Psychology

Our society has become the society of organizations in this century the society of business organizations in this millennium. The social tasks concerning the provision of goods and services or education and healthcare, which only a century ago were held within the family, at home, in the shop, or on the farm, are all the more often performed in and through large organizations. These business enterprises are designed for continuity. In the end, wealth-producing forces of any economy are its immaterial resources, namely, not oil or gas, copper or iron, but rather the intellectual and organizational skills that are the basis of the services. Old-school theorists understood how the world works better than most of todays doomsayers (Mintz and Schwartz, 1995). This paper tackles the way theories and personal endeavors coincide in order to be productive in the company, to communicate well with others in the business, work as part of a team or teams, become a leader of such groups, and strike a balance in the life of every person so as to succeed in the business world.

As soon as two people start to communicate, a certain climate begins to develop. Verbal messages certainly contribute to the tone of the professional relationship, but many climate-shaping messages are nonverbal. This paper also reflects my vision of my way of communication with others. The most important single factor affecting the outcomes in both family and the organizational setting is communication, specifically, the communication that implies acceptance or rejection, confirmation or disconfirmation (Stinchcombe, 1983).

This paper views social groups as being interdependent, the building blocks of the organization as a system and the way I can personally contribute to my groups productivity. Unless the objectives of each sub-group are mutually supportive and attained effectively, the organization as a whole cannot meet its overall goals. In addition to this, the groups affect the behavior of individuals and vice versa. The way individuals behave in a group is a critical factor affecting the groups performance. For the group to perform effectively, and as an individual part of it, every member needs to behave appropriately with respect to carrying out certain tasks and interacting socially (Robertson, 1993).

Moreover, the power extends into the workplace. Among other things, it determines whether or not work will be available, how work will be organized, and the manner, in which work will be remunerated. This paper also discusses the subjects of power and influence an individual can acquire and execute by him or herself to lay foundation on the asset of working in the business world. A persons relative power determines what he or she is able to do in informal as well as formal relationships. We also learn from this paper that many people perceive power as being a bit dirty albeit power is necessary for organizational success (Robertson, 1993).

Early in my success program, I shall start gathering a winning team, a support group to help me reach my goals. I shall surround myself with positive, optimistic people who help me celebrate my achievements and cheer me when Im discouraged. Thus, in the business world, more than a commanding leader, I shall be a democratic leader (Kohn, et al., 1990).

Preparing to Succeed
An organization is productive, if it achieves its goals and does so by transferring inputs to outputs at the lowest cost. As such, the productivity implies a concern for both effectiveness and efficiency. A business firm is effective when it attains its sales or market share goals, but its productivity also depends on achieving those goals efficiently. Measures of such efficiency may include return on investment, profit per dollar of sales, and output per hour of labor (Pines and Aronson, 1998).

In order to be most productive, a person has to keep him or herself in the best mental, emotional, and physical condition. There is no point in succumbing to stress or the effects of extra work in pursuit of my goal. A person is not likely to be happy about the success if he or she becomes ill in the process of achieving it.

Not all people are blessed with perfect bodies, and there is no point straining to become like famous actors or fashion models, if we are not built that way. Probably, surviving in the corporate jungle also depends on learning my own personal most desirable weight and fitness level, for example through a visit to my doctor, and adopting a reasonable diet and exercise plan. Still, healthiness may also mean getting enough rest and maintaining a cheerful, positive mental condition. Besides, becoming wealthy is one of the most rewarding things that can happen to us in life.

Successful people recognize that they are responsible for every step of their achievements. Therefore, any person must be able to work alone, if necessary, on every task toward the goal in the corporate world. This does not mean that a person must do the full load of his or her work. But it does mean that heshe is responsible for seeing that it is done, and done competently, by someone who is qualified to perform the necessary tasks. A person should be a self-starter, ready and able to get going on whatever needs to be done next. A person must recognize when the work requires hisher attention, and does not need someone to give himher the permission to act or nag himher into performing (Pines and Aronson, 1998).

