Psychology

Literature review is a very important aspect of doing a research.  It is one way of gathering previous facts about the topic that has been selected.  This portion of the research presents the different approaches and theoretical perspectives used in one particular area of interest.  It also shows numerous findings that could help the researcher conduct his own study with validity and reliability. Having this importance, I personally looked for books and journal articles and I even searched on the internet in order to write the literature review of my research about  memory for temporal order. Since the main topic of my research is about the memory for temporal order, I filtered books and refereed journals.  I just used those that really give the core idea of my chosen topic.

At this point, my own research is not yet finished.  I still have to add more facts before I finalize it.  However, I am almost done with its literature review.  I can say that the literature review of my research is well organized.  I gathered previous studies from great researchers and I noticed that they presented different ideas with regard to my chosen topic.  And since I adhere to the ideas imparted by Leedy and Ormond (2005), I began to evaluate, synthesize, and compare and contrast the different theoretical perspectives used in those studies.  I tried to be more critical to be able to produce a more reliable output that could be a great contribution to the existing knowledge.  With all of these, I can say that at this juncture, the literature review of my research is getting even better.

Precautions Regarding Plagiarism.
With regards to the issue of plagiarism, I can confidently say that I am not committing this crime. In fact, I have precautions or reminders regarding plagiarism in order for me to be guided. Those are the following I make sure that in my literature review, I always recognize and give credit to the owner of the ideas that I preferred to include in my writings I do not only copy what other researchers have written, instead, I paraphrase, and still, cite the author  Another thing that I do is locate the proper manual style. The last precaution that I cited is very important according to the Writing Center of University of North Carolina (2007). With all of these, I know that I will not be charged of plagiarism.

Pursuing my career in psychology is just the first step in my plan.  I would like to have the opportunity to take a bigger role in making the world a better place to live.  My main philosophy in life is to lead by setting an example. I cannot expect others to do what I myself would be willing to do but that does not mean that I cannot hope that others will see the example that I have shown them.  This philosophy is one of the many forces that drive me to pursue my dream of making a career in psychology and of becoming so much more in life.  The chance to help those who are less fortunate in life, the chance to help those in need, the opportunity to be of service to humanity these are the reasons why I have selected this as the profession that I will pursue for, as Eleanor Roosevelt once said, The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams

This is the reason for taking this opportunity to pursue a degree in Psychology.  As a second year student of Social Psychology at the Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities, I have reached a point where I have realized that I need to take further steps to improve myself so that I can fulfill my goals.  Having been interested in the relations between groups of people (especially Cialdinis researches) as well as positive and behavioral psychology, I feel that only through these further studies can I fully develop my potential.

My inclination for this field began at an early age.  In high school, I organized the Prus Expo, where each class was representing one European country and would present what they learned about the country.  This was a key experience for me because it allowed me to see firsthand how each group and country interacted with others.  I also realized how to apply psychology in the many times that I volunteered for Red Cross Charities, colleting funds for disabled children. 

On a personal level, an important experience of mine came when I was in high school because it was here that I had to take care of my ailing aunt.  This was a very difficult time for me.  During this time, I realized the eagerness of learning and growing adaptability of the human condition.  It was through the use of psychology that I was able to get through the emotional and mental pain.  Through this experience, I not only became a stronger individual but also a more focused person.

I feel that the narration of these experiences, academic and personal, serves to demonstrate not only my determination to pursue a career in psychology but also my potential for being successful in this endeavor.  I have also shown that I am able to thrive in a multicultural environment, such as when I joined the Euroscola Programme in Strasbourg where I took a deeper insight into behavior of different cultures. This is also one of the reasons why I would like to study in the UK.

That is why I believe that this course is a crucial step for me.  My success and my accomplishments here will herald the beginning of the fulfillment of my personal and professional goals.  It is said that the one thing that nobody can ever take away from you is your education and that is the one thing that I plan to not only gain for myself but for others as well.  I see this course in psychology as not only a way for me to help others but also as a way to fulfill my full potential.

The upsurge of the spread of HIVAIDS in the world has made the disease a great force for medical practitioners to reckon with. As such, it has become critical to establish the most valuable ways of stopping the epidemic. In the treatment and prevention of HIVAIDS, counseling is regarded as a crucial component of this process. HIV counseling has indeed become a vital element in the all inclusive model of managing health care. It aims at curbing the transmission of the disease and also at offering support to those infected and affected by HIV. HIVAIDS profoundly affects many social, economic and political aspects of communities and peoples lives in general. Therefore, in addressing the epidemic it is fundamental that practitioners are aware of the vast aspects related to the disease.

