Psychology

Attachment, as a theoretical construct is, more than 50 years old. It traces its roots from Bowlbys early work experience in London and later, with the World Health Organization (S.R. Bowlby, 2004). Fundamentally, attachment theory is an ethologicalbehavioral  control  system theory jointly formulated by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth to explain the nature of a childs attachment to his primary caregiver and its implications for personality development (Bowlby, 19691982 Ainsworth et al, 1978). It provides a perspective on the way close relationships can provide a secure base (Ainsworth, 19671969 Bowlby, 1988). It assumes the presence of maternal sensitivity, responsiveness and attachment figure (Bowlby, 19691982 Ainsworth et al, 1978).  The other, nearly equal component is the caregivers own mental representation of attachment, her own internal working models experienced and developed in her infancy and childhood (Harris, 2003). Attachment theory also presupposes biological necessity. Attachment behaviors must exist and be reciprocated for the infant to survive both physically and mentally (Bowlby, 1958).
    Attachment theory was developed in part, as an alternative to psychoanalytic theory to explain why separation caused anxiety in young children to explain the similarities between childhood and adult loss and mourning, to explain the process of defenses in the human psyche and to explain the mechanisms of social behavior from infancy that affect and influence the development of the personality along a continuum (Barnett  Vondra, 1999 Cristobal, 2003 Waters et al, 2002).
    Although attachment theorists define attachment theory differently, common concepts run through these definitions proximity, specificity, and necessity.  In addition, the concepts of pleasure and enjoyment describe the mother-infant attachment dyad (Ainsworth, 1967 Bowlby, 1958 Winnicott, 196419871993). In expounding on the theory, Bowlby (1958) refers to the use of words in describing the reciprocal attachment between the mother and the infant. Words, according to Bowlby, refer to biological, physical, affective and behavioral responses that an infant exhibits in order to get the same response from his  her caregiver  mother. This pattern exists to create the attachment between mother and infant.  The bond protects the infant  child from fear and harm and sets the stage for the formation of caregiver as a secure base, thereby offering the developing child a safe place from which to explore the world. Said behavioral aspect of attachment provides infants with survival extincts (Bowlby, 1958). But attachment is more complex than behavioral stimulus and response mechanisms.
Attachment is also an emotional and affective bond or tie that reflects the enjoyment and the attraction that one individual holds for another specific individual (Ainsworth, 1969 Bowlby, 1958 Cassidy, 1999). From an emotional perspective, attachment is the creation of a mutual bond in which the mother shapes infant development through her interactions and relationship with her child (Porter, 2003, p.1). One can observe and quantify attachment behaviors. One must infer and interpret attachment in its affective and emotive forms. Smiles and attaches can be counted, measured, and plotted. Delight and enjoyment, however, must be lived
Attachment to a protective and loving caregiver who provides guidance, support, and a secure base is a basic human need. There is an instinct to attach, a biological necessity, what Bowlby (1982) referred to as evolutionary adaptedness. Attachment behaviors must exist and be reciprocated for the infant to survive both physically and psychically (Bowlby, 1958) Babies instinctively reach out for the safety and security of the secure base with caregivers. The instinctive attachment behaviors in the baby are activated by cues or signals from the caregivers, for example, smiling, feeding, reaching for and gazing at the infant. Parents instinctively protect and nurture their children. The instinctual attachment behaviors iii the parents are activated by cues or signals from the infant, for example, smiling, following, calling, and crying. The attachment process is defined as a mutual regulatory system where the baby and the caregiver influence one another over time (Tronik, 1989).
Attachment is defined as an enduring relationship between a young child and primary caregiver (Ainsworth et al, 1978). Attachment relationships vary widely across primary caregiver-infantchild pairs (Ainsworth  Bell, 1970) but are always permanent and irreplaceable (Bamett  Vondra, 1999). Attachment relationships teach individuals how to be in relationship with significant others and influences all subsequent relationship through to adulthood- Attachment, first and foremost, occurs in the holding environment of the mother- infant attachment relationship. All other definitions or systems of understanding must stand upon this principle.
