Psychology

Dual Coding Theory is proposed in order to shed light on the equal weights given to verbal and non-verbal processing. The research will be conducted in order to determine whether verbal and non-verbal information has an effect to the memory recognition of a person. The researcher will be conducted in a class of 20 subject divided further in to three groups of five. Each group will be given different information in order to test memory recognition. For the first group, word information will be given, picture information for the second and picture and word information for the third group. The researcher will be conducting one-way analysis of variance in order to determine whether differences occur between the mean memory recognition of three groups. After conducting one-way analysis of variance, the researcher will find out that there is no difference between the mean memory recognition of the three groups (F  __, p  __). Thus, the research will find out that information given to a person (verbal and non-verbal) has no effect to the memory recognition.

I. Introduction
The mind can perform different kind of processes ranging from verbal up to non-verbal processing and other different processes. Performing different processes has made different studies on how our mind really works. However, since the mind is too complex to be the focus of a study, many researchers resorted to studying the processes that the human mind can perform.

Theoretical Background
Dual Coding Theory (DCT) focuses on the verbal and the non-verbal processes of the human mind. DCT attempts to discuss how equal weights are given to both verbal and non-verbal mind processes. The human mind is able to deal with several processes while simultaneously dealing with another process. An instance is that when mind is dealing with language processing, it can also simultaneously deal with processing non-verbal objects and events. Dual Coding Theory gives light on how this process occur simultaneously (Paivio, 2008).

Dual coding assumes that two cognitive subsystems exist. The two subsystems represent a specialized processing of non-verbal images and events and the other represents a specialized processing of language. The Dual Coding Theory is illustrated below.

Figure 1. Dual Coding Theory Model (Kearsley, 2010). This figure illustrates the Dual Coding Theory. The figure also shows the three important processes involved in Dual Coding Theory.

From the figure, one can see the terms logogens and imagens. Paivio introduced logogens and imagens as two different types of representational units. Logogens is a representational unit for verbal entities. While, imagens is a representational unit for mental images (Paivio, 2008).

Dual Coding Theory involves three types of processes that occur in order. First is representational. In this process, the direct verbal and non-verbal representations were activated. Second is referential. Verbal system activation by non-verbal system and vice versa occurs in this process. Last process is associative processing. This process involves activation of representations by the same verbal and non-verbal systems (Paivio, 2008).

Statement of the Problem
Dual Coding Theory (DCT) has been seen in different applications in cognitive phenomena. The different applications of DCT include problem solving, concept learning and language. Dual Coding Theory involves the principle of recall and recognition which is enhanced by presenting bits of information in both verbal and non-verbal types. With this knowledge in mind, the researcher wants to determine whether memory recognition is affected by the type of information given to a person (non-verbal, verbal). The researcher wants to answer the following question.
Is there a difference between the memory recognition of a person when exposed to different types of information (verbal, non-verbal)

Hypothesis
In order to answer the question, the researcher created a testable hypothesis. The following are the hypotheses for the research.

Null hypothesis There is no difference between the memory recognition of a person when exposed to different types of information (verbal, non-verbal).

Alternative Hypothesis There is at least one difference between the memory recognition of a person when exposed to different types of information (verbal, non-verbal).

II. Methods
The experiment will be done in a class consisting of 20 subjects. The class will be divided in to three groups consisting of five members each. Thus, three samples with size 5 will be obtained from the 20 subjects. Each group will be given different information. The first group will be given word information. The second group will be given picture information. And, the last group will be given both word and picture information.

After obtaining the memory recognition scores, the researcher will use descriptive statistics in order to summarize the data. On the other hand, statistical analysis will be used to test for the hypothesis of the research. Particularly, the researcher will use One-way analysis of variance. One-way analysis of variance is used to determine if there is a difference between the mean of three groups (Howell, 2008). In conjunction with one-way analysis of variance, the researcher will conduct post hoc test in order to determine where the difference lie when the result is significant.

III. Results
One-way analysis of variance will be conducted in order to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the memory recognition of a person when exposed to different types of information (verbal, non-verbal). The test will be conducted at 0.05 significance level. The decision will be to reject the null hypothesis when the p-value of the F-statistic is less than 0.05 significance level. Otherwise, the researcher will fail to reject the null hypothesis.

After conducting one-way analysis of variance, the following results will be obtained.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics

From the table, one can see that the mean memory recognition for the group given with word information is __. The value means that the average memory recognition of a person given with word information is __. One can see that the mean memory recognition for the group given with picture information is __. The value means that the average memory recognition of a person given with picture information is __. Lastly, one can see that the mean memory recognition for the group given with word and picture information is __. The value means that the average memory recognition of a person given with word and picture information is __. The standard deviations for the three groups are __, __ and __ respectively. The values mean that there is an average spread of __, __ and __ respectively from their corresponding mean.