Communicating with Others
How would I describe my most important relationships Fair and warm Stormy Hot Cold Just as physical locations have characteristic weather patterns, interpersonal relationships or communicating with others in the corporate world have unique climates. The communication climate refers to the socialpsychological tone of a relationship. It is a function of the way people feel about one another, not so much the tasks they perform (Stinchcombe, 1983). What makes some climates positive and others negative The answer is that communication climate is determined by the degree to which people see themselves as valued. Communicators who perceive others in a relationship as being concerned about their welfare feel positive, whereas those who feel unimportant or abused bring negative attitudes to the relationship (Stinchcombe, 1983).

The best time to create a positive communication climate is at the beginning of a relationship, when there is no negative history to overcome. It is at this time that one can most easily create messages that allow people to believe they are valued. It is not enough to care about others (Stinchcombe, 1983). They have to know that I do care. Sometimes communicating this concern can be difficult. Thus, in the business world, in order to communicate effectively as an individual member and as a teammate, I shall endeavor to be a positive contributor to the communication flow in the company. I should therefore acknowledge the other person, demonstrate an open-minded attitude, agree whenever possible, describe and not evaluate, show concern for the other persons interests, and most importantly, communicate honestly.

One of the surest ways to cloud a communication climate is to get caught lying. Paradoxical as it seems, candor too can be a kind of manipulation. One of the biggest barriers to overcoming poor communication climate is the torrent of negative criticism characterizing so many of them (Stinchcombe, 1983). In order to handle criticism constructively, I need to have available honest, non-manipulative ways of dealing with criticism without feeling the need to justify myself or to counterattack.

Working in Groups
One can view an organization of any size as comprised of several groups. The management deliberately creates groups when it divides labor horizontally into subunits and vertically into levels of management. There are such groups as what theorists call work teams who work together on a job (Robertson, 1993). This is where we can find team players. To me, being a team player is as important as being an individual member.

I know why I have joined a formal business organization. Some either want to accomplish its objectives or need the rewards such as income and prestige derived from the affiliation. I say, I have done this for both reasons. People also join groups and informal organizations for distinct reasons. Personally, I join groups to satisfy my need for affiliation, which is one of our strongest needs. Of course, people from various subgroups mingle over coffee, during meetings, at lunch, and after work. Out of this social interaction emerge many friendship groups, informal groups that together comprise the informal part of the organization (Robertson, 1993).

Furthermore, all work groups must work effectively as a team. There are many factors that affect the way individuals behave in a group setting. Unfortunately, groups of people are not necessarily managed to enhance their performance when working with each other.  Some corporate officials say that small working groups are more productive for Americans than attempting to adopt Japanese management styles that depend on the Japanese workers intense company loyalty (Kohn, et al., 1990). I think that this approach appears highly adaptable within the computer industry, where small groups, given great freedom, can react quickly to abrupt technological change. One virtue of working in groups that I am keen on taking on is that responsibility is lodged with the employees doing the actual work. Through this, I can focus my energies on a single gal, foster creativity with others, and be rewarded commensurate with my contributions.

Leadership in the Workplace
A superior member clearly needs to direct the groups efforts, and those of all individuals, toward objectives, even though these relationships may fall outside those prescribed by the management. The basic primary mechanism for accomplishing this direction is leadership and the distinct but closely related concepts of power and personal influence (Mintz and Schwartz, 1995). An important principle of behavior related to the functioning of groups is that leadership consists of doing those things that keep a group together and working to solve a problem. Those things are behaviors that have been grouped into what we call roles. A role is the pattern of behavior that characterizes an individuals contributions to the group. Thus, in abbreviated form, I can talk about the role of a person is taking in a group. Similarly, leadership consists of performing those specific roles that keep a group together and working on the task. In that way, we can conceive of leadership as combinations of roles that are taken by many if not all members of a group. Some consider a list of functional roles of group members that help the group accomplish its task, that promote and maintain group member relationships, and that help meet individual needs, although they may on occasion distract from either or both the task and the maintenance goals. Leadership roles, of course, always contribute to task and maintenance goals (Robertson, 1993).

