Psychology

Many people remember with crystal clarity the content of all that they initially heard concerning the news of what can be referred to as a life changing occasion, for instance, the place they were, the people they were with as well as the things which they were doing in that particular place and time. Flashbulb memories are characteristically vivid, concrete, precise and long-lasting memories of a particular circumstance involving a persons discovery of shocking and outrageous events(Brown  Kulik, 1997). Flashbulb memories have a number of distinctive features which include place, ongoing activity, own effect, others effect, and aftermath. Flashbulb memories are believed to be very resistant to the idea of being forgetful or not remembering. Perhaps, the major flashbulb memory determinants are philosophical surprise, a high degree of consequentiality and may be emotional stimulation.

Flashbulb memories are instantly stored and retained for a lifetime. These memories are normally associated with vital historical or autobiographical events such as, the bombing of Hiroshima or the assassinations of J. F. Kennedy, Lincoln and Martin Luther King Junior. The emotional arousal at the moment that the event was registered in mind is what makes the flashbulb memory special. It is the emotions elicited by a flashbulb memory event that increase the ease to recall the event in great detail. The major reason that the flashbulb memories are easily remembered is the likelihood with which these memories are retold over and over again. However, some of these memories are not normally accurate.

Biological research has related certain neural systems to emotional influence on memory. Cross-species examinations show that the arousing of emotions leads to neurohormonal alterations, which also affect the amygdala. The amygdala controls the storage, encoding and retrieval of HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiEpisodic_memory o Episodic memoryepisodic memory (Fiske  Taylor, 1991). These memories are retrieved in the future with a highly developed recollective experience, similar to recollection of flashbulb memories. The amygdala, as a result, could be vital in the encoding as well as the memories retrieval for emotional happenings. The seriousness of the particular incident experienced by an individual is a better indicator which assists so much in creating a flashbulb memory. Strong emotions carried with certain events have found to form good basis for the formation of such flashbulb memories. 

Factors that Determine Accuracy
There has been intense debate about accuracy of flashbulb memories. One concern is that the flashbulb memories could decline as time goes by time, the same way everyday memories will be found to behave or respond with time. A lot of works of research done on flashbulb memories, on the other hand, have asserted that they are indeed very accurate. These kinds of researches are studies are intended to identify the grounds where flashbulb memories are found to be more accurate and precise than the rest of the memories of everyday. It has been put in books that the uniqueness of an event, its significance, the outcome, personal participation in the event together with proximity promotes the accuracy as well as the ease of remembering the flashbulb memories.

Autobiographical Memory Correlation
Flashbulb memory has time and again been classified as another form of HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiAutobiographical_memory o Autobiographical memoryautobiographical memory, which is described as a memory for everyday life happenings and events of a person. Autobiographical happenings missing strong emotions, like a party, were compared with incidents which arouse emotions that were taken as flashbulb memories. The memory for the sensation without autobiographical events was not found to have such accuracy as that which had emotionally arousing occurrences like that of the death of Princess Diana. It therefore concludes that flashbulb memories were accurately recalled over everyday autobiographical events. The memories of the  911 World Trade Center assault was related with memories of each and every other day, showing that after one a year or so, there was considerable resemblance between the first and the succeeding recollection of the information for the 911 invasion. This shows very good preservation, as compared to the less relationship for each and every day memory (Davidson, Cook  Glisky, 2006). Flashbulb memories were therefore more accurately and easily recalled than the daily autobiographical events.

Consistency with Time
Different works of research have challenged flashbulb memories indicating that they are not reliable or even steady over a lengthy period of existence. For instance, a study carried out on the flashbulb memories recollection for the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChallenger_Space_Shuttle o Challenger Space ShuttleChallenger Space Shuttle calamity incident sampled two sets of autonomous subjects on a date near the event, and another at almost eight months after (Whittington, 2010). A small number of subjects had correct flashbulb memories concerning the incident past eight months. Taking into consideration the participants who only recalled the news source, place, together with whatever was going on, some researchers found out that not more than 35 had comprehensive memories. Another different research which aimed at examining the memories of the participants concerning the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChallenger_Space_Shuttle o Challenger Space ShuttleChallenger Space Shuttle blast showed that even though those who participated were very certain about their reminiscences for the unpleasant incident, their memories were however not precise three years later after the event occurred (Whittington, 2010).

None of these studies considered the level of importance of the Challenger disaster to participants, instead, they were assumed. It is consequently safe to imagine that the accurateness of the flashbulb memories possibly may have been influenced by lack of importance or impact of the occurrence to those who participated, instead of just being as a result of time passage. Yet another study conducted concerning the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChallenger_Space_Shuttle o Challenger Space ShuttleChallenger Space Shuttle tragedy did take into account the levels of significance of the event to all those who participated, and realized that flashbulb memories were somewhat correct after a nine months period with almost 90 of the subjects precisely remembering the location, the news source, activity as well as their instant reaction after getting the news of the disaster (Whittington, 2010).

Significance of the Event
It has also been realized that the rehearsal or retelling of personally significant events enhances the accuracy of flashbulb memories. Personally noteworthy events have a propensity to be practiced more on a regular basis than the events which are non-significant. A study performed concerning flashbulb memories of the earthquake in HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiLoma_Prieta_earthquake o Loma Prieta earthquakeLoma Prieta showed that the people who compared and shared their individual experiences with other people repeatedly had a superior remembrance of the incident when compared to the subjects of Atlanta who did not have a reason to discuss the way through which they got the news (Neisser  Winograd et.al, 1996).

