Psychology

PART I
A. The American Psychological Association has recommended a code of ethical standards that have to be followed by every psychologist in the US, failing which they are liable to legal retributions and the cancellation of their membership from the APA (1992). Principle D of these stipulations states that a psychologist has to be aware of

Cultural, individual and role differences including those due to age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status(p.1599).

A psychologist can be penalized if he is found condoning or practicing unfair discriminatory practices in his profession. Therefore understanding diversity in the context of different nationalities, races, cultures and genders residing in the US is of utmost importance. The course gave a comprehensive description on the meaning of culture, ethnicity and minority communities. Effort has been made to define the difference between race, ethnicity, and   the prevalence of other cultures, language and religions in the American community.

An in-depth study was made on the meaning of culture and the assumptions, beliefs and values that are a part of every culture. Guidance was also given on the stumbling blocks that are faced by people who have to deal with other cultures in different countries and these problems have been described as differences in languages, misinterpretation of non verbal signals, common misconceptions about stereotyping people from other cultures and judging them by the differences in their behaviour and mannerisms.

Discrimination based on the classicism and socio economic discrimination was also studied and it was found that an in depth study is further required to understand the mental illnesses that are associated with striving to survive in a poor socioeconomic background (Brown et al, 1996).

The course was informative and shed light on the prejudices and discrimination faced by various ethnic and minority groups in the country. Ethnic and minority groups are still facing problems at individual, institutional and community levels and certain individuals and communities are stereotyped and discriminated against because they follow a different religion or speak differently or belong to another race or religion and have a different sexual orientation. Several minority groups are not only denied their civic and legal rights, they have also been subject to physical violence at some point in their life.

According to Pincus (2000) discrimination can be against an individual, institutions and a structural level, which is still being permitted in American society i.e. racial discrimination against blacks from working   in particular restaurant chains. Institutional discrimination is all the more dangerous as it is carried out by a dominant group on a minority group.

Structural policies are created to the disadvantage and exploitation of the minority group which threatens the very fabric of the American civilization. Guidance is also given regarding the differences in the behavioral patterns, non verbal cues and mannerisms of people from different cultures and races and their generic interpretations which are important while conducting psychotherapy sessions with patients from different ethnic racial and minority groups.

Cultural pluralism  has to be adopted on  the personal and institutional level,  educational institutes and state bodies must function keeping in mind the diversity of the cultures , races and ethnic backgrounds of people living in the US .  It is recommended that informed individuals reach out to minority groups who are facing prejudice in any form, at any level and ensure that criminal proceedings are initiated against the perpetrators of discrimination against minority groups. It has been stressed time and again during the course that  the American culture need to  be open to the diverse communities that exist within it., in order to evolve into progressive society wherein various communities can cohabit in a symbiotic existence.

B. The description of homophobia was the most distressing as it has been found that most members  of the lesbians, gay males, bisexuals and transgenders(LGBT) group are categorically discriminated  against which takes the form of  negative beliefs  against the group, isolation by society, denial of their legal and civil rights and even overt acts of violence (Blumenfeld, year, p.258). There are several forms of discrimination against the LGBT and the most common forms are at personal, interpersonal and structural levels that people from the LGBT group have to face on a daily basis.

The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force has reported that around ninety percent of the members had been verbally abused and suffered derogatory comments regarding their sexual orientations and thirty three percent of individuals had suffered physical violence by dominant groups (p.269).Institutional homophobia has been found to be all the more damaging as institutions reject members of the LGBT on the basis of their sexual orientation from gainful employment in the US military. Most states refuse to recognize homosexual partners on   thus denying them the civic and legal rights of being civil partners.

There are no statutes on the national levels that protect the civic rights of the LGBT group on the national level thus their right to employment, health benefit are denied to them, making it difficult for them to live a life of dignity when they have to ace prejudice and discrimination in every walk of their life (Bulmenfeld, year).It is all the more disconcerting that homosexuality was considered a mental disorder for quite a number of years and members of  the LGBT were forced into psychiatric treatment and many were institutionalized in order to cure their disease(Bulmenfeld, year).