I may be able to distinguish between being the leader of a group and exercising leadership in a group using the concept of role. A leader is a person who performs more of the leadership roles than other members of group. Organizations and formal groups often designate one person as its spokesperson or head to represent the group or carry out some of the organizing and mechanical chores that need to be done for the group to complete its work. (Mintz and Schwartz, 1995) Groups are sometimes categorized according to the pattern of leadership roles taken in the group. For example, a democratic group is one in which the leadership roles are shared somewhat equally by all members if the group an autocratic group is one in which the leadership roles are performed almost exclusively by one person a laissez-faire group is one in which the leadership roles are not performed or only very minimally (Robertson, 1993). Most groups need someone to serve as designated leader or chairperson who can take the initiative in getting the group organized and functioning. Thus, as part of a group or groups, I may direct others when it is necessary. I may take charge every step of the way. If others dont approve of what Im doing, I shall listen to their objections, of course. I will also listen to the advice of experts and given authorities. But as to how I will succeed individually as a leader, I have to make final decisions for myself.

In defining roles in a group, it is necessary to exert more control over interaction early in the process, hence, granted I am assuming the leadership role of gatekeeper (facilitating participation of everyone in group, bringing in members  who might not speak, preventing dominance by one or two members, and maintaining permissive atmosphere) and procedure developer (handling such tasks as seating arrangements, running the projector, passing out papers) may emerge sooner and more clearly than others (Mintz and Schwartz, 1995). In my opinion, however, it is usually better to provide too much procedural direction than too little.

Keeping Balance in Your Life
When individuals work, they gain a contributing place in the society. The fact that we receive pay for our work indicates that what we do is needed by other people, and that they are a necessary part of not just the business world but the society as a  hole. Much of who individuals are, to ourselves and others, is also interwoven with how we earn pay, respect, and experience in the corporate jungle. Thus, success in the business world tells us to strike a balance between affording identities and affording commercial needs. After all, work in any field is seen as the measure of an individuals worth.

I read from a book, the title of which I cannot recall, before that in order to succeed, I must want to reach my goal more than anything else. Working toward it must become the most important activity in my life more important than watching television, socializing with friends, or keeping up with the latest books and movies. Naturally, since I have family and other important people in my life, I cannot always expect them to take a backseat to my ambitions. Often, though, I can convince them to join me in my interests. Even when I cant, I will want to spend some time with them in mutually enjoyable activities.

That does not mean I cut everyone and everything else out of my life. But I must set priorities and make choices. To keep the balance in my life, I should decide what is the most important in my life, and eliminate unnecessary pastimes that take away energy and time I could use to work toward my goal of finding a good niche in the business world.

Conclusions
It is no accident that resource-poor island nations like Britain and Japan at various times have become ones of the worlds most influential economic and political powers. Or that postwar Germany and Japan were able to rebuild their broken economies in less than a decade (Kohn, et al., 1990). Nations like these needed working people to flourish. In the business world, they need me. A working me to succeed as part of a company and as an ambitious individual.

Additionally, my success will depend on more than having a plan to follow. I will also need the discipline to apply to myself. If I want to reach the ultimate goal of success in the business world, I cant make excuses to put off the day when Ill actually start working on my plan. No one ever excused his way to success.

Problem solving strategy
There are basic steps which are followed in solving problem. There are several contributions made by psychologists in problem solving. The mind goes through various stages in solving a problem. The main stages involved in problem solving include problem preparation, production, problem evaluation and incubation. Each of these stages involves recognizing and evaluating the problem. Problem evaluation helps obtain the most effective solution.