HIVAIDS Counseling Ethical Considerations in Counseling Clients with HIV
Although this disease does share similar issues with other diseases there is an individual characteristic which often sets this disease apart from the rest. This refers to the fact that HIV transmission is related to behaviors deemed to be quite private and whose exposure to the public would cause personal embarrassment to the affected parties (Hoffman, 1996, p.2). This paper will provide a critical evaluation of the ethical considerations of counseling HIV clients. Ethical issues often arise over a clients concern for confidentiality in the counseling process. Confidentiality will dominate a major part of the papers discussion. This is because concerns for confidentiality are known to arouse other barriers to the counseling process such as anxiety and distrust. The knowhow of ethical issues has been largely insisted on by psychologists and counselors involved in the management of HIVAIDS. Counseling in a widely viewed context is meant to be a principled and especially a profession which is bound by ethics (Silverman, 1997, p. 6). These ethical principles include the utter respect for all individuals, beneficence and fairness.
Respect for clients encompasses the counselors duty to protect the autonomy of the patient and also safeguard those clients who cannot make decisions for themselves. Most importantly, this principle obliges the counselor to maintain confidence and keep any secrets or promises they have made to their clients. Beneficence on the other hand compels the counselor to always act in the best interests of the patient. The counselor must notify the client on any factors which may affect them either negatively or positively. Finally, justice involves the treatment of clients fairly with no discrimination. All these aspects have largely led to the development of literature on the impacts which arise when these principles are neglected or presumed.
Confidentiality is an ethical issue which has received the greatest attention from counselors. Rarely do practitioners violate the clients right to confidentiality but this dilemma concerns most of them. This is because it threatens to destroy the most crucial component of the counseling relationship which is trust. Moreover, counselors are aware of the adversarial role in which they are bound to be placed if they viewed any of their clients to be a danger to others. In counseling, guidelines which have been set indicate that any information which results from the counseling relationship are meant to be kept confidential (Cohen, 2001, p. 282). However, the same guidelines have also been known to indicate that when the counselor does detect any threats to the client or others affected then they are expected to act reasonably. This would reflect that when necessary they are mandated to disclose any information shared by the client. One such instance would be when there is a risk for intended transmission by the client. A client who will not consider disclosing their positive status to their spouses may pose the danger of infection to their partners. At this point the counselor will ultimately consider notifying their clients spouse.
Any breaches of the code of confidence between clients and counselors are however meant to be a last result (Gray et al, 1993, p. 298). This is after the practitioners have considered all other alternatives. It is also made substantially clear in the ethical standards guidelines that clients be made aware of the implications of the confidentiality clause.  This is especially if the counselor senses any anomalies in a clients sexual behavior. Then they must strictly outline the limitations of confidentiality before the counseling process progresses. Despite these stipulations a counselor can freely expose their clients information if the client mandates them to do so. This willful consent must however be strictly analyzed and where possible there should be legal clarifications made. This will protect the counselor from facing any irreparable effects of breaking the code of confidence.
As it can be observed from the above discussion it is clear that the issue of confidentiality imposes major limitations on the practitioners duty to inform others of any impending danger. This has been so mainly as a result of the Tarasoff decision (Hoffman, 1996, p. 208).  This decision provided specific contexts in which confidentiality may be breached. Knapp  VandeCreek (1990), explain that there must be a unique relationship existing between the client and their counselor. This relationship should be highly cemented by trust. They also expound that for any decisions to disclose or protect a clients information there must be evidence of identifiable possible victims. The counselors duty to safeguard only extends to those persons the counselor knows and not to anonymous individuals. Gehring (1982) asserts that the counselor is also mandated to warn others when they know of any imminent danger. Issues also emerge in establishing viable grounds for identifying clients who may pose danger to others. There are various factors which must be followed when doing so. Hoffman (1996, p. 209) claims that there must be utter certainty that a client is infected with the disease. Another consideration involves knowing the clients involvement in risky behaviors which may increase potential for transmission. In addition, the counselor should also be aware of whether their clients are aware and engage in preventive measures for HIV.
These considerations are not really full proof as they also pose further questions on the eligibility of threat factors. These difficulties arise when counselors become concerned over their clients even when they are not aware of their status. This happens when such counselors consider general statistics and in turn label their clients according to their statistical groups. For instance, a gay client may be automatically labeled HIV positive simply because there is a high rate of prevalence amongst the gay population. Furthermore, difficulties may arise because there are different definitions for behaviors considered to be of high risks (Kain, 1988). Some sexual behaviors might not pose any risk or even mandate the counselor to inform the clients spouse.
Some authors like Posey (1998), base their discussion of the issue of confidentiality on the ownership of responsibility (P. 226). When the counselor opts to disclose the clients condition to their partners it may be on the grounds that their clients are facing denial of their condition. As such the counselor is dealt with the responsibility to shoulder the duty of informing other parties. A client is within their rights to engage in the grieving process and thus justified to be in denial. Moreover, there are instances when a clients risky behavior may be mutually exclusive with their partners. As such the counselor must disclose the facts to prohibit the contact of either partner in a bid to prevent further transmission. Stanard and Hazler (1995), showcase the issue of optimal confidentiality. In reference to Gray and Harding (1988), who stipulate that an individuals right to know of any threat of infection highly surpasses ones right to privacy. In essence some practitioners recommend that they must override this right to privacy when they sense danger and should thus automatically inform the concerned parties. However, taking such a stand may also violate many other ethical principles which bind counselors. These counselors are strictly meant to ensure that that they offer support and all kinds of assistance to their clients, yet when they seek to opt for disclosure they are not fulfilling their duties. Also in an era when the HIVAIDS epidemic is accompanied by high levels of discrimination, by breaching confidentiality the counselor will have exposed the client to possible discrimination.
Difficulties of establishing potential dangers also arise due to other complicating aspects. Such aspects include the unreliability of techniques and methods used in diagnosing HIV patients. Lamb et al (1989), asserts that it is possible to be wrongly misdiagnosed and thus presenting a wrong interpretation by the counselor. Also, the development and progress of the disease often happens differently for most people and since it is impossible to predict its course it is also hard to predict potential risk.