It has to be noted that even a few psychologists have shown discrimination against the LGBT groups and are biased regarding homosexual practices. Thus, the members of the LGBT group find it difficult to come out of the closet fearing discrimination and public orstracisation (Meyer, 2005). Their dilemma is particularly distressing as they face exclusion from their own families under such negative circumstances they become vulnerable to depression and other emotional disorders.

It is believes that most homophobics are prejudiced against  the members of the LGBT group because  they fear their own capabilities as sexual partners and might envy the sexual freedom enjoyed by LGBT member while they have to conform to societal expectations and norms (Adams et.al, year, p. 28).    Racial discrimination against blacks must also be noted, structural discrimination against blacks has affected their chances of gainful employment and several banks and restaurants have been taken to task for denying them loans and for giving preference to their own race which is against the statutes of the law (Pincus, 2000).

There have been instances wherein blacks have been beaten by the police department and a blind eye has been turned on such acts of prejudice .Oppression that takes place at institutional and structural level is all the more dangerous and difficult to stop as these acts are conducted within the framework of the law and thus statutes have to be passed before discriminatory acts against minority groups are brought to an end completely

Part II
A.  There are several aspects that need to be researched thoroughly before achieving cultural competency of the various ethnic and minority groups prevalent in America. Despite the importance of comprehending ethnicity and its relevance in the countrys social and legal framework, it has been found that the research conducted on ethical and minority issues has been inadequate. Carter, Akinsulure-Smith, Smailes  Clauss (1983) report that minimal research was conducted to increase   the information and knowledge on ethnic and minority issues.

Juby (2005) also found that only ten percent of the empirical study conducted before 1991 used culture specific normative population. My efforts will be concentrated upon means and ways by which, information on ethnic and minority issues can be expanded. Problems have also been found in the diagnostic assessment for mental disorders in patients from different cultures and ethnic background is. While diagnosing mental disorders in patients there have been instances wherein, what is pathological in one culture has been found to be normative in another (APA, 2000, p.35.).

Although DSM_IV_TR has recommended that mental illnesses have to be evaluated , keeping in mind the various norms and beliefs of different ethnic backgrounds greater sensitivity and understanding is still required amongst clinicians and thus further research in understanding the ethnic  mannerisms , beliefs and behaviour patterns of mental patients is important before their treatment can be initialized (Juby, 2005) .

 It has been found that further study is required in developing studies to understanding the verbal and non verbal cues in the communication styles of patients from different ethnic backgrounds and various sessions must be orchestrated keeping their diverse beliefs, likes and dislikes in mind. I.e. people from Japan are not used to being aggressive, do not immediately make relationships and are not forthcoming regarding their opinions in discussions. (Sue  Sue, 2003).

B.       Juby (2005) has given the following recommendations in order to improve cultural competency for psychologist while dealing with patients from different backgrounds and these directions require following the guidelines given by the DSM IV_TR. Thus, while striving to improve my core competency, I will be following

The directives on cultural variations in the manifestation of illnesses described in the DSM IV_TR classifications, include an index to include culture-bound syndromes that are not a part of DSM-IV classifications and follow the outlines that have been given by the DSM IV_TR in order to understand the impact of the patients cultural influence on the patients mental illness (Juby, 2005, p.35).
   
Sue  Sue( 2008 ), have also recommended though the clinician may belong to a certain ethnic background, they  but may not belong to the specific subculture therefore before striving to understand a different race or cultural background, I will gain core competency in understanding my own racial and ethnic background and  the various subculture that are a part of it.

My personal goals will further be influenced by the concerns of the APA ethic codes, which require that clinicians must not treat patients of a particular ethnic background if they do not have the competence which is required to understand their language, race and cultural background. I will strive to gain this competence, and if I find that I do not have the suitable qualifications which are required to handle the patient, I will send the patient to a qualified referral for diagnosis and treatment.

I also intend to undergo further cross cultural training which according to Brislin  Yoshida (1994) encompasses, training in terms of awareness of culture, knowledge of other culture, coping with other culture and culturally appropriate behaviour.(p.36).Culturally appropriate behaviour refers to verbal and written communications, tolerance and non-judgmental with those who are culturally different, as well as cultural protocol which must be adhered to while dealing with patients belonging to different cultural and minority groups.