ANOVA table
INSERT TABLE HERE
From the table, one can see that the F-statistic value is equal to __. The corresponding probability value of the F-statistic is __. Since the p-value of the F-statistic is greater than 0.05 significance level, the researcher will fail to reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the memory recognition of a person when exposed to different types of information (verbal, non-verbal).

IV. Discussion
The researcher will found evidence to say that the differences between the average memory recognition are too little to be explained by chance. Thus, the researcher will be confident to say that the information (verbal, non-verbal) given to a person has no effect to the persons memory recognition.

With the advancement of psychology, it has become apparent that teenage stress is not a thing to be ignored. It is a serious problem that permeates every other societal aspect. Various theorists have advanced positions explaining how teenage stress develops. One thing that remains clear is that stress, if left untreated, leads to a string of other problems, both in school and at home. Issues such as self loathing, drug abuse, and even in extreme cases homicidal violence have in the past been evident. Stress can be both temporary and long lasting. This variation is brought about by the underlying causes. However, one thing that is clear is the fact that stress develops in every instance as a response to certain thoughts or situations that are upsetting. It usually varies in everyday life from person to person. This is to say that whatever causes stress in one teenager may not necessarily cause stress in another. As a matter of fact, it may be surprising but whatever stresses a person today may cause no stress at all the following day.

This goes for anxiety as well. It is agreed among psychologists that stressful situations can lead to anxiety and vice versa. What then are the causes and effects of teen stress and anxiety How can it be prevented These are the questions that this study seeks to address.

Causes of Teenage Stress
As already pointed out, stress in teenagers occur as frequently as does in adults. There are several issues that have been pointed out as being the primary causes of stress in teenagers. Some of these causes include

Stressed out and Negligent parents- the prevalent culture in the contemporary world is that of busyness. There seems to be a rush in just about everything that people do. Parents are so busy in their work places, and trying to make their own relationships work, not mentioning the kids. Very often, these parents end up with very little time for the kids, because that is perhaps the only area in life where there no real perceived threat (Help guide 1). These parents are in so much stress, and unfortunately end up transferring it to their children. In their innocence, the teenagers may not be in a position to understand what is going on with the parents, and end up stressed themselves. When parents neglect their responsibilities, they cause a lot of suffering for their children. It is common sense that children need special care and attention from the parents, and when this is not forthcoming, they end up stressed. Being emotionally available for the children is one of the most important duties of the parents, and these two causes deny the parents of such an opportunity. It is worth noting that this is one of the major causes of teenage stress.

High expectations in academic performance- every parent wants their children to perform well in their school life. However, parents sometimes demand more than is practically possible from their children. Naturally, every individual has a certain level of intelligence that is impossible to stretch beyond (Stress, Anxiety and Depression Resource Center 1). When parents have so high hopes in their children, there is a great possibility that when children are unable to achieve the set goals, they end up stressed. They often feel that they are failures in life, because they have caused disappointments to their parents. It is even worse where the parents make such remarks before their children.

Abused and deprived Childhood- children who are abused in any way end up stressed. As earlier indicated, stress is simply a response. An individual is responding to a certain situation, one that is often upsetting. Any kind of abuse provokes thoughts that life is threatened, and this is not unconnected with the famous survival as the primary instinct. The most obvious response in these children is the development of defense mechanisms. This comes as the child attempts to respond to that stressful situation.

Developmental tensions- this is perhaps one of the major causes of teen stress. When children are within age, there is a growing need for parental independence. The reality is that these teenagers cannot do without the parents, but inside of them is that desire to be free. This tension causes great stress, because as much as they seek autonomy, there is still a weakness in their ability to be so. This is not an easy kind of tension to deal with, and the intensity depends on individuals.

Family responsibilities- sometimes, children are expected to perform roles that are beyond their abilities. For instance, a mother may ask a child to prepare a meal while they are still too young or inexperienced to do that. This means that either the child will produce a mess, or there will be nothing at all. The way a mother responds to this may cause a lot of stress for the child. It is not uncommon for children to feel that parents do not love them because they always send them, instead of their siblings. This is especially more pronounced in the lesser developed countries, where the ability to hire house helps is financially constrained. Whenever a child is asked to live like an adult, while developmentally they are not yet there, there is a high likelihood of them being opposed to parental or societal roles in general. This means that children faced with this kind of life situation end up with severe aggressive tendencies as well as indignation.

Effects of Stress and Anxiety in Teenagers
There are certain indicators that a teenager is under stress. While these are not the effects themselves, they act as pointers to the effects of stress. Signs such as emotional disability, shyness, aggressive behavior, social phobia, and more often a disinterest in otherwise enjoyable activities. These are good indicators of a stressed teenager.