Other issues posed by the Tarasoff decision concern the fact that there are difficulties in depicting tangible victims. This is so because there are times when the disease remains dormant in some individuals for a long duration. Also, having to delve into a patients sexual history may prove rather difficult and further complicating the possibility of establishing those who may be infected by the client. The Tarasoff decision was particularly unique due to the presence of verbal threats of infection and this may not always be the case. Counselors face a dilemma when no verbal threats have been made in regard to any individual and if clients have shown no signs of being a threat and thus seek the counselors confidence.  In spite of all the arguments made for and against the guidelines specified by the Tarasoff decision, it is quite clear that it is not possible to establish cause for breach of confidence.
Rohleder (2008) indicates that there are contexts under which confidentiality can be difficult to implement. In a study conducted in a prison setting, it is seen that it can be quite hard to keep information private as there are close relations amongst prisoners and staff members. In cases where there are already aroused suspicions any form of gesture may be interpreted as disclosure. This is illustrated in an incidence cited by Rohleder (2008, p. 282). In an event held in the prisoner prisoners were meant to light candles. To do so, they had to rise up and at this time the nurse happened to nod at three women who were positive. This was meant to nudge them to light a candle but this mere gesture may have been seen as a probable form of disclosure of their HIV status. Practitioners are thus faced with the difficulty of ensuring that they eliminate any potentials of unintended disclosure.
Kell (1999) cautions the use of a collective approach when regarding issues of confidentiality. There are instances where HIV counseling can only be conducted through groups and not individual sessions. In such circumstances establishing confidence amongst all clients and the counselor can be a very daunting task. This is because even though such a group might be bound by a common objective their motives might be affected by many diverse factors. Also, this cohesiveness might be broken in ways which could prompt others to disclose an individuals information. Another factor involves cases where clients are not in any way involved in the decision making process. Prisoners are often not allowed the benefit of having informed consent when counseling measures are taken. It is vital to get the consent of clients in engaging in the counseling process as the alternative results to the on start of major ethical and legal dilemmas.
There are other ethical issues which may arise in respect to counseling clients who are infected by HIV. These issues include concerns for spirituality and discrimination. Holt et al (1999), emphasizes the need for counselors to aid clients in reconciling their spirituality as a vital component in furthering their progress in counseling. Often clients are faced with the imminent fear of death when they are diagnosed as HIV positive. While some accept their status instantly others are laden with great denial which may arouse feelings of fear and anxiety. These issues may impede the counseling process if counselors do not devise ways of discarding these fears. It is in trying to do so that ethical issues may come up. There are counselors who develop impatient tendencies towards their clients fears. This factor may cause counselors to push clients beyond their limits. This is done when a counselor nudges the client to discuss issues which are difficult to relate. Even though a counselor is expected to help clients to deal with their underlying problems it is important that they recognize and accept when clients cannot provide any more information.
Another ethical issue which may arise in counseling is the concept of judgment. Clients are often exposed to a counselors judgment in regard to their behaviors, lifestyle and moral tendencies. A counselor may relate their client to a particular set of people due to predisposing factors which they might observe in the client. However, these factors are not always true and may cause wrongful diagnosis of a clients problems. Burke and Miller (1996), assert that a counselors feelings and judgments when exposed to a client may result to irreparable damage. HIV positive clients need to gain their lost self esteem and get rid of any built up emotions on elements of discrimination they may have experienced. Therefore, it is not right that they have to face the same reservations from their counselors. It is crucial that counselors who have strong opinions about such issues refrain from counseling those particular patients. Working with clients whom a counselor considers as immoral or any other biased factor is unethical.
Instilling spirituality in HIV infected clients often involves guiding them to focus on their faith and aspects which offer substantial meaning in their lives. Religion plays a great role in developing a sense of belonging. Through religion, clients can establish an avenue which provides elements that they truly relate to and identify with. When a counselor has different religious beliefs from their clients ethical issues may result in their relations. In order to prevent the formation of barriers in the counseling process, counselor must restrain themselves from voicing their opinions. If not so, they may end up imposing their beliefs on the client who in turn may develop a false sense of meaning.
In order to prevent the development of such ethical issues which may bar the counseling process it is important for counselors to conduct thorough assessments of their clients history. This assessment should range from the clients spiritual background to their opinions regarding such concepts like morality and religion among others. In doing so, counselors are able to establish issues which may cause distress to the clients and work towards avoiding them. Clients may have experienced discrimination over their beliefs in their past and this may affect how they relate to issues regarding spirituality. With this knowledge, a counselor can know how to navigate the issue and rebuild the clients former confidence in their faith. In addition, counselors should devise ways of introducing the concept of spirituality to clients whose initial concern is not on spirituality.
Creating a free environment for clients allows them to discuss their problems freely without having to restrict themselves from self expression. This is only possible when a counselor accepts the circumstances in which the client is in. By embracing the entirety of the client regardless of their beliefs, opinions or feelings, counselors become the ultimate spiritual providers for individuals infected with HIV. They proceed to provide hope to the infected and affected individuals and also helping them develop purpose in life.
Cartwright et al (1999), provides a study which seeks to establish ethical dilemmas related to clients living with HIVAIDS. The decision making model which has been illustrated clearly indicates that there are many factors which lead to ethical dilemmas. These factors either concern the clients behavior or the counselors. Conflict will arise when their areas of interest collide. As such it is difficult to determine the specific factors which may result to ethical issues in regard to a specific client. Crucial to this discussion is the insistence on the need for professionals to establish these factors and make related decisions which are considerate of the clients welfare.
This paper has sought to analyze the ethical considerations involved in counseling clients with HIV. It is evident that confidentiality is a major ethical consideration as it springs from the core element of counseling. Confidentiality has been seen to face major obstacles which must be carefully addressed. Other ethical issues discussed are in regard to spirituality and discrimination. In establishing a sense of purpose and belonging, ethical issues arise due to the presence of biasness and judgment on the part of the counselor. Counseling does play a major role in HIV prevention and treatment and should be addressed with utter care in order to ensure its success. Moreover, addressing the ensuing ethical issues will ease the counseling process.

