Psychology

Adolescence is a very crucial stage of human development. It is a point in life where individuals form their own identities and develop a sense of purpose in their lives. However, it is also the stage in which individuals are faced with numerous conflicting issues which may hinder their upright growth and development. Indeed, Ericksons theory of identity development reflects the many crises which adolescents encounter and the social influences which have been known to aggravate their behaviors. Among the many issues that adolescents face in todays society include substance abuse, sexual abuse, adolescent suicide, peer influence relation issues and parental relationship problems. It is vital for practitioners involved in the nurturing of adolescents into responsible adults to develop effective measures aimed at both preventive and curative outcomes of these issues.

This paper will focus on a very hefty issue which greatly affects adolescents all over the world. Adolescents range from the age of 12 to 17 years and the issue under discussion is substance abuse. In the discussion, causation factors of substance abuse in adolescents will be addressed, predictors of substance abuse and the implications of substance abuse and their risky outcomes. Moreover, the factors of ethnicity and biculturalism in the heightening of substance abuse among adolescents are also included in the study. In a bid to consolidate the contents discussed on substance abuse, recommendations will be made for counselors on how to best relate to and aid adolescent substance abusers. Substance abuse among adolescents is indeed a crucial issue which should be addressed with the depth it deserves so as to help create a reversal of this predicament.

Substance abuse is a dire public health issue which endangers the lives of adolescents on a day to day basis. Statistics indicating increased drug use among adolescents are quite alarming. Among adolescents aged between twelve to seventeen years of age, 1.1 million have been reflected to have dependence on drugs (Getting the Facts, 2007). Adolescents engage in alcohol abuse, cigarette smoking and in abuse of such drugs like cocaine, heroin and marijuana. Over a half percentage of 12th grade students in America have experimented on illicit drugs and it is not surprising that almost a quarter of these students have tried heavy drugs like cocaine, heroin and other inhalants. A most horrifying statistic is that among all illicit drug users in the country, adolescents aged between sixteen to seventeen years are ranked second. They amount to 16.4 percent of illicit drug users. Alcohol abuse is also reflected at high levels in adolescents with almost 10.4 million of them being alcohol drinkers.

According to Hahn and Moberg (1991) substance abuse has in the past been and still remains the most threatening behavior among adolescents. Indeed the Adolescent Drug Involvement scale has been developed as a means of measuring tool for differentiating heavy adolescent drug users to the less involved. This indicates that the issue of substance abuse among adolescents is of concern to the society at large and there exists a need to address this issue. Perhaps an analysis of two human development theories may form an understanding of the developmental elements which may influence substance use among adolescents. Among such theories is the social learning theory and Ericksons theory of identity development. These theories have been used in numerous studies aimed at creating an understanding of human behaviors in different levels of development.

Erickson identifies various factors involved in the search of identity by an adolescent. Adolescents are seen to experience issues of mistrust especially when they have been subject to childhood tendencies of the lack of need satisfaction. Continued trends of dissatisfaction amount to issues of mistrust among adolescents. Another factor pointed out by Erickson is shame and doubt in adolescents who are trying to find their place in the world. As they seek to establish their autonomy away from their caregivers, they are conflicted and self conscious of their childhood experiences and often wonder what role they play in the creation of an identity. Identity confusion may arise when adolescents become confused on their individual roles in the society. It is during such times when they are likely to develop false identities which often involve close affiliations with peers. Substance abuse can be initiated at the time of identity confusion as individuals are more prone to conformity.

The social learning theory is also highly influential in explaining adolescent behaviors. Deviant behaviors observed in adolescents are said to be learned from societal constructs. The research study illustrated by Lee (2004), indicates that levels of substance abuse are directly associated with such social learning variables like gender, social class, age family structure and community size. Gender differences in relation to males and females likelihoods of engaging in deviant behaviors arise as a result of the societal constructs which are involved in the development of adolescents. Teenage girls are often more restricted by their parents and the overall society and are less likely to engage in risky behaviors. However, male adolescents are exposed to a patriarchal system which exposes them to substance abuse behaviors. Low class societies may prompt the conformity to risky behaviors as adolescents search for economic means for meeting their individual needs. On the other hand, the presence of high economic capabilities provides adolescents with opportunities to engage in legitimate development projects. Family structure variables used in determining the likelihood of substance abuse are two parents, single parent and no parent families. Adolescents in two parents households are better placed than the rest who may not have available role models to guide and nurture good behaviors in them. Also, larger communities indicate high likelihoods of adolescents engaging in illicit drug use.

In the study analyzed by Lee (2004) they used the variables of gender, age and socioeconomic status in determining substance abuse among adolescents. Social learning variables used included differential peer associations which indicated the amounts of time the adolescents had associated with peers who used illicit drugs. Another variable was differential reinforcement which indicated whether adolescents perceive the use of drugs as either positive or negative. Also, a large aspect of the social learning theory which is the modeling technique emphasized by Bandura is measured in terms of imitation variables. Adolescents were expected to indicate whether they had observed other individuals using substances. The findings of this research showed a significant relationship between the learning variables and substance abuse among adolescents. However, the age variable resulted to more substantial correlations unlike the socioeconomic and family structures. For such substances like alcohol and cigarettes, socioeconomic factors do not seem to be highly influential but only in such substances like marijuana. Because the adolescents used in the study mainly came from two parents families, this variation was not indicative of substance abuse potentials. Nonetheless, it was evident that adolescents normally adapt behaviors from particular models in their lives. Adolescents who have grown up in households where substance abuse is common are likely to take up the behavior.