Academic performance is perhaps one of the most visible effects of stress in teenagers. This comes as a result of over-concentration in the fears and anxieties brought about by the stressful situation, leading to a reduced concentration level in school. A child who would otherwise perform very well ends up doing very badly in school (Barlow 64). Worth noting is the fact that whether a stress condition is real or perceived, the brains do not differentiate. This leads us to the second effect of stress and anxiety in teenagers.

Suppressed Immune System- the body reacts in a manner that brings about changes in the biochemical state. The effect of this is an increased level of epinephrine as well as other adrenal steroids in the bloodstream. It has also been established that stressed persons end up with increased blood pressure as well as palpitations. The obvious manifestation of these effects is in responses such as worry, anger, aggression and fear. Generally speaking, stress takes away the bodys ability to attain homeostasis. Of course, persistence of stress situations means that the chemicals produced do not get used up, and this means that the body is more predisposed to physical and mental illnesses (Barlow 64). The body burns up a lot of energy to defend itself from real or perceived threat. In most cases, the teenagers are still very vulnerable because of their dependence and young age.

Drug, alcohol, and tobacco abuse- this is also one of the most common effect of stress in adolescents. Normally, stress seeks to move us out prematurely. This means that one seeks an external thing that can take away the stress. These three options seem very viable among adolescents.

Suicidal thoughts- in extreme cases, adolescents harbor thoughts such as the desire to die such cases demand of immediate treatment.

Violence and reckless behavior- as earlier indicated, stress seeks to bring us across the border prematurely. It is like a perforated bag inside the body, seeking a vent to escape. There are some teens who acquire violent trends andor reckless behaviors. They develop a careless attitude, thus indulging in very dangerous tendencies.

Poor social skills- some stressed teens tend to withdraw from the rest of society. In cases of chronic stress, they end up with very poor interpersonal skills.

Prevention of Stress in Teens
Considering that parents are closest to the teens, they are the best placed to help prevent stress and anxiety in teens. This study proposes some points that are of extreme importance to this end.
Dialogue with the teen. It is important that the parent regularly finds out the happenings in their childs life. Honesty and openness are very critical for a good result. The parent should encourage the adolescent to share and write hisher problems down. The parent in this case should also teach the teen to transfer strategies of coping to other situations (Rosen 328).

Not to over burden the teens with problems. While this is important, children should be in the know, regarding the family goals and difficulties. They should be made to understand that there are solutions to these difficulties, and that they are not the causes. Parents should also know how much to expect of their children so as not to expect too much (Rosen 329). This also includes after-school responsibilities and activities. Parents should not expect that their children top in everything that they do.
While it is important to let children know, in a loving manner, when they do wrong things, it is equally important to compliment them when they do well. Simple things such as hugs and kisses do in improving their overall personal feelings.

The use of humor greatly aids in buffering bad situations and feelings. This helps the teen to keep things in perspective. As earlier indicated, stress comes as a response to situations that are upsetting. Attitude is therefore very important in handling stress, and humor is a perfect way of maintaining a positive attitude (Rosen 327).

In managing stress, the example of the parent is very important. Therefore, ability to cope with stress and self control skills are very important for the parent. It helps the teen in saying, I know how my parent copes with stress, and so I do it that way.

Finally, it is important that whenever there is a problem beyond ones skills, the help of friends andor professional be sought. 

Conclusion
As aforementioned, stress and anxieties lead to very serious physical and mental problems. Several causes and effects of teen stress and anxiety have been discussed in this study. Looking at the effects in particular, it becomes very clear that unless teens properly handle it and prevent further instances of the same, it can easily lead to even greater problems later on in life, that is, if it doesnt lead to suicide in teenage. Problems related to teenage stress and anxiety permeates every other aspect of society. It means therefore, that if not properly addressed, it leads to several other problems in society, because adolescents do not live in isolation. The best way to address this problem as indicated is to prevent it from actually taking root.

Schizophrenia as defined by kraepelin 1, was considered as a cerebral disease with a uniformly poor prognosis of ongoing deterioration punctuated by episodic relapse. The patients are classified as having severe illness and unremitting positive and negative symptoms, those with often deteriorating conditions may be considered for chronic institutionalization.  Those patients with schizophrenia who remained in contact with services are found to achieve a favorable clinical outcome in the long term 2. A study by Dr. D.S merchant 3 on Overview of womens mental health, points out that isolation and lacks of social support are the main psychological problems in older ages. She further stated that also government or politicians provide no community social support centers or day care centers for children of working mothers. She noted that Psychiatrists have identified that mental illnesses requires a great social support but unfortunately not the population nor government is interested in doing some thing to increase support to people. The flow chart of the various stages of therapy and basic techniques is provided in Figure below, summaries a hypothetical community counseling program incorporating services that fall into four quadrants of  Direct community service, Direct client service, Indirect community service, and Indirect client service.