Changes and problems in adolescence

Physical changes

Adolescence is the stage of rapid physical and psychological changes. The course of speedy physical changes in adolescence is known as puberty.  For girls puberty comes earlier than boys. The process starts gradually mostly at 11 years for girls and 13 years for boys. The age at which puberty starts has been reducing probably due to the changes in nutrition. The hormone changes that cause the changes in adolescence begin sometime earlier before the physical changes take effect. The hormones might lead to periods of low moods and restlessness. Girls start experiencing the changes earlier than boys and mostly appear to be maturing faster than boys. At the puberty stage, girls start getting their menstrual periods and there is growth of hair under-arm and pubic parts. Boys break their voice, that is, their voice becomes deeper and they grow body, pubic and facial hair and start experiencing erections and wet dreams. Both girls and boys go through rapid physical growth. At the age of seventeen, they are young men and women who may be bigger than their parents. At this stage, they are actually capable of siring children of their own. At this stage, most adolescents begin getting concerned with their appearance.  Weight is a problem with the adolescents. If an adolescent is overweight and the others make fun of it, they are likely to get depressed. This can cause inactivity and discomfort in feeding which can aggravate the situation. There are some who result to dieting causing a bigger health problem.  

Psychological changes

At the adolescence stage, people start to feel and think differently. They start being independent of the immediate family members, starting to establish friendships and relationships with their peers. They stop relying on parents for the psychological support their parents become less significant in their eyes as their associations outside the family build up. They start arguing with their parents more often. This is because they have come up with their own views that oftenly conflict with those of their parents. The adolescents spend most of the time with each other, or having telephone conversations with each other. They also start selecting their own clothes and develop different modes of dressing. They are still more likely to retain their values from their families especially those that respect their families. All the same, clothes and appearance become a way of articulating solidarity with friends.

As they become more independent from their parents, the adolescent tend to experiment new things. This stage is the time when people begin in a hurry to learn about the world and trying to establish their place in it. To establish their place involves attempting new experiences several of which might turn out to be unsafe or even dangerous. They often realize that they have very little experience to fall back to when things go wrong. This may give rise to speedy changes in self-confidence and behavior. They may feel mature one minute, very immature and inexperienced the next minute.

They may have a sense of upset, sickness and lack of confidence that may create a feeling of vulnerability in them. They may express the feeling with morose behavior instead of obvious distress. The adolescent might start craving for excitement in a way most of the grown-ups find hard to comprehend. Some of these exciting activities might be dangerous. There are others who find excitement in music, games and sports and other actions that utilize a lot of energy but put them to less physical danger. When an adolescent does these things alone, they are actually in greater danger than when doing with others. This is because when with others they are likely to be controlled by older adolescents. In fact at this stage warning from older adolescents tends to be taken more seriously than warnings from parents.

Though not so often, behavioral changes and moods can indicate the start of more severe psychiatric disorder. This is not so common but depression and schizophrenia can come up for the first time during adolescence. Even though there are other explanations for withdrawal, extreme cases can indicate schizophrenia.  

Emotional problems

Adolescents are likely to suffer distress out of the changes they experience. Some of the signs of distress include over-eating excessive sleeping and over concern with appearance. They might suffer anxiety, producing phobias and panic attacks. Researches have proven that most adolescents suffer emotional disorders but the good news is that they can be easily recognized by family members and even friends. It is reported that 4 out of 10 adolescents feel so miserable that they cry and even feel like running away from everyone and everything. There are others usually 1 out of 5 who think so little of their lives and that it is not worth living. Apart from these two groups, depression is not obvious to other people.

Sexual problems

Adolescence can come with a lot of problems especially to those who are shy and are afraid of asking questions. They usually worry so much about their drastic physical changes. Most of the adolescent at the end of it articulate their apprehension with too much bragging about their sexual capabilities and experiences. The risk of pregnancy is a part of adolescent stage. A lot of people have their initial sex experience before they are 16. The law protects the adolescent in most countries. It is actually illegal and punishable by law to have sexual relationship with a minor. Even so, controlling sex among the adolescent themselves is difficult. The adolescent are usually unaware of the fact that those who start having sex early are in danger of early pregnancies and health problems. Crashes and petty love affairs are common in adolescence. There are even crashes on those of the same sex leading some of the adolescence into homosexuality. There is confusion in some of the adolescence at this stage on their sexual preferences. Some or even their parents might not know whether they are gay or not. Most people at this stage tend to choose their partners very carefully. Sleeping with anyone and having unprotected sex, exposing oneself to risk are signs that the person has some serious emotional issues.  

Behavior problems

Many are the times that the adolescent and their parents find fault with each others behavior. Most parents feel that they are no longer in control or in a position to influence their childrens behaviour. Adolescents feel that their parents are not giving them their space. They want their parents to be plain and constant about rules and boundaries. They resent any limitations on their freedom and their ability to make decisions. There is the tendency of getting into trouble if the parents give them absolute freedom without caring about where they go and what they do.

School problems

Adolescent may be reluctant to go to school. Some of the reasons for this include some of them find it difficult to separate from the parents they always want to be with them some feel the sense of perfection and if they dont do as well as they would have wanted they can avoid going back to try if they have a disturbed family life like divorce, separation of death of a parent and emotional problems that might cause head-ache a or stomach-ache. There are those who go to school but play truant. These are the kinds who are miserable at home and irritated at school. They go to school only to be with and play with others with similar problems. Emotion problems associated with adolescence will often affect academic progress. When adolescents are worried about themselves, this will automatically affect their concentration. When adolescents are pushed by parents and teachers to do well, they are driven to the edge because they actually push themselves to do well. They never want to fail.  When the adolescents are excessively nagged, it becomes counter-productive. Bullying at this stage is detrimental. If subjected to bullying, adolescents will tend to keep off the environment where it is happening. This is another reason why they will refuse to go to school. Rejection by the peers will cause withdrawal and distress.