The preparation stage involves identifying the problem. This stage involves gathering information about a problem. It is in this stage that the layout of a problem is provided. This helps in finding means of solving the problem. This can be achieved by formulating a structure similar to a method followed to solve another similar problem. This requires one to configure a past experience. This stage involves structuring the problem. A problem should be first identified in order to find means of solving it. Some of the problems are recognized at critical stage. Problems and opportunities can be recognized through various techniques (Davidson, 2003). The causes of problem are highlighted at this stage, for instance the problem of global warming.

The production stages involves coming up with strategies to help get solutions to the problem. The possible solutions are laid down. There are various techniques of defining possible solutions algorithm, search and heuristics. The solutions deduced on the type of problem. There are limited solutions for the case of closed problems. In order to highlight the possible one should fully understand the problem and the way out of it. The obstacles of solving a problem are identified in this stage. This enables to come up with a concrete solution. Obstacles and real causes of a problem can be identified through collection of information. The search of possible solution is achieved by analyzing the problem (Davidson, 2003). In order to achieve the objective of solving a problem, means should be devised to handle the obstacles.

The best solution to the problem is identified in the evaluation stage. This stage involves analyzing the possible solutions and selection of the best to aid in addressing the problem. In case there is no solution yet, the problem is revisited. It is possible that there various possibilities of solution. In such a case the most effective solution is selected. This stage involves evaluation of the alternative solutions (Davidson, 2003). It is a decision making stage. Solutions that are not adhering to the problem constraints should be eliminated. In identifying the most effective solution, the constraints to meet and the features of an effective solution should be observed. The risks associated with the selected solution should be highlighted. Decision should then be made to implement the best solution.

The implementation stage is the final stage in solving problem. There are various steps followed in the implementation stage. Preparation and planning is done towards implementing the solution. The correct action is taken while observing the possible effects. The feedback of the action taken should be weighed. Careful planning is required during the implementation stage since it defines culmination of the efforts made towards problem solving. Planning involves coming up with a time schedule and allocation of resources. In order to achieve the objective, risks should be dealt with in the plan (Davidson, 2003). Alternatives should also be provided in the plan. Problems should be handled with immediate effect to ensure the plan works. The success of the problem is weighed and noted to help solve similar problems in the future.

I have found that I have learned a great deal throughout the process of this capstone project. The main thing that I have learned is that if one narrows ones topic to much because it can make finding resources to support your project difficult at best. I have also developed improved research skills, and have learned to apply literature from many different areas to the topic that I am studying. Each of these has contributed to my personal and professional growth in the sense that I have learned how to draw knowledge from a wide variety of situations and to apply it to whatever I am working on at the moment.

I have also learned that one does not need to play the role of a leader when working to create social change. Often it is the people working at the lower levels that are implementing changes as part of a team rather than the leaders at the top. This has helped me to understand that ones role does not have to be big, because we all contribute to making social changes.

If there is one person that I have considered to be specifically helpful in terms of this project it is my professor for this class. They have been very helpful in terms of offering advice, and giving me tips on how to improve this paper. There are others who have been helpful as well. For instance, I have talked with members of law enforcement and others in the field of psychology, and education that have experience in dealing with juvenile gang members. In terms of how I would thank them, I would simply say thank you for helping me to complete this project however, many have already received my personal thanks. Overall this project has been an amazing journey, and has helped me develop more specific career and personal goals for my life.

My capstone project was a research project that looked at how counseling psychologists could be effective in helping juvenile gang members to leave the gang. The main focus was on the role of the counselor in gang exit strategies and how they could work with other groups such as Law Enforcement and Educators in order to help juvenile gang members to successfully leave the gang. My main conclusion was that counseling psychologists played a critical role in gang exit strategies both by helping former gang members to accept the consequences of gang involvement, and by helping them to develop the skills that they needed in order to survive life outside the gang.