Strategies to deal with the issue At individual level the patient Is actively listened to, the patient Is helped in identifying the supportive person, the patient is involved in different activities to improve the patients social network, the patient is educated with needs that are important to support the patients social live and Involves trying to explore a patients feelings. Education sessions are planned after assessing the patient. Teachings are according to the patients strength and weaknesses. In teaching first acknowledge patients feelings and make the patient self explore the reason of the illness, the patient will be able to identify the lack of support system. The patient is taught to get involved in social gathering and to talk with other patients and to share their feelings with others. After giving their teaching it is observed that a patient is involved in social activities.The second kind of support is the groups. Primary goal of a support is to increase members coping ability in the face of stress, to strengthen the central core of individuals. Counseling sessions are meant to explore patients feelings. To make a support group strategies are planned with the help of psychotherapist in identifying the same patients who are suffering from lack of social support. The implementations make the patients share their life experiences this helps them learn through each others experiences. A mini survey could be done to compare the social support system before and after the involvement with support group. Institutionally health awareness sessions can make people be aware of life needs and importance of mental health promotion. Media can be instrumental tool utilized for Speeches to convey messages to the government to resolve some psychosocial factors poverty, lack of parental support. Some steps should be done to improve poverty as this is the common factor for mental illnesses. This can be done by working through private institutions to conduct different seminars for mental health promotion, to enhance education level of the population and they them selves will take step to overcome factors responsible for mental illness. Planning a seminar at institution level would make need to be discussed in this seminar, the discussion targets population with directorial level.  Psychiatrists can be included for broadening the horizon of knowledge. After which implementation media coverage follows. To evaluate, small research could be done to see the prevalence of mental illness in the community. In addition, small questionnaires can be used to compare the knowledge level before and after the seminar.Analysis of own thinking  Learning  genetic and biochemical factors are the most prominent in causing disease. However it is not true psychosocial factors can be the most influencing one to have a disease as it is in my patients scenario.

Schizophrenia is diagnosed on the based on the symptom profile. Since individual suffer from various symptom, the diagnosis is therefore centered on the self-reported experiences of the person, and abnormalities in behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, which is then followed by a clinical assessment by a psychiatrist, social worker, clinical psychologist or mental health professional, whos assessment includes a psychiatric history and some form of mental status examination.

While schizophrenia treatment may include medication, it is always necessary for the patients have psychosocial treatments to help them cope with their illness, there is the need to obtain services, and become more independent. Patients who receive psychosocial treatment for schizophrenia are considered more likely to take their medication regularly and avoid relapse and hospitalization. Some kinds of treatment include.

The need of supportive therapy for schizophrenia is to help the patients cope to their illness and be able to handle the challenges of daily living. The patients therapy provided is meant to cover much-needed emotional support for the victims while simultaneously teaching them how to solve problems in their daily lives, improve their relationships, and participate in their own recovery. This form of treatment covers Illness management focus on patients education. Patients learn about common schizophrenia symptoms and problems, treatment options, and the importance of medication. This knowledge helps them take an active role in treatment and better manage their illness. People with schizophrenia can learn to monitor their progress, watch for signs of relapse, take their medication regularly, and deal with side effects. Coping with symptoms Supportive therapy can also teach people how to cope with symptoms of schizophrenia that persist despite medication and treatment. Using cognitive-behavioral techniques, patients learn to challenge delusional beliefs, ignore the voices in their heads, or motivate themselves.

Social rehabilitation teaches basic life skills to people with schizophrenia so they can function in their families or communities. There are many different types of rehabilitation programs, but the shared focus is on helping patients take care of themselves and make the most of their capabilities. Depending on the individuals personal goals and degree of illness, rehabilitation may include training in handling finances, using public transportation, communicating with others, and finding living arrangements. For those who want to work, vocational rehabilitation includes work assessment, job skills training, and assistance finding full or part-time employment.

When family members are involved in treatment, patients are considered more likely to avoid relapse and achieve a higher level of functioning. Informed family member with knowledge about the illness would be helpful in giving a clearer understanding of your loved one and the challenges of treatment and recovery.

The sort of coalition-building efforts that would be helpful in fostering the help network that would be more effectively to meet the patients need depends if the kind of need is for self or group help. For need for Self help individuals with chronic mental illness, a system that over come barriers is growing but is not as advanced as the system of self-help for the chemically dependent. Barriers to organized self-help among those with chronic mental illness include stigma, denial, and the debilitating effects of the illnesses themselves.