Major concepts of Ainsworths attachment theory
Ainsworths attachment theory and research has had a considerable impact to the field of development psychology (Mitchell  Black, 1995). Ainsworth is one of the leading figures in development psychology on attachment and has brought a rich view on mother and infant attachment by looking at this relationship through empirical research. It was her ingenuity of design and the rigorously meticulous observational research that provided legitimacy and recognition to Bowlbys theory.
 Ainsworth undertook three protogenic studies of infant-mother interactions and of infant security.  She began in 1954 with her year-long study of infant- maternal relationships in naturalistic home settings in Uganda. This was followed in the early 1960s with a detailed, and very observationally rich, to-part project in Baltimore that combined infant, assess(ment) in stressful settings the Strange Situation as well as in the home (Main, 1999, p.14).
Ainsworths creative and original research undeniably established attachment theory as a discipline of remarkable import. Bowlbys ideas were to be, widely embraced - .developmental and academic psychologists largely as a function of pioneering efforts of Mary Ainsworth
(Slade, 1999, p. 578). Waters and Cummings (2000) sum up key theoretical components of the theory
The Bowlby Ainsworth attachment theory reflects (1) the value of Freuds insights about the nature of importance of early relationships (2) Bowlbys wisdom in reconceptualizing the infant-mother tie as a secure-base relationship (3) the health and progress of control systems theory, evolutionary theory, and cognitive psychology, the science that underpin attachment theory and (4) the lasting value of Ainsworths initial ethological studies of infant attachments in Uganda and Baltimore (p. 164).
Ainsworths original work has been replicated many times over and also elaborated to apply to older aged children as such, the Strange Situation, in combination with the validating criteria of Ainsworths Baltimore Home Study, is considered the gold standard (Waters, 2002, p. l) as strongly reliable procedure for assessing individual differences in the organization of attachment (Rothbard  Shaver, 1995, p.35).
Concept of Secure Base
Ainsworths (1967) concept of the secure base is a central element of attachment theory. She believed that an infant views his or her mother as the secure base from which the infant will not stray far. A healthy secure base can provide security and guidance for the childs exploration of their inner thoughts and feelings. Bowlby (1988) has stated that parents play a crucial role in providing a safe haven in which children can explore their environment. In exploration, the child is able to mature as they encounter many new people and things. They learn how to interact with people and objects in the environment.
The child, however, needs to be confident and secure in their relationship with their caretaker in order for that parent (mother) to provide a secure base for them to be able to explore (Bowlby, 1988). Furthermore, the child has to feel that the caretaker will be able to attend to and comfort them if they become distressed andor frightened (Ainsworth  Bowlby, 1991). Exploration can stop if the child loses confidence and comfort in their caretakers accessibility. If a child does not have this secure base from his caretaker, then the child will n.ca able to gain the experiences that are needed from the environment for healthy emotional growth- According to Bowlby, no parent is going to provide a secure base for his growing child unless he has an intuitive understanding of and respect for his childs attachment behavior and treats it as intrinsic and valuable part of human nature I believe it to be (Bowlby,  1988, p.12).
Ainsworth and her colleagues did much to help popularize attachment theory (Parke et al., 1994). Ainsworths research on attachment patterns was able to shift the focus to individual differences and help categorize and explain the deviations from the norm (Robbins, 2000). Bowlbys attachment theory prior to Ainsworths research focused more on a normative component, which stressed the modality of species-specific b al patterns and stages of development, which were the norms for all humans (Parke, et al. 94). Without Ainsworths work on patterns of attachment in the Strange Situation, Bowlbys theoretical contributions to developmental and clinical psychology would not have been as influential.
The phenomenon of the attachment bond formed in infancy between primary caregiver and child is similar to that of love in that it is a profound human experience that is difficult to define and difficult to measure What is easier to describe is the nature of the attachment bond that is affectionate, persistent, non-transitory, and exists consistently over time regardless of whether attachment behavior is present or not. It is emotionally significant in that there is a strong desire to maintain contact or proximity to the attachment figure and to feel distress upon involuntary separation. Threat of toss of the attachment figure arouses anxiety, and persistent or long-term loss causes despair. The defining feature of the bond, however, is that the individual seeks security from those to whom one is attached (Ainsworth, 1989). The bond is built on trust and there is the expectancy that the attachment figure will do what is possible to come to the childs aid. When the attachment bond is intact, significant joy, pleasure, and comfort are experienced between caregiver and child, which in turn creates a desire to be together and to avoid separation (Berk, 2001). The asymmetrical (parent- child) bond serves a protective function that can be felt throughout the lifespan and, though presence of the attachment figure becomes less necessary over time, the bond does not weaken (Cassidy, 1999 Bowlby, 19691 982).