Overall my experience with the project has been successful. In terms of my skills as both a scholar and practitioner my skills have improved in that I have learned to apply research from several different areas to the area that I am studying. This program has also helped me to develop a better understanding of how social changes occur. By learning why some juvenile gang members developed a desire to leave the gang, and what the consequences of both gang membership and leaving the gang were for the individual gang member, I learned why it was necessary to develop stronger programs that help juvenile gang members to exit the gang successfully.

The main difficulty that I encountered during this project was the lack of resources in terms of research studies that had been conducted with juvenile gang members in terms of gang exit strategy. Another major difficulty was that studies that looked at the role of the psychologist in terms of gang exit strategy were few and far between.  My primary recommendation for students participating in this capstone project in the future would be to choose a topic that has a little bit more of a background in terms of available research and literature on the topic that you are trying to study. I would also recommend that you not narrow your focus so much that it makes finding these resources or applying them to your topic of study difficult.

Social influence is the alteration of actions that one person causes in another, consciously or unconsciously, depending on how the changed person view his or her self in relationship with the influencer, other people and society in general (Changing Minds Organization Website). The changed person may have an alteration of thought, feeling and behavior which is due to actual, imagined or implied presence of others (Utah State University Website). The powerful social situation triggers these changes in behavior in more than ways than one.  There are two kinds of social influence  normative and informational. Human as a social being feels the need to belong to social groups (Changing Minds Organization Website). Survival and prosperity throughout the history of mankind showed that it is more likely if people live and work together. However, in order to have a harmonious relationship with one another, people need to agree on common beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors that reduce internal conflicts within groups for the common good.

People thus learn to conform to other peoples rules. The more people who are acting in the same fashion, the greater the pressure to follow suit. This still happens even when amongst complete strangers. A person will not deviate as this will draw peoples attention and the person will be cast out. However, the pressure to conform is greatest in the presence of people whom people respected and loved in the group. Thus families and friends can apply very strong normative influence. People with lower sense of worth and who long for approval of others may well be more easily persuaded this way. Pieces of advice may be offered to them in order to fit in but if they still do not obey the norms, they are eventually ostracized and their membership of the group revoked.

National culture also has a major effect on people. Example is Japan which has collectivist cultures and thus more likely to be influenced than in more individualistic cultures, such as in the USA.

Informational social influence plays part when people do not know how to behave or react, that is why they copy other peoples actions. This kind of social influence is common when the station is ambiguous, there is a crisis and others are experts. Other people act as information sources based on the assumption that they are sure of what they are doing. Also because other peoples opinion matters, copying others provides a safe course of action. At the very least, the person will not be at fault of whatever consequences of hisher actions.

There are three areas of social influence conformity, compliance and obedience.
Conformity.........................Compliance..........................Obedience
(least coercive)       (Most coercive)

HYPERLINK httpchangingminds.orgexplanationstheoriesa_conforming.htm Conformity involves changing ones behavior or opinion in order to blend in with a group (Changing Minds Organization Website). People conform in order to have a sense of belonging and to be appreciated by others. Conformity can be very serious as beliefs and values are altered to be one with peers and esteemed superiors. Conformity is typical among groups of a similar age, culture, religion or educational status. Those who are unwilling to harmonize with the group run the risk of Social rejection social rejection. It is very complex and sometimes being done unconsciously (Boeree, 1999). Examples of unconscious conformity are the norms learned and internalized during childhood. These norms are not doubted and people take them as given as they are established in the society. Conformity is sometimes seen as a conversion when it is voluntary and more dramatic. Certain norms are accepted and adopted because of wanting to belong to the group whom ones personal values and goals are shared. In its more dramatic forms, this is called conversion. But in research literature, conformity is often defensive conformity. It is consciously done but involuntarily brought on by social anxiety like fear of embarrassment, discomfort at confusion, a sense of inferiority, a desire to be liked, and so on.