 The group was designed to strengthen ties with a local self-help club and to foster the idea that people with chronic mental illness can have a positive impact on the course of their illness. Mental health consumers who were successfully coping with their illnesses were guest speakers and role models for group members. The coping group, which was well received by participants, stimulated research questions and suggested potential modifications of clinical practice. In recent years, a mental health consumer movement has gathered momentum. Individuals who have been receiving psychiatric services are now clamoring for a more active role. Some self-help groups, like Recovery Inc., are primarily therapy groups concerned with personal growth. Association, are involved in supporting research and empowerment through political action as well as focusing on mutual-aid groups.

In conclusion, the relevance of the inner future for diagnosing and treating schizophrenia disorders, as it relates to the concept of future-oriented psychotherapy, combines the concept of future oriented psychotherapy, with psychiatric disorder means of categorization. The findings that are of any importance for future can be underlined by evidence from psychiatry. Time distortions in psychiatric illness can cloud the personal future of an individual and distort the view of the future and thereby disrupt goal-directed behavior. The claim for future-oriented psychotherapy is that in order to treat mental disorders, the future needs to be brought under self-control this process is featuring. It is suggested that in an organizational context, the Scenario technique or Strategic Issue Management can be applied to treat disorders. Research will be needed to explore the implications of future-oriented psychotherapy for other disorders, besides depression, schizophrenia, paranoia, and which methodologies beside the Scenario technique and Strategic Issue Management can be applied for future-oriented psychotherapy for organizations. The future is dealt with in an organization, has implications for diagnosing the mental health of an organization and for treating such disorders in an organization.

Growth and development is inevitable in human beings. Once a baby is born they grow for childhood to adulthood through the teenage stages of life.  Teens are those whose age range between 13 to 19 years.

When children reach adolescent stage, at the age of 12, they experience tremendous body changes coupled with different feelings full of discoveries (Selman Robert, 2000). The activity in the youthful stage makes them feel great, strong and can try anything they observe from grown ups.  They want to be associated with certain heroes, characters or they would like to be noticed. It is at this stage that they make choices that last in their adulthood.

Children at the teen years need to be guided through involvement in creative activities in which they are able to identify and develop their talents fully.  If their energies are not well utilized in creative activities like sports, athletics, health dances, drama activities and other types of performances these children end up making wrong choices (Western Drew, 2000).

Some of the wrong choices they engage in are drinking alcohol, smoking, premarital sex, involvement in hard drugs, theft and majority may even drop out of school if not well monitored.  Parents ought to know that these children need total guidance and little freedom to attempt things on their own.  They can be subjected to seminars, religious practices like being empowered in the churches or worship places as servants and organizers of events (Ponton Lynn, 1997).  When their minds are occupied in their interesting event they can sail through the teenage ages with little trouble.

In conclusion, parents should be keen enough to note any kind of deviance creeping in to the teenagers.  Some indicators of wrong choices would be dropping performance in school, forming peer clicks, social phobia and avoidance to meet their parents.

When studying psychology, the study of personality is fundamental. There are many theories which have been proposed over time to explain peoples personalities. These act as a guide towards understanding issue of individual differences, personal behaviour and characteristics, personal development, and the nature, cause and process of treating disorders related to psychology. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the limitations and the strengths of psychoanalytic and dynamic theories of personality. The two theories will be compared and contrasted in relationship to their underlying assumptions. It will describe the deterministic versus free will, awareness of self (conscious versus unconscious motives for behavior) and it will as well explain how psychodynamic theories affect individual personalities.

Introduction
Personality can be said to be the persistent pattern which involves an individuals interaction with the self and the universe. Every one has aspects of their personality which are either negative or positive. Through the theories of personality, people can be made to understand their own personality and they can also find out the reasons as to why they behave the way they do. Personality theories are used to explain personality disorders, the reasons behind the ways of rectifying them among other psychological issues.

Psychoanalytic theory of personality
This theory was founded by Sigmund Freud in which he explained that a persons mind has two parts. First, there is the conscious mind which is inclusive of all that an individual is attentive about or aware of. This aspect involves the mental processing which people talk about when they are talking of the mind. It includes our memory. In this case, the memory is not necessarily a component of consciousness but when need be, it is retrievable to consciousness. Secondly, there is the unconscious mind which reserves the memories, urges, thoughts and feelings. This part of the brain mostly holds the unpleasant and unacceptable things like conflict, anxiety and pain. Freud explains that these continue to influence peoples experience and behaviour even when they are unaware of them.