Attachment how it comes about
To know how attachment comes about is to understand what contributes to attachment formation and to develop an effective intervention, it is necessary to know when attachment usually takes place. There have been varying ideas as to when attachment is actually being formed.  Bowlby in 19691982 stated Although it can now be taken for granted that all are agreed on the empirical fact that within twelve months almost all infants have developed a strong tie to a mother-figure, there is no consensus on how quickly this comes about (p. 177). In a very early study Schaffer and Emerson (1 964) found that one-third of the infants were showing attachment behavior by six months of age and three quarters by nine months of age. Attachment behavior is defined by Bowlby (1980) as actions that increase proximity of infants to their mothers such as signaling behaviors (e.g., smiling, cooing, crying) or active behaviors (e.g., approaching following). Although the above described behaviors such as smiling and cooing are not noticed until the baby is about two months old (Berk, 2001), there is some evidence that
bonding is already taking place at birth. In a study by Klaus and Kennel (1976), it was found that mothers who nursed their infants twice in the first 3 hours after birth and spent more than 15 hours with them in the following three days displayed greater attraction to their infants a month later than mothers who had less contact. A positive difference in parenting was observed in these same mothers when observed two years later (Simpson, 1999). These mothers spoke more with their children, issued fewer commands, and displayed more affection toward their children. Mothers who were not allowed to spend time with their newborns after birth were more likely to mistreat their children and show less affection, engaging more in instrumental child-care activities instead (DeChateau  Wiberg, 1977).  Simpson (1999), in his article on the evolutionary perspective of attachment, states that Indeed, given the paramount importance of strong infant-primary caregiver bonds, evolutionary pressures should have permitted the formation of strong bonds at multiple stages of development beyond early infancy (p. 123).
Attachment in infants and caregivers
Bowlby (19691982) noted that observations in natural settings showed a great range of variability among infants in timing of attachment behaviors. However, Bowlby did describe what he felt were the four probable time stages of attachment development. Although his first stage of birth to 1-5 months is the most malleable in terms of infant attachment, especially if alternative attachment figures (i.e. fathers, grandparents, adoptive parents) are desirable of becoming attachment figures, it is his second stage of 1.5 to 8 months or the attachment in the making stage that is consistent with studies involving adoptees on when attachment is most likely to be critical (Chishoim et al, 1995 Singer et al, 1985 Tizard  Rees, 1975 Yarrow et al,1975).
Bowlbys (19691982) four stages and a brief description is listed below
The pre-attachment stage (birth to 1.5 months). During this time the infant displays innate signals such as smiling, crying, grasping and gazing into the eyes of the caregiver. Infants at this age do not show a preference to any one particular attachment figure. This is probably the most flexible time concerning other attachment bonds being formed besides that with the mother.
The attachment in the making stage (1-5 months to 6-8 months). During this period infants start to differentiate caregivers and to actively seek interaction with the attached caregiver. Their behaviors are elicited, modulated, or soothed most successfully by the attached caregiver Infants can now differentiate family members from strangers.
The stage of clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 18 months). During this stage the three principal behaviors of attachment can be seen maintaining proximity to the attachment figure, seeking out the attachment figure for comfort and support, and using the attachment figure as a base from which to explore.  It is during this time that separation anxiety is apparent as evident from protests about separation and behavior designed to maintain the presence of the attachment figure. During prolonged separations, infants can be observed experiencing the three progressive stages of separation response protest, despair, and detachment.
Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months and onwards). This stage is the beginning of developing a goal-directed partnership with the caregiver in which negotiation replaces other behaviors to insure security. The main difference at this age is that the child has moved from concern about the proximity of the caregiver to the availability of the caregiver in times of distress. The childs assessment from past experiences of the reliability of the caregiver to give comfort and are forms a metal representation which serves as the childs internal working model for all future close
relationships (Bremerton, 1992).
According to attachment theory, the experience of a primary caregiver as a safe haven during infancy is a necessary condition for optimal personality development. The proximity to available and responsive caregivers provides the child with a secure base from which to handle stress (Bowlby, 1988 Ainsworth  Bell, 1970 Ainsworth, 1989). Attachment theory also claims that these experiences are internalized into internal working models. Bowlby defined internal working models as mental representations of attachment figures and the self, which results in unique attachment styles (Bowlby, 1988)
Attachment and the developing child
A secure attachment is important to a child because it affects the childs internal working model- An internal working model is believed to be a. set of expectations about the reliability of attachment figures to provide comfort and support in times of stress and can affect all subsequent relationships throughout the lifespan (Bowlby, 1980 Main et al., 1985 Sroufe et al, 1993). This inner mental representation of what can be expected from others becomes a vital part of the developing infants personality and becomes more stable and less flexible as the infant matures (Bowlby, 19691982 Bremerton  Murtholland, 1999). The developing childs actions will be guided by this representation regardless of any non-confirmatory evidence the child might encounter (Bremerton, 1992 Main, 1999) and is consistent with Hebbs rule which states that cells in the brain that fire together once are increasingly likely to do so again (Main, 1999). Young children under the age of three acquire knowledge of relationships and how they are conducted through subconscious rules and generalizations extracted from their prior experiences and stored in implicit memory (Fink,

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advantage in developing resilience (Fonagy et al, 1994 Svanberg, 1998). Indeed, the effect is so strong that John Bowlby (1988), the founder of attachment theory  wrote, The pathway followed by each developing individual and the extent to which he or she becomes resilient to stressful life events is determined to a very significant degree by the pattern of attachment developed during the early years (p. 177). Finally, securely attached children have also been found to have a physical advantage. They have steadier heart rhythms than insecurely attached infants (Izard et al., 1991) and have stronger immune systems than those who suffer from prolonged separation from the mother (Ader et al, 1995). Conversely, insecurely attached children are at risk for developing a range of psychological symptomatology.
Also, research has shown that insecurely attached children are more prone to developing anxiety disorders, depression, dissociative symptoms, and other psychopathology (Kraemer, 1992 Lewis et al., 2000 Shore, 1997). Behaviorally, insecurely attached children have been
shown to display more dependency, hostility, anger, and aggression. They are more likely to become victims or bullies and are more likely to engage in controlling behavior (Lyons-Ruth  Jacobvitz, 1999 Grossmann,  Sroufe, 1992)
The consistency of the outcomes associated with secure and insecure infant attachment styles suggest that attachment creates a developmental pathway to different patterns of psychosocial functioning. The period of infancy is also critically important in this process because secure attachment has only a small window of opportunity to develop. Several researchers have theorized that internal working models are created in the infant through the attachment process and that these models cannot be easily changed (Amini et al, 1996 Bowlby, 19691982 Bretherton  Muriholland, 1999) -- indeed, attachment has been found to be a relatively stable phenomenon from infancy through adolescence and into young adulthood (Bretherton et al, 1990 Hamilton, 2000 Main, 1995 Waters et al, 2000).
Attachment and adolescenceadulthood
Most often, people mistake adolescence with puberty. There is however a unique distinction between the two. The latter refers to the physiological changes that occur as the child starts to undergo sexual maturation while adolescence covers the stage from puberty to adulthood and all the attendant psychological changes that accompany such maturation. At this stage, the child begins to be concerned about his  her body image.