Compliance is where a person does something because they are forced or asked by another (Utah State University Website). They may decide to comply or not to comply, though the idea of social punishment may lead them to acquiescence when they really do not want to comply. The request may be unambiguous, such as an open request for donations, or contained, such as an advertisement promoting its products without directly asking for purchase. In all cases, the target can make out that he or she is being encouraged to respond in a preferred way. Those who comply against ones will or better judgment the following effects may happen

People fulfill the wish of a perceived authority, even acting in strongly immoral ways or doing other things that disagree with their values.

Attempts at compulsory compliance can easily make a repercussion, particularly amongst those who refuse to comply.

Persuaders who are unpopular are more likely to be successful in forming a new attitude.
Unpopular persuaders are more effective because people are intrigued of their actions. If they meet the terms of someone who is attractive or otherwise likable, they can assure themselves that their actions are perfectly normal and that they are cting as a favor to the person or because they liked them.

Obedience is different from compliance but somewhat similar to conformity (Boeree, 1999). It is abiding to an order from someone that you recognize as an authority figure (Changing Minds Organization Website). Unlike in compliance where a person can exercise his her choice, in obedience, the person believes that heshe does not have an option but to follow. It can be differentiated by the stress on the impact of legitimacy (as opposed to other social pressures), and by the fact that it usually involves a single person commanding the authority and giving specific instructions (Boeree, 1999). Many military officers and commercial managers are interested only in obedience. Stanley Milgram proposed the agentic theory to explain why obedience to authority has such as strong hold to peoples behavior. The theory states that people act as the agent of someone in authority in order to deny personal responsibility for hisher own actions just following orders or just doing our job (St. Olaf College Website). Obedience to authority is deeply ingrained from early childhood when we are taught to obey our parents, teachers and elders. It is possible that the demand characteristics raised obedience rates. In Milgrams experiments people felt they were helping in a scientific experiment. It also helped that the authority appeared to be academic experts at a top university, people would have trusted them.

Another popular research study on social influence is the one conducted by Solomon Asch on conformity (Age-of-the-Sage Organization Website). He showed how a person could be influenced by others in a group to claim that a clearly shorter line in a group of lines was, in fact, the longest. He found out that one of the situational factors that determine conformity is the size of the opposing group. Some of the participants in the experiment indicated afterward that they assumed the rest of the people were accurate and that their own observations were mistaken. Others knew they were correct but refused to be different from what the rest of the group is saying. Some even maintained that they saw the line lengths as the majority claimed to see them. Asch concluded that it is difficult to claim something that other people do not see. The pressure from the group is too strong to ignore and to cause modification and distortion effectively making you see and believe almost anything.

(DQ1) Among the most interesting facts about sexual anatomy is that throughout early stages of development, both male and female sexual organs arise from an identical source or origin (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). Expectedly, most individuals would not expect such due to the evident differences of both types of sexual organs. Also, it is interesting to point out that the clitoris and the penis are analogous in terms of general form and erectile capability (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). Definitely, not all would notice such a similarity. Lastly, it is necessary to add to such interesting points that the vulva is relatively unique for every woman (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). Basically, if people would know of the aforementioned facts regarding the sexual organs, then it would be most probable that an increased appreciation of both similarities between genders and female uniqueness may be developed throughout society.

(DQ2) Throughout history, such as in Greek mythology, a large penis has been perceived as a positive symbol of reproduction (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). However, in reality, the size of the penis may not be of much value in relation to the satisfaction of women during intercourse after all. Specifically, it has been determined through actual studies that penis size is not directly proportional to female sexual satisfaction due to the fact that the outer part of the female organ, near the orifice, is most sensitive to stimulation then both small and large penises may be able to provide the same satisfaction (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). In addition to such, men with penises that are too long would most probably have problems with partner discomfort and of course a limited capability to provide stimulation throughout the whole shaft during copulation.