This theory has several strengths and weaknesses. Among its strongest strength is that it is considered to be thorough and comprehensive. Initially, the theory was intended to give explanations to mental functioning in different capacities, human development, psychological and therapeutic concepts. It is however agreed that the theory can also be used to explain concepts which are not necessarily psychological. For example, leaders and companies nature can to an extent be explained by this theory. It is also considered strong because it has the qualities of good theories which include addressing its problem, its practicality in application, endures test of time, its recognized by the other people in the field in addition to fitting with several other theories. Philosophers claim that a good theory should be in a position to lead to fresh ideas and theories, be generalized and are falsifiable. Psychoanalysis theory has met most of these qualities thus qualifying as a good theory. This is because since it was found, it has continued being used and it is applicable in todays world as well.

However, the opponents feel that the evidence which has been generated to support it is its main limitation. The case study used is not scientific and therefore, it is hard to scientifically obtain facts which can support the hypothetical constructs that the theory proposes. They also claim that Freud in his experiments used only a small sample but made generalizations to all the individuals in existence.

Dynamic theory of personality
Sigmund has greatly influenced the psychodynamic theories of personality. Dynamic theories of personality were explained by several theorists for example psychosocial development theory by Erik Ericson and Holistic dynamic theory of Maslow. However, the scope of the dynamic theories will be limited to Freuds psychodynamic theory of personality. He believed that personality has three components, a) id which is in charge of individuals urges and needs, b) superego which is responsible for an individuals morals and ideals and c) the ego whose work is to moderate between the orders of superego, the id and the reality (Vermorel, 2009).

He explained that the ids role is to control the primal instincts like sexual desire and aggression and it is in the unconscious mind. It aims at getting immediate gratification and it usually competes with the ego. This is due to the fact that the ego operates on the principle of reality and it is therefore more conscious and rational. On the other hand, it is the duty of the superego to oversee the ego and the id through creating a sense of wrong and right in an individuals mind. The theory also argues that id is inborn while the ego develops when a child is 2 years old and the superego develops at the age of five years (Ewen, 2003).

The strengths of this theory include the fact that it can be used as a basis for disclosing and treating maladaptive and abnormal behavior. In other cases, it is also used to build up a detailed history of a psychological condition and this can be used in the provision of psychotherapeutic treatment. The theory also has some limitations in that it over-emphasizes on generalizing on a particular resulting action or result. The critics also argue that Freud bases his explanations on ethnocentric and andocentric views and these are not the only views in existence. It is also said to have subjective bias, relies on observations which have not been tested, its un-falsifiable, deterministic and unscientific (Strack  Kinder, 2006).

Assumptions of the two theories
The psychoanalytic theory assumes that mind is structured into unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious. It supposes that to human beings, the unconscious is not known but it drives their thoughts and behaviours. The dynamic theory also assumes on the structure of the mind but in this case, the structure is composed of the id, ego and superego. It presupposes that the id and the superego are always in conflict with each other and that it is the ego which makes moderations between the ids demands and reality by making use of defence mechanisms. It also assumes about the way children grow through the three structures and stresses on the importance of a childs experiences (Freeman, Hayes, Kuch  Taub, 2007). 

Determinism versus freewill
The issue of determinism has been there for a long time. However, it is a fact that human beings have a perceptive regarding the way they live their everyday life. People make choices rather they are not subjects of control by blind forces or the gods. Free will concept explains that at some points in life, people make choices without being forced to. Freewill does not imply that there is no pressure, coercion or influence from the surroundings. People choose an option leaving another depending on their rational thinking capacity and the influences from their prior knowledge, upbringing or society. The deterministic notion explains that choice is not essential when describing the world. It argues that events happen due to the ones that came before them. Some philosophers argue that freewill does not exist while others feel that it does not, then it would not matter what a person does because it is not their choice. The proponents of the deterministic notion believe that the universe is deterministic and therefore humans also live a life that is predetermined. However, the majority contend that human beings have freewill but they live in a determined world (Livesley, 2001).

The concept of self awareness
Self aware is inclusive of recognizing ones dislikes and likes, weaknesses and strengths and ones personality. It is a concept which helps one for example to know whether they are under pressure. It is considered to be a prerequisite to interpersonal relations and effective communication. It is also known to be the basis through which empathy for others is developed. It helps individuals to understand the reasons as to why they feel the way they do or to explain their behavior. The understanding gained gives them the freedom and opportunity to make the necessary changes in their lives hence live more fulfilled lives. Without fully understanding who you really are, understanding others might prove impossible (Matthews, Deary  Whiteman, 2003).