Therefore, the rehearsal of personally significant events can be instrumental in developing accurate flashbulb memories. There has been more evidence that describe that personal significance of an event is an influential predictor of flashbulb memories. In addition, a study carried out concerning the flashbulb memory pertinent to the stepping down of the British Prime Minister, HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMargaret_Thatcher o Margaret ThatcherMargaret Thatcher, discovered that many  UK people had flashbulb memories even after a year following her resignation. The reports of their memories were described by spontaneous, accurate and thorough remembrance of the details of the event (Frostrup, 2007). However, few non- citizens of UK had flashbulb memories one year down the line Margaret stepped down.

Distinctiveness of an Event
Some occurrences are one of their own kinds and also unique, whereas others carry with them usual happenings, commonplace, or are may be like to a lot that has taken place previously. The uniqueness of an occurrence or event is taken to be a chief contributor to how accurate the flashbulb memories can be. The flashbulb memory accounts that have been acknowledged and thought to be outstandingly correct have been exceptional as well as distinctive from memories of everyday. In the 1989 earthquake of Loma, higher correctness and simplicity for the remembrance of the catastrophe was recorded in all those who participated and specifically who went through distinguishing experiences in the time of the incident, frequently including far-reaching disturbance in their usual activities.

Significance
The severity of the instant reaction of emotions is taken to be the chief factor of establishing flashbulb memories. Its effect in forming the flashbulb memories is far much more than the consequence of the event. In President Reagans case of his attempted murder in 1981, participants accurately recounted the incident in detail eight months later. Their flashbulb memories were clear despite minimal or lack of consequence the incident had on them. This study focused on the result of learning about the flashbulb incident and not the extent to which accuracy is affected by the consequence of being involved in the incident. Some people therefore had no idea about the injury sustained and its eventuality. A model of flashbulb memories state that intensity of emotional reaction is largely influenced by the consequence of the incident. The far-reaching result is indeed a significant feature in the formation as well as the maintenance of flashbulb memory. 

Direct participation and Immediacy
Many works of research have proved that the individuals who form part of the flashbulb incident are found with more precise recollections when contrasted with those   people who were not directly involved in the incident. For instance, the recollections of the individuals who directly encountered the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiTurkey o TurkeyTurkey HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMarmara o MarmaraMarmara earthquake had more correct recollections of that particular event in with more details than the people who did not have a direct experience. In this study, most of the participants who were victims recalled more details about the earthquake compared to those who were not directly affected by the earthquake, and rather were informed through the news (Wiley, 2003).

A study that was performed concerning the terrorist attacks of September 11 indicates that closeness plays a significant part in the correctness of remembering flashbulb memories. Three years later after the occurrence, participants were requested to get back memories of the 911 attack, as well as the memories of other individually selected events of control in that specific year. In the time of the attacks, a number of the participants were in the business district HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiManhattan o ManhattanManhattan, nearer to the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiWorld_Trade_Center o World Trade CenterWorld Trade Center, whereas some were a distance away. The participants who were closer to downtown easily recalled more emotionally significant detailed memories than the participants who were away (Davidson  Glisky, 2006)

Long Term Memories
Long-term memory can be described as a memory could possibly last for as less as few days or even as long as for many decades.  It is different from the short-term memory in matters of structure and function. Unlike in flashbulb memories, there is not any much information regarding the mechanisms of biology behind long term memories. What is basically known is the long term potential which includes a change in the physical on the structure of the neurons. That aside, the long term memory despite having a capability of storing information for long, is also subjected to the process of forgetting what has been stored in a natural fading manner.  Therefore, several retrievals could be required for these long term memories to exist for many years which also depend on the processing depth.

Conclusion
From the entire discussion in this paper, there are two main conclusions that can be drawn. First of all, it is to a certain extent clear that mixing the theory of emotion with theories concerning flashbulb memory creation, development and maintenance is productive. Combining both approaches however is helpful in learning concerning memory as it happens in day to day life. Secondly, the findings underscore the contribution of social factors in memory formation and maintenance. Flashbulb memories therefore are a consequence of the sense of emotions with which individuals tend to respond to the getting of information that was not expected and that has a lot of significance and meaning to them. Social factors improve the individual flashbulb memory by uniting existing memory traces. In essence, talking about the event and having the media exposure improves the memory for reception context.

In summary, this discussion suggests that flashbulb memories should be considered as a special kind of memory whose accuracy is subject to various social factors. Despite the fact that people can repeatedly recreate in their mind their piece by piece response to a specific flashbulb memory, the memory itself is not as accurate as it appears. People habitually explain a particular event in a different way at some point in time when compared to another time such as immediately after the event took place as well as a few days later after the occasion took place. Long term memories on the other hand exist to store information for retrieval in the future or later. On the other hand, when information is retrieved from memory, we cannot access a replica, only a reconstruction. The memories we have are fluid, not really static. This means they change due to our present and existing beliefs as well as perceptions concerning the past, where we are today together with the future. A memory is not just a snap or clip of audio, but instead becomes colored through the thoughts together with the feelings that we have at the time, and in addition our current convictions and beliefs concerning what the memory is supposed to represent. For flashbulb memories, particular brain structures contributing to the creation of flashbulb memories have been established by researchers although there is no particular individual that has an idea concerning the entire process. Schools of thought have the idea that a flashbulb memory could be created through a historical activity of a brain machinery which evolved to gather information concerning emotional as well as cognitive data and information pertinent to  the continued existence of a group or a particular individual.