(DQ3) Definitely, different phrases instill different connotations. For example, given the act of female genital cutting, if one would assume a stance against such an act then using the term female genital mutilation would be most appropriate. In contrast, if one would choose to support female genital cutting then it utilizing the term female genital alteration is the best course of action. Thus, while both terms basically refer to the same act, the use of words with either negative or neutral connotations may indeed develop varied initial thoughts or abstract concepts regarding such terms. In relation to this, the society may also probably eventually perceive a common term such as male circumcision in a negative manner if individuals would begin to refer to it as male genital mutilation.  

(DQ4) While certain experts may disregard the potential reproductive function of the clitoris (Hyde  Delemater, 2006), conceptualizing possible reproductive functions are not impossible to accomplish. For one, the clitoris is a point of stimulation during sexual intercourse. In this sense, if the act of sex in part depends upon perceptions regarding pleasure and arousal in order to be regarded as satisfying and appealing, then the presence of the clitoris may be associated with improving the perception of women upon engaging in such acts. Therefore, the clitoris may have a reproductive function in relation to further improving the acceptability of sexual intercourse and in effect increasing the chances of women to consider engaging in reproductive acts.  

(DQ5) Considering the importance of maintaining health and survival over other aspects of life, then regardless of ones religion it would be inappropriate to undergo clitoridectomy and infibulation. In this sense, it would only be correct to attempt to change such religious or cultural practices for the benefit of individuals. Particularly, it is a general fact that religion and culture change throughout history while in contrast the parameters through which the health of an individual may be compromised have been constant throughout the centuries. Given the point that thoughts and perceptions are malleable, then it would not be inappropriate to consider the possibility of changing supportive views regarding clitoridectomy and infibulations into a perspective that focuses upon human health and welfare.  

Discussion Questions  Chapter 5
(DQ1) Hormones are substances that initiate specific changes throughout the body specifically, such chemical substances are dispersed throughout the bloodstream so as to affect specific sites such as the reproductive organs (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). Of course, the specificity of hormones is a result of various factors. In particular, the actions of hormones may be driven through the presence of inhibitors as well as chemical regulators which are also produced within the human body and differs to a degree between genders (Hyde  Delemater, 2006).

(DQ2) The initialization of masculinity, in the context of a developing fetus, is dependent upon the actions of certain chromosomes. Specifically, throughout prenatal development the presence of the Y chromosome determines whether male features, especially in terms of the sex organ, would be formed (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). In relation to such, it is perceivable that scenarios wherein the male chromosome is missing or defective do occur. In such cases, genetic defects may probably arise which may result in the presence of deformities in the male genitalia leading to the possibility becoming an intersex (Hyde  Delemater, 2006).

(DQ3) From the aforementioned findings, it would be appropriate to conclude that gender related psychological development occurs after the initial phases of gender differentiation from a physiological perspective. Of course, it such a point would matter in relation to the understanding of human development. Specifically, through such knowledge and findings regarding gender differences, one would be able to determine distinctions among biological and sociological aspects of human development as changes associated with the brain would most likely be mainly attained through the environment rather than innate biological conditions.

(DQ4) Weight gain, which peaks at the age of twelve, due to the accumulation of fats throughout various parts of the body such as the breasts and the buttocks as well as overall growth is a common phenomenon for girls during puberty (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). However, due to the presence of societal pressure in relation to the need of attaining a slim figure so as to be perceived in a positive manner, girls may tend to view such changes negatively. Such changes in weight most probably do not concern boys as much though, of which growth commonly expected to be later than girls despite such though, boys also develop a degree of discomfort due to acne, erections, and even nocturnal emissions (Hyde  Delemater, 2006).

(DQ5) Nocturnal emissions are not commonly associated with women and thus locating information regarding such as well as finding a term used to pertain to such an occurrence are troublesome pursuits. Of course, there are probable reasons which may be given so as to explain why nocturnal emissions among women have been overlooked. In terms of biological aspects, while it would be easy to determine that orgasm during sleep has occurred among males due to the release of semen, women on the other hand may in fact have an orgasm without the release of a distinctively detectable fluid or sign. From a sociological perspective, it is a generally known concept or thought that men are most commonly associated with an evident capability of achieving orgasm in contrast women which may require further stimulation prior to reaching such a state.