Effect of psychodynamic theories on individual personalities
Dynamic theories explain that an individuals experiences during early childhood can affect his personality later in life. The way a child is brought up shapes their attitudes, behaviours and personalities in future and this is why there are individual differences in people. Through the structures of the brain, people learn different defence mechanisms which they apply in life and they become part of their personalities. For example, they can learn regression which suggests that a person goes back to pleasure moments instead of confronting a challenge. They also learn denial such that when they are faced by difficult situations, they refuse to accept and deal with it and instead, they deny its existence. Repression is also learnt whereby individuals strive to block the impulses from id from accessing the conscious part of the mind. All these and more define peoples personalities. We find that there are people who want something and they go to every length to obtain it regardless of the consequences. It also explains the reason why a person would continually deny something that other people can see and still be adamant about it (Nichols  Stich, 2003).

Conclusion
Personality theories are very important since they are applied and tested in our day to day lives. They explain our thinking processes, behaviour, attitudes and personalities. They can therefore help us to understand ourselves in terms of the way we behave or respond to issues in life. This means that they can contribute to the enhancement of the quality of life since when individuals understand their weaknesses. They are guided on how to overcome them hence improve their lives. They are also used for therapeutic reasons and they have been known to explain psychological disorders and how they can be effectively dealt with. 

The definition of the term abnormality or abnormal behavior has proved to be a daunting task to psychologists. There has been no single description that would capture all the aspects of an abnormal person. Definition would vary from society to society as well as from one situation to another (Sue, Sue  Sue, 2003). However, psychologists do agree on one thing that abnormality would make a person unable to live in harmony with hisher surroundings. It is sometimes referred to as behavior disorder. Therefore, many definitions have been put forward to explain different abnormal behaviors based on different situations. Some of these are based on violation of social norms, maladaptive behavior as well as statistical deviations among others (Jones, 2007).

Classification of abnormality and Situational Interpretations
The quest to explain what is abnormal has given way to classifications of behaviors that are not unaccepted. Such classifications are the BMHA (1959), DSM-III-R (1987) and the ICD 10 of 1987 (Nevid, Rathus,  Greene, 2004). These classifications have not fully identified and classified factors that would help diagnose abnormality. There are varying situations that would explain an abnormal behavior. The systems of classification have been bias to the identification of what is abnormal. The use of Medical Model which has such terminologies like diseases or illnesses confuses the description of abnormality. It is sometimes hard to explain the behavioral patterns of people as illness, because to some, the abnormal behavior is unusual or inconvenience. Inconsistency of symptoms makes it hard to gauge the mental states. Therefore, in this kind of situation, mental illness can hardly be explained as a disease, (Davidson, Neale,  Kring, 2003).
 
The description or labeling of the patients as being diagnosed in some situations may have profound effects on the patients as well as people around him or her. This as argued may negatively impact the behavior of the patient, who may think that heshe is sick. According to Sutker and Adams (2001), those around this patient may as well treat himher as sick even though it was not considered a disease in the first place. The classification of abnormality or labeling of patients as mentally ill in some situations may make it hard to diagnose the illnesses.

Classifying a mental disorder as well as diagnosis of the same has been said to be unreliable. This has been compounded by the fact it is quite hard to ascertain the symptom and its extent. It has been argued that it is quite hard to separate the two extremes. Who is abnormal and who is not Drawing a parallel between these two could have implications on the diagnosis process (Stravinsky  OConnor, 1995).

Conclusion
There is much that has been done in an attempt to study and understand abnormal behavior, but still a lot of improvement needs to done in the special needs education as well therapy. A little research has been done to shed light on what is healthy behavior. Perhaps analyzing what constitute an abnormal behavior would lift the ambiguity of the subject and improve our understanding of what is normal behavior. Different methods have been used to classify what abnormal behavior is.

This paper will define the Major Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV-TR).  Give the categories of anxiety, moodaffective and dissociativesomatoform disorders.  Also the paper means to examine various classification of  the said disorders.

Major Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
The Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder is a reference guide intended for the use of mental health professionals such as psychiatrics, psychologists, physicians in clinical practice. This manual is also a guide for researchers and other clinical staff of different orientations and specializations as well as medical and nursing students. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is another standard classification of mental disorders used by mental health professionals. It is intended to be applicable in a wide array of contexts and used by clinicians and researchers of many different orientations e.g. biological, psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioural, interpersonal, familysystems (WHO). However, since this is a manual and guide for medical use and standards, revisions must be made every so often.  The revised edition of this manual will be available to us by 2012.  The primary goal ofDSM-IV-TRwas to maintain the currency of theDSM-IVtext, which reflected the empirical literature up to 1992. Thus, most of the major changes in DSM-IV-TRwere confined to the descriptive text. Changes were made to a handful of criteria sets in order to correct errors identified inDSM-IV. In addition, some of the diagnostic codes were changed to reflect updates to theInternational Classification of Diseases, Ninth Edition, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) coding system adopted by the U.S. government (American Psychiatric Association).

