of Psychology in the past 50 years.
    It is important to note that cognitivism, as it is used in Psychology as opposed to philosophy, was introduced within the context of Karl Lashley and Donald Hebbs initial criticism of behaviorism. Research within the field however began during the same time as technological innovations in science were able to mimic certain characteristics and functions of the human brain. It may be argued that without these developments, cognitivism would not have been possible.
The Relationship between Cognitive Psychology of the Late 20th Century, Wundts Cognitive Psychology and Early North American Psychologists Focused on Consciousness
(Answer to Question Number Three)
    Cognitive psychology refers to the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. The roots of cognitive science may be traced to Wilhelm Wundts focus on the structure of the mind and William James focus on the function of the mind.  In the process of focusing on the structure of the mind, Wundt conceived of psychology as the investigation of physiological conditions of conscious events. As opposed to this, both James and Dewey conceived of psychology as the investigation of mental conditions of conscious events. The former gave rise to the development of structuralism in the discipline of Psychology whereas the later paved the way for the development of functionalism in the discipline. Structuralism here refers to school of thought that conceives of human behavior in terms of abstract structures that are logical or mathematical in nature. As opposed to this, functionalism refers to the school of thought that conceives of human behavior in terms of thought processes manifested in human behavior.
    The conflict between structuralism and functionalism later on led to the development of associationism which is evident in the theories of Hermann Ebbinghaus and Edward Thorndike. Associationism here refers to the school of thought that examines the relationship between the physiological and mental components of human thought. From associationism, behaviorism developed as a result of several psychologists emphasis on the importance of physical relations as opposed to mental relations in the assessment of human behavior and human thought. During the initial period of the formation of behaviorism, psychologists dismissed the mental component in the formation of human behavior. Criticism were only presented in the later part of the 20th century as Tolmann and other behaviorists noted the role of mental processes in the formation of human behavior.
    Within this context, one may note that the relationship between the cognitive psychology of the late 20th century and the cognitive psychologies of Wundt and the early North American psychologists such as James may be attributed to the laters influence in the development of the former. This influence is apparent in the late 20th century cognitive psychologists focus on both the structural and functional components of mental processes. An example of this can be seen in Jean Piagets cognitive theory of development. In the process of determining the structural developments in the childs brain, Piaget also presented the functional developments in the childs mental activities. In a sense, one may note that current cognitive science also presents a synthesis of the early versions of structuralism and functionalism that were presented in Wundt and James theories. 
    An additional similarity between these various versions of cognitive psychology throughout the 20th century may be traced to their re-association of the field with philosophy. In the case of Wundt, he perceived psychology as a part of the rejuvenation of philosophy. The reason for this may be traced to Wundts emphasis on the role of psychology in the development of human civilization. He states, The task of this area of psychology consists of examining those psychic processes that form the most basic foundation for the development of collective humankind and of the development of shared mental products. In the same manner, James also perceived psychology as an important component in determining both interest and choice. Although James did not explicitly claim the necessity for the disciplines re-association with philosophy, his later shift to pragmatism as well as his conception of the relationship between mental states with choice and interest places his theory within the context of the philosophy of action. In line with this, the current manifestations of the re-association of cognitive psychology with philosophy are apparent in the continuous dialogue between both disciplines as they both tackle the role of mental states in determining consciousness as well as the basic components of knowledge.
    Within this context, the relationship between the various versions of cognitive psychology throughout the 20th century may be traced to but are not limited to the following aspects (1) their focus on the cognitive or mental states, (2) their focus on how mental states affect human behavior, (3) their existence as a separate paradigm from an existing paradigm, (4) their synthesis of previous paradigms in psychology and (5) their conception of the relationship of psychology with philosophy.

Stress is a fact of life, it is something that will always be present and man has no choice but to deal with stress. Stress in itself is not entirely bad since it can propel man to take action in order to relieve the stress and anxiety. On the other hand, stress that persists and affects the normal functioning of the individual becomes chronic stress and is psychologically unhealthy. Chronic stress can lead to physiological and psychological manifestations such as stomach ulcers, migraines, asthma and hypertension, insomnia, appetite change, depression and disorientation. Managing stress is a skill it can be learned and applied to ones daily activities. There are a number of ways for reducing stress, such as meditation, relaxation, avoiding stressors, changing ones attitude and behavior towards the stressors, and seeking support (Duffy  Atwater, 2001).
    Stress is basically psychological in nature it is something that we think about, something we feel strongly about and something that arouses anxiety. Coping with stress can also be psychologically motivated, when were upset, we tend to eat more in the effort to feel satiated and feel good about ourselves, reducing the anxiety that the stress have caused. However, unhealthy coping always backfires since it does not effectively deal with the stress. I am more inclined to change my attitude and behavior towards the stressors in my life as a means of reducing stress. I have control over my thoughts, emotions and actions, while I do not have control over other people or events that may cause me stress, thus, it would be a better idea if I change what I have control over. For example, a certain teacher is a stressor for me because I have difficulty in her subject, but since I have control over my thoughts and behavior, I can change my opinion about the subject so I would not be stressed whenever I have a class with that teacher and subject. Also I could change how I associate the teacher with the difficult subject, therefore eliminating the teacher as a stressor.