Understanding Perception, Attention and Memory Cognitive Processes
Perception is the cognitive process in which individuals interpret and understand information received through their senses. These processes as explained by Hayes (p.3) involve the decoding of information by the brain in such a way that it can arouse a reaction or be stored. Therefore, perception can be understood by analyzing how information is initially received, how individuals group together parts of information in order to comprehend their meanings and how this information is combined with previous knowledge so as to make sense. It is through the visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory and kinesthetic senses that individuals are able to receive different kinds of information. After this, perceptions are organized as the individual becomes keen to what the object and image is all about and it is from here that they choose to react in different ways according to their interpretation of the stimuli.
In inferring meanings of continuous streams of behaviors individuals often do so partly by segmenting these behaviors into various events. Event segmenting occurs regularly in everyday life as individuals interact more with their environment and acquire more information which they are expected to comprehend. Kurby and Zacks (2007) provide a detailed study on segmentation and its operation in the perception of and memory of events. This study has utilized quantitative research methodology to improve on previous literature on segmentation. Evidence on the roles of segmentation in perception and memory has also been provided. Distinctly, Kurby and Zacks (2007, p. 73) illustrate that the way individuals talk about events indicates an important element of perception. That is, individuals are able to understand a complex and active world by dividing it into a modest number of parts.
Even segmentation theory as explained by Kurby and Zacks (2007, p.75) indicates that as individuals try to predict future information their perceptual systems automatically segment activities into various events. As these activities continue changing, such predictions become more erred and difficult. In addition, individuals are able to detect such changes and event boundaries through the perception process. There is research evidence indicating that there are occurrences of event segmentation especially in reading activities. When individuals are reading, there are observable time changes at event boundaries. As they reach these boundaries they slow down in order to accommodate the processing of extra perceptions.
Kurby and Zacks (2007) also evaluate hierarchical event perception which involves the hierarchical organization of perceived events from fine grained to coarse grained ones. As readers try to comprehend contents of a given material they spontaneously track the hierarchical grouping of events by first conceptualizing the coarse grained events. They then infer the sub goals of these events and thus try to interpret the fine grained events. This further indicates that coarse grained events often border fine grained events and allow easier perception. In general, Kurby and Zacks (2007) enlighten individuals on the significance of segmentation in perception processes. It is vital in enabling individuals to encode structures from perceptual streams so as to understand present actions and predict future actions.
Attention is the cognitive process which involves individuals selectively concentrating on a particular aspect of their environment and at the same time ignoring all other activities. Basically, as one notices changes in their environment they become more alert and start to actively grasp the activities instead of simply observing them. Cognitive psychology recognizes the presence of various models of attention which describe the operations of attention. Visual attention is often described in such models as being inclusive of two stages. The first stage involves attention being uniformly distributed among the entire visual scene and in the second stage attention is said to focus on particular visual objects or images. This form of selective visual attention enables individuals to concentrate on various aspects as they interact with information. Attention is also describes as being either overt or covert. Overt attention occurs when individuals direct sense organs towards a source of stimulus while covert attention involves the mental focus on several stimuli.
Visual attention is reliant on the capability of an individuals sense of sight and as people age their attention functions decline. This explains why older adults perform visual tasks slower and less accurate as analyzed by Madden (2007). With the objective of providing a comprehensive account of age related attention decline and the preservation of visual attention Madden (2007) explores the relationship between visual attention behavioral measures and brain structure. Madden (2007) displays relevant research with accounts of age related attention changes. The identified influences of these changes are behavioral accounts which depict the role of attention in performance of tasks and neuroimaging accounts which identify relevant neural systems. In exploring the visual environment Madden (2007, p. 70) asserts that individuals must focus on particular objects and ignore others. Attention guidance towards these selected objects is both easy and difficult with respect to particular situations. Behavioral research relies on visual search analyses in quantifying the utilization of attention in performance tasks. Highly efficient visual search is reliant on an individuals knowledge of an object and how it differs from others. This is known as top-down processing.
Madden (2007, p.71) highlights that top-down processing is often inefficient in older adults and accounts for their decreased performance in visual search tasks. Other described studies focus on the effects of brain mechanisms on age related changes in attention. Neuroimaging research indicates that activation of cortical regions which mediate visual processes at the back of the brain are often lower in older adults than in younger ones. This reflects a decline in both bottom-up and top-down sensory inputs. Madden (2007) concludes from the research study that it is evident that there are age related declines in bottom-up visual processes. In addition, since top-down visual processes are seen to partly remain normal in older adults, future research should focus on determining the features which prevent the top-down processes from exhibiting age related attention declines. This research study is insightful and provides ample research evidence in the behavioral and neuroimaging aspects of age related attention decline.
Memory involves the retaining and retrieving of stored information in the brain. Individuals do not just think and interpret information but they also recall it from their memories. Human memory often involves a complex alliance of systems and in its adequate state must be able to register information, store it over time and then retrieve it when needed. There are various types of memory which all perform distinct tasks in the complex human memory system. They include sensory memory which involves the storage of visual information for brief periods of time short term memory refers to information stored on a temporary basis and whose relevance diminishes after that period of time. On the other hand, long term memory is information stored for long periods of time while working memory is responsible for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information during cognitive processes. Working memory has been indicated to play an important role in such cognitive activities like learning, problem solving and reasoning.
Alonzo, Oppezzo, Shavelson, Steedle and Yuan (2006) provide a comprehensive study on the working memory, its measures and its relationship with fluid intelligence and science learning. Alonzo et al (2007, p.84) showcase that the definition of working memory has gradually evolved from one which reflects a unitary storage system to a more complex multiple memory storage system. Working memory has been understood in terms of content, structure, function or a combination of these features. This kind of memory is known to store task relevant information which enables individuals to solve specific problems. In addition, it is known to comprise of a phonological loop responsible for temporary storage and interpretation of verbal information and the visual spatial sketchpad which temporary stores and processes visual information. Other components include the episodic buffer and the central executive. The former recollects information from both the long term memory and the working memory while the latter allocates attention and coordinates activities between all the three functions. In their study (Alonzo et al, 2007) also indicate that there are various methods of measuring the working memory like the simple span task and dual tasks among others.
Alonzo et al (2007) observe that there are concrete relations between the working memory, fluid intelligence and science achievement. In cross sectional studies explored by Alonzo et al (2007, p.91) the impact of working memory on fluid intelligence is seen as statistically significant even under controlled conditions. On the other hand, science learning was shown to be positively related to the working memory. Science learners who have a limited working memory capacity experience deficient information loading while performing problem solving tasks. Alonzo et al (2007) suggests that in order to improve science learning the working memory needs to be improved by restructuring instructional materials so as they fit the working memory capacities of learners.
In conclusion, the above discussion has provided an in-depth analysis of the functions of perception, attention and memory cognitive processes. They are all showcased to play important roles in the interpretation and processing of information in humans. The analyzed studies have also heightened the understanding of these processes. Kurby and Zacks (2007) reflect on the significance of event segmentation in perception, Madden (2007) has explored interrelations between age and visual attention while Alonzo et al (2006) has examined the function of the working memory and its effect on fluid intelligence and science learning.
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