The multi-Axial System
The third edition introduced a system of 5 axes to assess all facets of a patients mental health. This structure is intended to provide a full representation of the disorders.  The multi-axial anticipated to promote the application of the biopsychosocial model to clinical, educational and research settings.

The third edition ofDSM, orDSM-III, which was published in 1980, introduced a system of five axes or dimensions for assessing all aspects of a patients mental and emotional health. The multi-axial system is designed to provide a more comprehensive picture of complex or concurrent mental disorders. According to theDSM-IVTR,the system is also intended to promote the application of the biopsychosocial model in clinical, educational and research settings. The reference to thebiopsychosocial modelis significant, because it indicates that theDSM-IV-TRdoes not reflect the view of any specific school or tradition within psychiatry regarding the cause or origin (also known as etiology) of mental disorders (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders).

A psychiatrist named George Engel  was the first to propose the biopsychosocial approach in 1977.  The DSM-IV-TR is clear about the manuals  intention to be used by clinicians and researchers of all fields in medicine. The biopsychosocial approach was originally proposed by a HYPERLINK httpwww.minddisorders.comOb-PsPsychiatrist.html psychiatristnamed George Engel in 1977 as a way around the disputes between psychoanalytically and biologically oriented psychiatrists that were splitting the field in the 1970s. The introduction toDSM-IV-TRis quite explicit about the manuals intention to be applicable in a wide variety of contexts and used by clinicians and researchers of many different orientations e.g., biological, psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioral, inter-personal, familysystems (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders). 

Five Diagnostic Axes
Axis I Clinical disorders such as anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and schizophrenia.
Axis II Personality disorder and mental retardation.
Axis IIIGeneral medical conditions like diseases and disorders that are linked psychologically to mental disorder
Axis IVPsychosocial and environmental problems.
Axis VGlobal functioning. This measures the maturity and stability of relationships in a family or as a couple.
Anxiety

As human beings, stress and fear are our fuel to achieve more or work harder.  The fear of losing financial freedom or stability enables us to earn more.  Wanting to do more and do better is human nature based on our fear. Fear and stress reactions are essential for human survival. They enable people to pursue important goals and to respond appropriately to danger. In a healthy individual, the stress response (fight, fright, or flight) is provoked by a genuine threat or challenge and is used as a spur for appropriate action (University of Maryland).

According to the Maryland University Medical Center, anxiety disorders have been classified according to the severity and duration of their symptoms and specific behavioral characteristics. Categories include

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), which is long lasting and low-grade but the most common anxiety disorder.  Although it is the most common, it gets worse with s tress combined.
Panic disorder, which has more dramatic symptoms because of its timely attacks.
Phobias, which are irrational fear associated with an object or situation.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), can disrupt normal functioning of an individual. 
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a  constant emotional reaction to a situation, scenario or event

Separation anxiety disorder (which is almost always seen in children)

Mood Disorders
Depression and bipolar disorder are the two most common mood disorder.  Bipolar disorder are known to be genetic that normally manifests in the mid-twenties and prolongs throughout their lives.  Though genetically obtained, there are treatments for these kind of disorder.  However, failure to undergo treatment may cause  a person to go through life with difficulty because of the devastating events in the persons life such as marital break-up, substance abuse and worse, even suicide.

There are a lot of things and symptom to look out for when talking about bipolar disorder.  These are a few of them lack of sleep increased energy racing thoughts feelings of invulnerability poor judgment heightened sex drive and denial that anything is wrong.  Treatment for bipolar may be through group sessions to give emotional support or medication and psychotherapy.

Depression
The term Depression is used among individuals and is a common word used to express severe emotional sadness, dismay or disappointment.  Medically, this is true but it is called depression when the emotions extends to a number of weeks without any improvement. According to the  National Mental Health Information Center, four or more of the previous symptoms have been present continually, or most of the time, for more than 2 weeks. The term clinical depression merely means the episode of depression is serious enough to require treatment. Major depression is marked by far more severe symptoms, such as literally being unable to drag oneself out of bed. Another form of depression, known as seasonal affective disorder, is associated with seasonal changes in the amount of available daylight.Somatoform

People seek medical assistance when they feel pain, or feeling something ill in their bodies.  Somatoform is a pain related disorder, that the person feels so much pain that it already impairs him or her to function normally.  Somatoform is a chronic pain disorder that can go on for a long period of time.

Although there are treatment for this kind of disorder, convincing one to go for treatment may be hard to do, but there are alternatives to help the person.  One may offer a  person suffering from somatoform pain medication, physical therapy and. Massage,