Trouble with the law

As discussed earlier, adolescents like experimenting so much. They may be involved with activities that are against the law, but this will depend with the way they are handled at this stage. If the parents do not feel that going against the law is particularly important, there is a big possibility that their children will go against it. This mostly happen at the experimental stage which is the adolescent. Lack of happiness and distress can also cause adolescents to go against the law.

Recommended solutions

At this stage of life, all that the children require is love, understanding and support from the parents, teachers and all responsible adults. There is need for the parents and guardians to be prepared when their children reach the puberty stage. At the adolescence stage, both boys and girls require a lot of care and support from their parents. At the stage of rapid physical growth, there are those that mature faster than others. Those that are not growing as fast as their peers require reassurance that they are doing fine. The parents need to know that there are differences in the ages where the changes occur, to be in a position to reassure their children. If parents are not aware and are worried, they will worsen the situation in the adolescents. The adolescents should also be led to feel comfortable with their appearance and body size, whether they are fat or thin.

The adolescents like sleeping so much. This may be irritating but the parents need to understand that it is not laziness, but because the rapid growth and development take up a lot of energy and may cause them to feel sleepy all the time. The parents should understand that when their adolescent children spend most of their time in the company of their peers or making telephone conversations with each other, it is an important way of gaining independence. The parents should know that the friendships their children have established are ways of learning how to get along with each other and to gain a sense of identity that is separate from that of the family. Parents may feel disowned, which is true in a way, but is important for them to realize that it is a way for young people to establish personal identity. Even when they have disagreements and rejections, the children will always think of their parents. Parents should get the fact that they are parents from whom their children must learn to be independent if they are to have their own life. Parents may feel distresses in dealing with sulky behavior in their adolescent children, but they must be flexible and understanding in approaching it.

Parents should not shy away from teaching their children about sex and any other aspect of their life. This should not be done when they are old enough to engage in sex, but should start early in their life. Parents should teach their children on the danger of early sex. They should tell them about sexually transmitted infections especially HIVAIDS that is becoming very common. Sensitive support, proper guidance and counseling together with accurate information on sex-related matter are necessary. Parents, teachers, family doctors and any other responsible person in their life need to teach them. Researches have shown that girls who are close and free with their parents are less likely to get pregnant in their adolescence. Parents and teachers should consider the possibility of substances abuse when they see changes in behavior, but should approach the matter carefully. They should also teach children on the dangers of drugs and other substance abuse.

There is need for the parents to monitor their childrens movement and to know what they are up to in order to keep them away from trouble. Parents always need to find out where their children go and whom they hang out with. The adolescents need not be pushed too hard concerning their education. Nagging them will not help and exams even though important should not be allowed to dominate their lives because it will cause them unhappiness. School authorities should have policies in place to protect adolescents and ensure that their education is not destructed at this stage. Where parents or teachers observe that the adolescents are constantly getting into trouble, they should try to establish the underlying cause and then counsel.