Though efforts have been made to enforce cross cultural competency in the US, there are still lacunas which exist in the various processes and structures that have been created to deal with patients who belong to different cultures and minority groups, which results in clinicians facing obstacles while offering medical treatments and medications to them as they are unable to comprehend what the treatment entails and the process of therapy that has been created prescribed for them. 
In my long term personal goals, I also intend to supervise and provide guidance to psychology students in gaining cultural competence, in dealing with the various ethnic and minority groups residing in the US. I also intend to personally visit the various ethnic and minority communities, in order to better inculcate their mannerisms thus achieving a degree of alleviation from the stress that they must be experiencing while adjusting to the American culture and behaviour patterns during therapy sessions.

Part III
I will strive to improve my cultural competency by making an in depth study of the different cultures classes and ethnic groups  that exist in American and strive to understand their motivations, mannerism and cultural nuances, which will make the client comfortable with me and therapy sessions will be designed based on  the patients cultural outlook.

While conducting research into the ethnic and cultural issues being faced in our society, specifically in terms of the research that is required into the discrimination faced by minority races and LGBT groups in the US, I will conform to the norms by the APA for planning research. The research will be scientifically planned and implemented, due concern will be given to the dignity and welfare of the candidates   and ethical standards will be maintained while conducting the research (APA Ethics Committee, 1992).

As a clinician who will be called upon for cross cultural evaluation, I will keep in mind the dynamics of the culture, race and ethnicity of the client to be evaluated (p.107) and the following guidelines will be followed by me I will allow the clients  who are  being evaluated, the freedom to represent themselves in a manner that is consistent with their ethnic communication style, I will endeavor to make the client feel that they are being respected, understood and accurately represented with freedom from stereotype, prejudice and cultural bias(Barrett, 2005, p.108).

I will also try to gain further ethical and cultural information about the client and make appropriate suggestions to the client regarding his mental state of mind and assist the client with his psychological , institutional and personal difficulties (Barrett, 2005, p.109). Under the circumstances, wherein I lack the core competencies required to deal with the ethnic background of a particular ground, I will refer the client to another clinician who has the required competency in the particular field of study.

I will orient my psychotherapy and counseling sessions according to the cultural and ethnic background of the patient. According to Sue  Sue (2008) different cultures have different communication styles i.e. Asian Americans speak softly,  avoid eye contact and seldom encourage communication whereas Blacks speak with affect, avoid eye contact while listening and interrupt a conversation without preamble. Therefore in the counseling sessions, my primary aim will be to encourage communication, gain trust in accordance to Rogers Person Centered Therapy that stipulates Encouragement to talk, nonverbal markers, paraphrasing and reflecting feeling appropriate intervention strategies (Sue  Sue, 2008).

A thorough research on the specific subcultures of various minority groups and ethnic backgrounds through secondary sources will be conducted i.e. internet, university and research libraries that hold information about various ethnic and minority group residing in the US.  Before starting therapy, I will strive to understand the cultural concepts pertaining to mental health and illness, disease and treatment (Barrett, 2005, p.113).While conducting psychological testing of a potential patient , before giving my diagnosis I will ensure that  the clients emotional constraint or exhibition  is not inconsistent with their cultural norms and  mannerisms.

In order to under the nuances of classicism the exist in the American society, I will be conducting further research of the environment that alleviates the mental illness of a patient and According to Higgins(1994) contributing factors are stressors such as poor nutrition, community violence, substandard housing and healthcare(p.9). Furthermore there are no clear demarcations regarding the various classes that exist within our society. Thus, an in depth study has to be made regarding a clear demarcation of the classes and the attributes and problems related to each class (Russell, 1996).

While evaluating the patient, special emphasis will also be given to the religious background of the client, whether they have spiritual explanations for various mental illnesses and also incorporate their traditional remedies along with western treatments. Additional sessions will be conducted in order to remove any superstitious beliefs that are harmful to the health of the client (Barrett, 2005, p.113).

As a qualified psychologist, I will have the unique opportunity to influence the issues of homophobia and racial discrimination   that are prevalent in our country and I will use my profession as a platform these issues and advice people against discriminating against minorities at individual and institutional levels. I will also try to join groups that work towards making statutory changes in the legislation at a national level to help alleviate the suffering of the LGBT and racial communities, ensuring that they are able to exercise their civic rights and are eligible for legal protection by the authorities.