Botvin et al (1999) also reflects the social learning components of social skills, competence and drug refusal efficacy as predictors of adolescents use of alcohol. Most prevention programs for drug abuse emphasize the importance of social and personal competence. Banduras social learning theory also underpins the role played by competence, refusal efficacy in behaviors. Self efficacy is founded on the personal confidence and ability to take control of an individuals life which normally develops over time. The development of such a motivational framework implies the capacity to adapt social competence skills. These skills allow adolescents to manage their conflicts, reduce stress levels and control any negative influences which may lead them to substance abuse.

Adolescent delinquency which includes substance abuse is caused by among many other factors transitional pressures and urban disorganizations. As Ausubel (2002) asserts that delinquency is a form of aggressive response which is highly observed in adolescents. Most adolescents have not yet developed effective problem solving mechanisms and when faced with conflicts they end up feeling frustrated. This frustration results to aggressive retaliatory behaviors like the use of illicit drug use. It is commonplace to see adolescents engaging in drug use because they have hostile relationships with their parents, facing academic difficulties or even relationship problems.

Another element which encourages aggressiveness is the thrill seeking nature of adolescents. Their desires to experiment develop into reckless behaviors such as the use of drugs. Furthermore, this aggressive behavior is aggravated by the presence of peer culture among adolescents. Peer groups are very influential and a large number of adolescent substance users are initiated into the habits through peer groups. Todays society includes disorganized urban centers which also fuel the aggressiveness of adolescents. In neighborhoods which are socioeconomically deprived, adolescents results to deviant behaviors for survival and they end up taking drugs so as to escape their cruel reality.

These factors are further verified in Kilpatrick et al (2008) in a study conducted among adolescents seeking treatment for substance abuse. A majority cited drug or alcohol use as a form of releasing social pressures or just a consequence of experimental curiosity. Other reasons included peer influence, a desire to gain acceptance, popularity and the fear of the implications of refusing to take drugs. Parental influences and the use of drugs as a mode of coping with difficulties were also identified by the adolescents.

Substance abuse among adolescents amounts to very dismal effects. The ramifications are not only both social and economical. Mortality is one adverse effect of substance abuse by adolescents especially as a result of motor vehicle accidents. Winters () indicates that 2.5 million adolescents often drive under the influence of alcohol and this amounts to many injuries and fatalities. Adolescents who are drug users are highly prone to sexually risky behavior and result to acquiring sexually transmitted disorders. In fact, a positive relationship between alcohol use and sexually risky behaviors among adolescents has been established. This is because alcohol normally causes disorientation when used excessively and thus limiting their capacity to make rational decisions in regard to the use of protection.

Kim et al (2010) provides evidence which indicates that substance abuse and sexual behaviors were linked to suicidal attempts and ideation among adolescents. The study was conducted among adolescents in Korea. The concerns raised were of the rising suicidal rates among adolescents and their direct relationship with early use of drugs, alcohol and engaging in sexual behaviors. It was indicated that Korean adolescents often start at drinking and smoking at the ages of twelve in 2006 studies. Variables used were suicidal ideation and suicidal attempts. The results indicated that there was a significant association between high likelihoods of suicide attempts, ideations and alcohol drinking, smoking and sexual behaviors. These studies indicate the adverse effects of substance abuse among adolescents.

Another effect is the prevalence of delinquent and criminal behaviors. Substance abuse among adolescents is strongly associated with misconduct behaviors. Individuals joining juvenile facilities have been seen to have substance abuse behaviors and in the reverse substance abuse adolescents have been at one time or the other involved in criminal behaviors. Developmental problems among adolescents have been attributed to substance abuse. It becomes difficult for adolescents to engage in normal tasks like dating, establishing careers, building good personal relationships and marriage. This is mainly because substance abuse impairs their development of self identity which often results to both psychological and social problems. As adolescents become deeply indulged in their drug use they develop false self images.

There are many prevention and treatment programs developed for the use in adolescent substance abuse.  Colby et al (2001) presents an integrative therapy model which included the use of both family and behavioral therapy. This intervention model is structures for outpatient, office based therapy for specific periods of time with regard to different individuals. This integrative mode is predicted to be highly effective with respect to empirical findings which support its use. Ideally, cognitive behavioral therapy involves the assumption that substance abuse among adolescents is easily understood in relation to causation and consequential factors. On the other hand, family therapy presumes that adolescents use of drugs is in response to problems existing in families. This model recognizes that substance use behaviors among adolescents are influenced by many factors which often occur under particular context. Furthermore, this therapy model aims at addressing individual relations of substance abuse in adolescents and also eliminates risk factors which are found in family constructs.