People have different perceptions, attitude, behavior and personality. These differences may be attributed to the educational background, family environment, level of intelligence, manner of upbringing and cultural influencespractices among others. The differences may be determined upon a close look at the persons manner of making decisions or his manner of doing things in general  personality (Morris and Maisto, 2005). These matters and such other relevant information will be visited in this paper in the person of Diana, the interviewee. Diana is 26 years of age.
    In terms of learning process and cognition, Diana remembers more clearly actions and certain thoughts accompanying the actions when she observes the behavior being performed.  She reasoned that every time she watches a movie for instance, she is aware that both her sense of sight (eyes) and sense of hearing (ears) are functioning, sending the information to the brain.  Since there are two pathways from which the information goes into the brain, her brain processes and thinks faster that would send the information to the body to react in a certain way. Second, she considers both words and actions as contributing to her better understanding of the situation.  When she watches a behavior, like in movies, she listens to the words, sentences, and vocabulary used by the characters, and the actions accompanying the words are simply explanations of the conversation, or the other way around. Actions accompanied by words explaining them are better understood and retained in the memory. For her, reading yields a different result. When she reads, while she is able to go back to the parts which she does not understand, she still has to imagine the acts. That would take her a longer period to process, that is, she reads, thinks and imagines those acts which are not familiar to her. Observing is a lot easy for her, as she revealed, actions speak louder than words. She loves reading though but in terms of retaining the information, it is easier for her to remember observed actions considering that it is also easy for her to understand them. She noted that better understanding is a key to better memory retention. 
    On the other hand, her study habits are quite unique. She prefers to study in the house than in the library. She is better able to concentrate and retain what she has been reading when she does other things in the middle of her readings, like going to the kitchen to eat or to talk to anybody in the house for a minute on matters totally unrelated to what she is reading. All these are diversions for her. She is more focused in her studies when her attention is diverted to something totally unrelated to her readings and then back to reading again. She explained that maybe this is because her brain is telling her to focus because of the time lost when her attention is diverted to something else. Besides, she is more relaxed in the house than in the library.  For her, she could very well understand if she is relaxed than pressured in the library. 
    Diana took the Myers Briggs personality test when she was younger. She enjoyed doing personality tests considering that most results fit the behavior she thinks she has. In the Myers Briggs test, results show that she is very expressed extravert, moderately expressed sensing personality, moderate expressed thinking personality and very expressed judging personality.   Her being gregarious and accommodating, participative in her class and community activities, her confidence in communicating with people even with strangers are signs of her being extravert. She does not have any difficult in being in new places or with new facesstrangers, she could easily blend with the personalities and attitudes of strangers. She could easily befriend strangers and works with them a lot easy.  She is comfortable attending parties or any social activities in her community. Childhood for her was a lot exciting. She remembers staying out at a friends house for the weekend. On the other hand, she revealed she is not really an emotional person. She would only know the emotional struggle of a person when she asks him or her, otherwise, she would not mind at all. She said she uses her brain more than her emotions. She thinks the test results confirmed of what she thinks she is. For the present test, she thinks the results are accurate because that is how she views her self also. There are however personality tests which she does not trust because of the opposite results. Nevertheless, she tries taking online personality tests for fun and for the hope of knowing something more about her. 
    Diana shared that she does not really reflect on her attitude. She believes that her personality is not at all harmful to others considering that she has a lot of friends for years now.  She never started any trouble with her friends and would easily make amends whenever she feels there is something strange with the relationship.  Moreover, her family relationship is not bad.  She plays around with her siblings and communicates with her parents more often.  Her parents do not have many restrictions on her, the reason she does not feel any limitations at all in her actions, provided she respects others feelings, emotions and thoughts. She maintains a rule of thumb in her interpersonal relationships  respect and reverence. She understands that her attitude or personality may not be attractive to others and may even be offensive, but so long as she keeps that respect for others, everything would go smoothly. A harmonious and peaceful interpersonal relationship is better achieved in understanding other people, without having to adjust with their personality types. She is raised by being confident in her attitude, mindful of the values taught to her and she believes she is not doing any harm to others. She shared that to always monitor ones attitude would make her uncomfortable and uneasy in dealing with her friends. She is not comfortable with it in any way. True, she is not an emotional individual but she could easily feel strain in the relationship if there is any. Other than keeping in her mind the value of respect and fair dealing, she does not look at her inner self, her attitude in particular as others do.  
    Meanwhile, gender, race or ethnicity do not greatly affect ones personality. She opined that a person of values from childhood would grow to become an upright man or woman regardless of gender, race or ethnicity. She stretched that respect and reverence are universal rules observed across all countries. While there may be different practices showing respect, the fact remains that respect is observed. Childhood experiences and environment play an important role in forming ones personality. She said that her behavioral tendencies and personality type have been greatly shaped by her environment  the friends she goes along, the family that she grows up with, the school she attends to and most especially, the American culture of which she belongs. 
    Dianas evaluation on the evolution of her concept of self and personality can be better explained using attribution theory. Under this theory, people give meaning to their actions and behavior by attributing them to certain experiences which lead to do certain acts. In the same way, Diana attributed her personality type to her environment, family upbringing and educational achievement among others (Morris and Maisto, 2005).   
    In doing her stuffs, Diana is more likely to do things when she is intrinsically motivated.  First, she always does what she wants, and gets what she wants, and gets done whatever is needed to be finished. She does not rely on external motivation to do them, although extrinsic motivation would be a bonus for her.   For instance, grabbing a part time job for her was not so much of the compensation and on the people around her inviting her to work part time, the reason comes from her, that she wants it and so she does and gets it. Second, she simply loves keeping herself busy. She is more productive when busy. Not only does this gives her more opportunity to learn but also an opportunity for her to meet with different people and to get compensated. Third, she is focused in the things she needs to do. She completes her work assignment because it is a duty she commits herself to do. She takes time to comply her commitment and duties. 
    Dianas personality is reflective of a person who is responsible at her age. She takes the challenge of completing her education got herself a part time job after school and works joins social activities either in school or in her neighborhood. She is optimistic in her dealings and outlook in life. I share similar thoughts and attitude with Diana. However, in terms of learning and cognition, I am better at reading about a certain behavior.  In reading, it is easier for me to read back what I do not understand and once I understand the passage in relation to the behavior, retention does not become a problem. I prefer to imagine the sequence of events as detailed in the story while reading as compared to observing the same. However, we share the same attitude in terms of study habits. We both prefer to study in our houses. I work better when I have little diversions in the middle of my readings or school papers. It may probably for the same reason, the little time left for studying is always the quality time. I am comfortable working under pressure, and more productive at that.  In terms of gregariousness, we share the same characteristics. I am friendly and easy to be dealt with. I could easily get friends with others and easy to get along with. I do not have much hesitations in terms of choosing the people I go with. I welcome and often attend parties and night outs. Gregariousness wise, I too, am extrovert. I am confident about myself. 
    On the other hand, I do monitor my attitude. I am high in self-monitoring. There are instances when I look at what I have done the kind of person I am, and my worth as a person. I look at the impact of my actions on others and try to assess their perception on me. This does not however mean that I rely on others perceptions on how I should behave, but I look at their thoughts and reactions of me, of the words I say and the things I do when I am around with people. 
    In my personal point of view, my race and nationality affect my personality type.  Culture and thus the nature of the environment I am exposed to affect my perception, way of thinking and way of behaving. The way I do certain things may, in one way or another, be inherent in me but they must have been developed by the type of culture I have grown.  The way I understand things are shaped by my childhood experiences with highly liberal people around. The Western people are exposed to different ways of life and ways of thinking. I personally believed that being an American is an advantage in itself in terms of work opportunities and school performance, among others. We learn to be independent in the decisions we make and make the best of the time that we have. Having grown in a country where everything is almost allowed (except acts equivalent to crimes) allows me for instance to explore and understand the world a lot better compared to others. 
    People differ in personality types. However, the discrepancy does not at all create conflict or chaos. Understanding the behavioral tendencies and personality types of different people would reveal that each of us is unique. Even the closest of friends and twins who are exposed to different culture and environment would vary in the choices they make and in the things they do. What is amazing is that knowing the uniqueness of us individually would allow us to appreciate more what we are as a person and the people around us.