    Attachment theory focused initially on childhood, but it eventually extended to adulthood particularly on the adults romantic relationships (Hazan C and Shaver P., 1987). These authors analyzed how attachment can extend beyond infancy into adolescence and adulthood by drawing symmetry between the emotional bond formed between and infant and an attachment figure  caregiver and the adult romantic partners. They proposed that different individual attachment styles among adults are also found in the behavioral patterns (secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant) that Ainsworth et al (1978) detected in infant-caregiver relationships. Having done so, Shaver and Hazan (1987) proceeded to outline the similarities and differences of attachment that occur in childhood and adulthood.  First, several factors determine the quality of attachment between the adolescents and the caregiver reciprocation, responsiveness of caregiver and sensitivity. Second, they reported that when securely attached, the adolescent  adult is generally happier and is able to adapt better to his her environment compared to hisher counterpart who is not as securely attached. Third, the mechanism attachment of maintaining proximity to ones caregiver runs true for both adult and infant. Because of this, extreme distress is experienced over separation from the caregiver  attachment figure and hence, attachment behaviors are attempted to renew contact with the separated caregiver.  Fifth, an intense sensitivity occurs in both adults and infants when seeking approval from the attachment figure (attachment figure and caregiver are used interchangeably) for any achievement or discovery. Lastly, there seems to be a unique babytalk communication between the adolescent  infant and the attachment figure.
Feeney et al. (1999) cite two distinct features that differentiate childhood attachment and adult attachment.  First, more than being reciprocal, childhood attachment is asymmetrical or complimentary.  Second, a sexual component usually accompanies adult attachments.   Meanwhile, Fraley (2004) cites several parallelisms on how romantic relationships and infant-caregiver relationship functions. First, on the matter of partner selection, adults cited responsive caregiving qualities such as attentiveness, warmth and sensitivity (Fraley, 2004) as foremost attractive when seeking for partners in long-term relationships. The second parallelism is drawn from a secure base and haven relationship where secure adults tend to find more satisfaction in their relationships compared to insecure adults. Understandably, the secure adults relationship lasts longer, thrives on trust, commitment and interdependence between the adult partners who serve as secure base as they explore the world. Several studies likewise point to the fact that secure adults, in distressing situations, seek support from their partners while being able to reciprocally provide support to their distressed partners. Insecure individuals, on the other hand, exacerbate their insecurities when engaged in relational conflicts. Finally, on the matter of avoidant attachment and defense mechanisms, studies show that some fearfully-avoidant adults show that they tend to be poorly adjusted compared to dismissing avoidant adults who have better adaptation skills in emotionally-charged situations.
Attachment and successful aging
The concept of successful aging varies across cultures. The current paradigm being widely used was proposed by Rowe and Kahn (1997, p. 433) as a result of several studies on the subject matter. Their model revolves around three main components, namely, having low probability of disease and disability, with capacity for high cognitive and physical function, actively engaging in life. They explained that successful aging is
 more than the absence of disease, important though it is, and more than the maintenance of functional capacities, important as it is. Both are important components of successful aging, but it is their active combination with engagement in life that represents the concept of successful aging most fullyWhile active engagement with life takes many forms, we are most concerned with two interpersonal relations and productive activity. An activity is productive if it societal value, whether reimbursed or not.
Erik Erikson, a follower of Sigmund Freud, offers a developmental model on the various stages of development and how we change through the years. According to Eriksons psychosocial theory, each individual goes through eight psychosocial crises from infancy to mature age. Erikson defines psychosocial crisis as internal opposing conflicts or emotions and although these follow a fixed sequence, timing varies for all individuals. The goal of each individual is to attain a balance between these two opposing forces, and in the process develop virtues that provide strength  psychologically and emotionally.
As a person reaches adulthood at 30-65 years of age (middle age parenting), he  she goes through a crisis he terms as generativity versus stagnation. Erikson defines generativity from the word generation, implying parents and children and the unconditional giving that makes parental love unique. Parental love, as described by Erikson encompasses universal love, one that extends beyond ones own offspring. On the other end of the spectrum is stagnation, which results from untapped parental love and becomes self-directed instead.  When this happens, the person becomes selfish, self-indulgent, greedy, and apathetic.
Further down the line, as person matures and reaches 50 years or older (grandparent stage), he  she suffers from integrity versus despair. Integrity, as Erikson defines it, means a feeling of peace with ones self and the world he belongs to. At this stage, there are no regrets and recriminations. Despair, the opposite force of integrity, represents all the feelings of what could have been. It is at this stage when a person feels regrets on all missed opportunities and wish for another chance at life.