Adolescent Adult Development A Literature Review
Introduction
In the process of human development, every person must undergo stages where each of these stages occurs with a significant moment in life. A number of psychologist and sociologists have presented their own stages of human development. In all of these models, one stage emerges to be unchanged, which is adolescence.
Adolescence is a period of physical and psychological change which develops from the onset of puberty to complete growth and maturity. This period begins at around the age of 11 to 13 years of age. This is also a time of the emergence of secondary sex characteristics. The period ends at ages 18 to 20 with completion towards the adult form (Adolescence, n.d.).
In the field of psychology, adolescence has become a widely recognized phenomenon. This has led to the establishment of a separate class of psychologists which deals with issues regarding adolescence. This period consists of a lot of changes and issues in almost all aspects of an individual. Issues included in adolescent psychology include maturity in the body, which leads individuals to be curious about their sexuality. This is also a period where exploration to drug and alcohol use is imminent. Adolescence is so complex that cerebral problems such as schizophrenia, eating disorders, and depression have high risks to occur during this stage. It is also a period of searching, where individuals attempt to find themselves in their peer groups. It is observed that 90 percent of adolescents tend to associate themselves with a peer group. Thus, those who are successful in establishing peer relationships have the least chance of experiencing anxiety and depression (Emerson, 2006).
Because of the complexity of the period of adolescence, it is necessary that studies be conducted on how the said issues arise. This may lead to finding solutions to these issues and further understand the nature of adolescents in different areas such as psychology. Thus, this paper consists of a review of literature regarding adolescent development. This paper also aims to determine the latest trend in this field of study and give brighter insights as to the development of adolescence.
Adolescence and Their Parents
Parenting has a very significant effect towards the outcome of developing adolescents. In a study conducted by Alithe L van den Akker, Maja Dekovic, and Peter Prinzie, they explored how changes in child personality and over reactive parenting can predict adolescent adjustment problems. They observed changes in the Big Five personality characteristics during transition from childhood to adolescence in terms of adjustment problems. 290 children aged eight to nine years were the sample in the study. The study consisted of three measurement moments with 2-year intervals for data gathering. On the first moment, they gathered reports from mothers, fathers, and a teacher regarding the childs personality. The mother and the fathers reported about their parenting behaviors on the second moment. At the third measurement moment, mothers, fathers, and children reported in the childs adjustment problems.
Results of their study showed that changes in child personality and over reactive parenting during the transition from childhood to adolescence are associated with adolescent adjustment problems. Also, child personality was more significant than over reactive parenting. Furthermore, results show that children are more likely to act out in reaction to over reacting parenting, rather than to withdraw (Van Den Akker, at al, 2010).
Adolescents and Their Environment
A large part of the human personality is influenced by the environment. It was mentioned earlier that adolescents are experiencing a period of searching for their identities through peer groups. Such groups can be found in school or in their very own neighborhoods.
A study entitled, Neighborhood Influences on Adolescent Cigarette and Alcohol Use Mediating Effects through Parent and Peer Behaviors aimed to determine a relationship between neighborhoods and adolescent and cigarette and alcohol use through parental closeness, parental monitoring, parent substance use, and peer substance use. The researchers used a national sample consisting of 959 adolescents, with ages ranging from twelve to fourteen years old, using structural equation models.
Results of the study showed that smoking adolescents who live in low socioeconomic status (SES) neighborhoods were associated with increased parental monitoring, and was further associated with decreased adolescent cigarette use. For drinking adolescents, high SES neighborhoods were associated with increased parent drinking, and was further associated with increased adolescent alcohol use. Drinking adolescents in low SES neighborhoods with high parental monitoring are associated with decreased adolescent alcohol use, while those with increase in peer drinking are associated with increased adolescent alcohol use (Chuang, et al, 2005).
Neighborhoods were also the primary focus of Jeanne Gunn, Greg Duncan, Pamela Klebanov, and Naomi Sealand in their study on child and adolescent development. Neighbors are commonly believed to influence behavior and attitudes. Their study aimed to explore the effects of neighborhood characteristics on the development of children and adolescents. They used two data sets. Each of these data sets contains information gathered regarding individual children, their families, and their neighbors.
Results of their study showed that neighborhoods have a very powerful effect on adolescent development, especially the presence of wealthy neighbors. These effects are manifested in childhood IQ, teenage births, and school-leaving. It was found out that these effects are still evident even after the differences in socioeconomic characteristics of families are adjusted for. However, it was also found out that the presence of wealthy neighbors benefit white teenagers more than black teenagers (Brooks-Gunn, et al, 1993).
Adolescents and Sexuality
Sexual activity is an important indicator of transition from childhood to adolescence. In this period, individuals begin to explore the sexual aspect of their lives because of the changes that are undergoing in their bodies.
A study on adolescents and sexuality was conducted by Renata Forste and David Haas entitled, The Transition of Adolescent Males to First Sexual Intercourse Anticipated or delayed The concept of this study is taken from different social, psychological and behavioral contexts in adolescents initiating in sexual activity. This broadens the understanding of teenage sexual behavior, apart from the typical sexual experience, as contrasted against inexperience.
The data for this study was taken from the National Survey of Adolescent Males in 1988, 1990, and 1991, and were used in logistic regression analysis to determine the influence of background factors on the transition to adolescence to the first intercourse. These teenagers were divided into two categories. One of which are those who were not expecting to initiate in sexual activity in the next year (delayers), consisting of 265 teenagers, and 187 of those who are expecting to do so (anticipators).
Results show that 32 of delayers reasoned out that their sexual inexperience was because they want to wait until marriage. 35 of anticipators reported that it was the lack of opportunity to engage in sexual activity. 53 of anticipators were more likely to have their first intercourse within one year of the survey than delayers with 13. These anticipators were also prone to risky behaviors, precoital activities and approval for premarital sex. On the other hand, delayers were more likely to go to church and have strict parents. Teenagers who have a mother who is a college graduate increases the chance for transition to first intercourse for anticipators but decreased chances for delayers. Teenagers who were born by their mothers during their teen age significantly increased the chances for anticipators (Forste, et al, 2002).
Conclusions
Adolescence is an important stage in life. It is a transition from childhood to teenage, which is a gateway towards adulthood. It is a complicated stage wherein numerous changes occur, not just in the physical aspect but in the sociological and psychological aspects of individuals.
A separate class of psychologists has already been established in order to study further the phenomena involved in adolescence. A number of studies have already been conducted in regards to the factors that have an effect on the transition of childhood towards adolescence. Teenagers are easily affected by external factors such as their neighborhood, their families, peers, and others. These studies have led to the conclusion that there is still a lot to be studied with regards to adolescence, particularly on the possible factors that have an effect on its transition and development. Future studies on this topic would open new doors in the field of adolescent psychology and the understanding of adolescence and their behavior.
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