This article discussed the clashing view of Richard P. Kluft and Elizabeth F. Lottus regarding repressed memories.  Repressed memories are those events that were once forgotten but are subsequently remembered, often during the process of therapy (157). The content of repressed memories are often disturbing and traumatic events such as incest, gang rape and abuse.
    Richard P. Klufts argues that people who experiences traumatic events may repress their recollections of those events. The author presented some clinical experiences he encountered in his practice as a psychiatrist that confirms his hypothesis. One example is a woman who cannot establish a good relationship with the opposite sex recalled through hypnosis that her therapists seduced her (the therapist confessed to the incident). Another is a Marine who served in Vietnam claimed to have not seen any combat but recovered memories of his base being attacked and how he killed some of the enemies. Although the patient disbelieved them, military record and his war buddy attested to it.  The author cited other examples demonstrating that people can shield themselves from undesirable memories. Kluft discredited the work of Holmes about students reaction to failing French test as a proof that the impact of negative experiences declines over time. According to Kluft, failing a French test is different from sexual abuse or gang rape. Also, Loftus lost-in-the-mall experiment suggested that memories can be suggested or distorted but it does not show that all recovered memories are false. Kruft noted that memory recollection and complete abolition may both occur. 
In the second article, Elizabeth Loftus, a cognitive psychologist contends that false memories can be created. The author cited incidents where hypnosis and suggestive techniques done by psychiatrists created false memories for the patients. One of the cases is that of Nadean Cool who became convinced that she was sexually and physically abused but was found to be a virgin. Loftus mentioned three other cases where therapy awakened false memories from the patients. According to Loftus, these are evidences that memories can be instilled. To further prove her claim, she conducted various experiments about false memories. In one experiment, she tested the misinformation effect from witnesses of a simulated accident in an intersection with a stop sign. After viewing the incident, half of the participants were told the sign was a yield sign. Result showed that those who were not given the false suggestion had more accurate memory of the sign.
In the lost-in-the-mall experiment, 24 participants from 18 to 53 years of age were asked to recall childhood incidents retold by their relatives. Each participant was given three true incidents and a false story about being lost in the mall. The participants recalled 68 percent of the true events when asked in the preceding interviews and seven of the participants recalled partially or fully the false event. The study showed that people can be persuaded to remember events that never happened. This is consistent with the results of a study conducted by Hyman, Husband and Billing using false memory of hospitalization where 84 percent of the participants recalled the true events and none recalled the false event during the first interview but 88 percent recalled the true events and 20 percent recalled the false event during the second interview. The author cited similar studies done on the power of false memory implantation.

Adlerian approach focuses on the individual self of a person, his distinctive characteristics and unique personality as an object and proactive member of society.  The individual self interacts and is an element of society through communicative interaction it is developed by the creation and preservation of social relationship, which social relationship is rooted on a filial interaction and communication.  In this regard, Adler views the individual self as an object, an element of the community and takes an active part through social interaction which in the event of such interaction, the self is more enhanced and developed instead of losing its personalityidentity.  In the course of social interaction, the individual self creates and becomes more conscious of its existence, thus, the individual develops a sense of consciousness of his own self with society playing an important role in its evolution and development.  Social interest is the pinnacle of Adlers theory.  Having these as premises, Watts (2003) opined that Adlerian approach is properly labeled as relational constructivism in nature, one which is situated between cognitive constructivist and social constructionist.
For purposes of Adlerian therapy, the positive aspect of it is that a client who seeks for therapy is never considered sick instead he is considered to have lost the encouragement, the individual self capacity having been overloaded with societal influential elements.  The client thus is required to reconstruct his sense or consciousness of his individuality through societal and communicative relationships.  In the course of the therapy, Adler emphasizes the enhancement of the relationship between the client and the therapist as a start.  As such, he promotes the inclusion in the therapy of the following
sense of cooperation            e. optimism
sense of collaboration            f. respect
egalitarianism                g. value of sharing.
mutualityh. sense of religiosityspirituality.
In particular, the client must establish a sense of trust to his therapist.  This aims to develop and encourage the sense of trust by the client to his interactive world.  Happiness or sense of satisfaction and contentment is achieved through the cooperation and collaboration of the client (self) to society. 
    Adlerian approach explicitly and implicitly recognizes the importance of ones God (sense of religiosity).  Clients who are atheists (who are not uncommon) would in effect be taken a back.   The therapy must be programmed in accordance to the personality of the client in the first place.  It should not be made to apply across all types of clients.  Second, the emphasis of the self being an active elementpart of society might not necessarily enhance the clients ability to encourage his act of knowing more and becoming more conscious of himself in the optimistic side.  The individuality of the self might be taken for granted.  Third, too much involvement and interactive approach of the therapist may cause a negative impact on the clients ability to enhance his self-awareness or consciousness. 
    However, it is of personal view that Adlerian approach be adopted for certain personality types only.  In the therapy process, it should be encouraged that the client learns to acknowledge his positive sense of being in relation to the world he lives in.  This would be a tacit recognition of the important role he plays in the community. 