(DQ6) Sex, albeit being a broad term, basically refers to the biological act wherein men and women engage in reproductive pursuits. However, given a more sociologically oriented approach, concepts regarding pleasure and satisfaction as well as an appreciation of the body may also be associated with the aforementioned term. Hence, sex may be defined as both an act that is accomplished for procreation and an activity which involves gratification and bliss with or without the need to achieve conception.

(DQ7) The adrenal gland contributes and in part controls the sex drive of women through the production of androgen, as well as adrenaline hence the name of the gland, which affects sexual desire (Hyde  Delemater, 2006). Basically, both men and women have such a gland and the substances produced, generally for the same purposes, are the same albeit in different proportions. It is also interesting and vital to note that the main male sex hormones are generally considered and classified as androgens as well.

(DQ8) Considering the presence of other conditions which require more immediate attention as well as the current problems regarding the economy and the allocation budget for health related concerns, it would not be proper to force health insurance to entirely cover transsexual surgery. Specifically, such a perspective regarding the issue has been conceptualized in relation to the consideration that the issue is more of a psychological concern rather than being biological in nature. In this sense, it is probable that the best way of handling such an issue would be for insurance firms to offer programs that are specifically tailored for individuals with such concerns instead of merely providing a generalized program.    

Studies concerning human development are plagued by a number of key issues and one of these is the investigation of the relative contributions of environmental factors and biological conditions to the development of the human being. Prior to the availability of modern experimental methods and innovative conceptual frameworks, psychologists used to believe that human development is a function of either of the two features a persons biological properties or by his or her experiential aspects. However, current methods imply that interplay of the two factors exists. Thus, this event bring forth the intensification of the nature-nurture debate, which was seen to persist across all human development studies, disregarding cultural, social, and age-related boundaries. In order to further investigate the nature-nurture debate, a critical analysis of the other concepts of human developmental can be explored.  

Inborn biases and internal models of experience constitute the first area of nature-nurture investigation. The former describes the nature aspect because it explains the genetically programmed preferences of a child while the latter describes the nurture aspect by defining that the effect of certain experiences is not a function of the objective properties of the experience but by the persons interpretation. By analysis, these factors provide a clear overview of the unique features of the nature and nurture property of development but are not yet sufficient to properly discern the degree of influence of the two.

Second area of scrutiny of the debate is the exploration of the three types of change normative age-graded changes, history-graded changes, and non-normative changes. The first type of change comprise the genetically dictated properties of human beings while the second is composed of the changes that are dependent on the experiences a specific group of people were exposed to during growth years. The third, on the other hand, characterizes the changes that have resulted from the interplay of the biological properties and experience through a lifetime. It is believed that the third type of change perception is the most appropriate because changes across life span are indeed products of the interplay of nature and nurture. This concept is further supported by the other concepts of human development such as delinquency, and vulnerability and resilience.

Delinquency explains that the poor disciplinary methods and insufficient parent monitoring result to non-compliant child which in turn results to negative behavioral patterns of the child. Nature-nurture interplay is revealed in delinquency by the fact that innate properties of the child derived from the genetic lineage of an unsupportive family is aggravated by the interactions to rejecting peers and difficult school system. Vulnerability and resilience, on the other hand, state that children are born with specific vulnerabilities and the combination of these vulnerabilities (eg. including emotional irritability and physical abnormalities) to protective factors, such as confidence and physical strength, make a person resilient to the obstacles that he or she will experience in life. In general, it was revealed from the book that the influence of nature and nurture to human development cannot be taken independent of the other. This is because of the fact that as a person grows his or her biological properties are affected by the factors that are present in the environment. The abovementioned psychological concepts provide substantial information on the interplay of nature and nurture to human development.