Person-centered Therapy
The person-centered theory advocated by Rogers is reflective of the humanistic approach of therapy.  The humanistic approach views people as capable, autonomous, with the ability to resolve their difficulties, realize their potential, and change their lives in positive ways (Seligman, 2006). 
In the course of the therapy, therapists are to establish a growth promoting climate for the client.  In view of the humanistic approach, the therapist does not play an active role towards the clients rehabilitation and regaining his sense of self.  Instead, the client is free to make the decisions and ascertain his direction towards self-actualization.  The client plays an active role in view of transformation the therapist must thus develop the sense of empathy rather than sympathy.  In this regard, the process must allow the client to increase his level of self-esteem, high level of sense of worth, both being achieved through unconditional positive regard.  In particular, in order to develop a growth promoting climate for the client, therapists must endeavor to enhance congruence, unconditional positive regard and acceptance, empathy and reflection of feelings.
In congruence, the therapist must be able to position himself, his reactions and responses in accordance with the feelings and emotional struggle of the client.  The behavioral reactions for example must be in accordance to the words of empathy or unconditional positive enforcements uttered.  On the other hand, the therapists must unconditionally point out the positive aspects or characteristics of the client.  This would enhance the clients self-esteem that his acts are unconditionally rewarded and recognized.  Unfavorable behavior of the client must not be responded with disagreement, but must be countered with a genuine concern on the client.   Meanwhile, empathy is the act of understanding the situation of the client, without having to feel sorry for him.  The client is allowed to further express his emotions and actively cope from emotional distressstruggle. 
In practice, it is personally opined to give unconditional positive regard to the client.  In this way, he would be allowed to realize for himself what is good of himself which is worthy to be enhanced.  Self-actualization would be best enhanced whenever he is allowed to appreciate his sense of self, his sense of well-being. 
The combination of person-centered therapy with other techniques must not veer away with the active role of the client towards self-actualization.  This may entail for example a greater involvement of the therapist.  But in the course thereof, the client must be allowed to determine for himself his ways of coping and his decisions be highly regarded, the therapist merely be limited at expressing his concerns in case his disagrees with the client. 
Gestalt Therapy
In gestalt approach, the self is viewed as the integration of the surrounding factors generated by the environmentalfield of wherein one is in.  The self is then the offshoot of the complex interaction of these factors (Yontef and Fairfield, 2005).  
In the case of Allie having gotten herself impregnated and abandoned by her boyfriend, she must be subjected to both awareness focusing and loosening and integrating techniques.  Awareness focusing allows her to accept the fact of change in her relationship with her boyfriend.  This goes with the bracketing of assumptions, probable consequences and an outline of courses of actions that should be taken upon the happening of certain events.  The awareness of the fact of change would help facilitate the coping process of accepting the new gestalt, the new experience, the new environment and adjust to it.   In gestalt approach, the acceptance is the initial stage for change.  Acceptance of the fact of breaking up will thus open towards adapting a new environment for instance of being a single mom or abortion as the case may be.    Moreover, the adjustment and coping are more facilitated when combined with the loosening and integrating techniques.  The impregnation and subsequent realization of being left in the relationship would facilitate the modification of the perceived self.  The loosening technique allows Allie to vary her imagination and perception of what she thinks her parents perception of her.  This changes what she believes to be true of herself based on what she thinks her parents perceived her to be.  Corollary to loosening is the integration technique.  It allows the client to integrate, to adapt to what she previously disregarded about herself.  In effect, this opens to change of paradigm, of perception or of knowledge about oneself. 
The feelings of anxiety, aloneness and feeling of guilt may be transformed to an optimistic view of Allies self through expression and enactment techniques.  She must be able to express her emotions and fears to her environment (in this particular case, her family and immediate friends).  Expression brings about more communicative interaction with her world, and her world being able to adjust to the change in her condition.  Her psychological problems are better resolved by a concurrent change in her perception and that of her fieldenvironment. 
Behavior Therapy
The theoretical foundations of the different behavioral therapy are summarized below as follows
Classical conditioning.  In classical conditioning, an unconditional stimulus (UCS) creates an unconditional response (UCR).  When the UCS is paired with neutral stimulus (NS) to obtain the UCR, and the process is repeated to the point that the NS alone produces the UCR, the NS becomes a conditioned response (CS).
Operant conditioning.  The learned responses are the by-product of the consequences of the act.  Behavioral learning takes place when the act and the consequences of such act are repeatedly obtained.  Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in the learning process and likewise in the therapy process. 
Social learning.  This is also called modeling technique.  An individual learns from his observation of the learning process of another.  The learning process here is an extension of both classical and operant conditioning in that in whatever way the model learns, either through classical or operant conditioning, the former learns by observing and copying from the latter. 
Cognitive Trend.  The cognitive trend focuses on what is in the present (time).  This is premised on the concept that thoughts influence ones feelings and emotions.  In particular, the process aims to alter what a person does and how he thinks helping such person to cope with lifes emotional or psychological struggles through behavioral techniques. 
Systematic desensitization is a behavioral treatment commonly used in eliminating phobias.  In this treatment, the stimulus-response relationship, such as the fear generated by the stimulus creating the fear, is weakened, to the end that the stimulus would no longer create fear in the mind of the clientpatient.  For instance, a client who fears flying a lot may overcome the same.  First, the client must learn to counter her fear of heights.  Flying entails being in a certain height and dropping therefrom.  Second, modeling technique may be used.  Videos, pictures or actual observation may be used to model other people flying in planes, without them being harmed or put to danger after having flown.  The psychological process is actually coupled with cognitive trend, an understanding of the consequences of the stimulus.  Constant exposure to this scenario without having the models being harmed reduces the relationship between the stimulus and the consequent fear created.  Lastly, the client must be accompanied in flying in planes himself.  A repeated positive experience (without having been harmed) would now eliminate the fear previously had.