Motivation is a great component of effective intervention programs. Without the desire for change and development of desirable skills and behaviors, substance abuse adolescents are not capable of terminating their substance abuse. Family therapy sessions involve instilling motivation to both families and the adolescents drug user and this creates a sound foundation for the treatment model. Families are vital support systems for most adolescents and this makes it possible for adolescents to face their issues and affect healing. It is often the case that families stage interventions for their adolescents who have substance abuse problems. From then on it becomes up to them to decide whether they want to seek help or not. When adolescents choose to seek help, they are usually aware of the negative effects of their behaviors and are willing to change. However, not all adolescents are aware of this, which results to their forceful entry into rehabilitative or treatment programs. Under such circumstances counselors must be alert and assertive in instilling motivation for change in such adolescents.

Motivational enhancement therapy is an effective method of counseling unmotivated adolescents identified by Lambie and Sias (2006). Adolescents are very unique and different from all other individuals at different stages of development. As such, counselors should be cautious in their quest to establish working relationships. At this developmental stage they are still establishing their autonomy and self identity and are often mistrustful of others. A slight mistake in the counseling set up may result to rebellion and resistance of adolescents to therapy.

Research on motivational enhancement therapy in substance abuse has provided positive correlations between motivation and effective therapy. This therapy is used to help individuals resolve their conflicts on change. Counselors encourage adolescents to air their views as they listen and offer non accusatory feedback.  Counselors need to recognize their capacities to effect change and thus the need to create conducive environments for the same. Such an environment involves inclusion of empathy, avoiding arguments, supporting self efficacy and engaging adolescents in formulating solutions.

Counselors should aim at helping adolescents gain more control of their problems during counseling sessions. There are various strategies which can be used as it is discussed in Lambie and Sias (2006). Counselors need to be more understanding to adolescent clients and by acknowledging their feelings it becomes easier for them to further explore their problems. Failure for counselors to do this may result in defensive tendencies among adolescents which aggravates the problem and results to ineffectiveness. Apart from the simple acknowledgement of an adolescents issues counselors can use exaggerated reflections of these problems. This prompts the adolescent to reexamine their problems which may include altering their perceptions towards change. However, it is crucial for counselors to take control of such sessions in order to prevent the situations from becoming adverse.

Adolescents often indulge in self piteous attitudes and also blame others as opposed to admitting to their mistakes. Such attitudes may prove to be barriers in the counseling process and it is up to the counselor to guide the adolescents away from such barriers. Shifting focus to other areas where the adolescent feels positive and comfortable will foster better conditions for therapy. Adolescents need to be empowered and made aware of their abilities to control and choose their behaviors. Empowerment is often a difficult venture which should be trod carefully.  A counseling approach which incorporates the unique attributes of adolescents is the most effective.

Ethnicity and cultural identity is a highly influential factor for substance abuse among adolescents and these aspects must be incorporated in counseling strategies. Kulis et al (2002) indicates that adolescents with a high sense of ethnic pride and feel obliged to follow cultural rules against drug use do not engage in substance abuse. American Indian youths have been observed to engage in high levels of substance abuse in comparison to other ethnicities especially white American adolescents. This has been attributed to stress related factors which are prompted by the ethnic groups relations with other American cultures. Feelings of distance and alienations from other cultures may contribute to American Indian adolescents engaging in deviant behaviors. Their conflicts emanate from exposure to different cultural settings which blur their belief systems and norms. Following this, it is possible for them to change their attitudes and behaviors.

Ethnic identity among American Indians was found to influence substance abuse behaviors through the use of preventive drug norms. The adherence to such cultural identity is seen as an enhancement of personal confidence, and abilities to resist substance abuse. This study created the implications for establishing strict cultural identity norms among adolescents as a way of preventing substance abuse. Alternatively, adolescents should be encouraged to develop identities and affiliations with individuals with positive behaviors.

In relation to counseling, counselors must develop strategies which are culturally specific and which incorporate cultural acceptance. Empathy as a major component for counseling entails the counselors ability to understand the adolescents culture, values, beliefs and customs. With this in mind, the counselor is at a position to address any cultural factors which may have contributed to the substance abuse. In addition, the same could be used in creating therapy approaches which will be beneficial to the specific clients. Furthermore, group counseling which emphasizes cultural interactions and identification can be useful in helping adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds.

There are certain cultures whose substance abuse prevalence rates are considered high. Such ethnicities like African American cultures are often associated with high drug use rates which are often necessitated by both socioeconomic issues and high crime rate neighborhoods. Counseling adolescents from such a background would involve addressing all these culture specific factors including creating intervention methods which encompass both individuals and the community at large. Addressing substance abuse among adolescents can be effectively alienated from a community perspective with focus on creating positive role models for adolescents.

From the above discussion the problem of substance abuse among adolescents has been addressed. With high prevalence rates for substance abuse among adolescents the issues has become crucial to the society at large. Causation factors illustrated include, identity crises, peer influence, relationship problems and increased curiosity. Substance abuse among adolescents has negative consequences like mortality, sexually risky behaviors and impeded development problems. It is therefore vital to establish preventive programs in the communities and focus on developing positive behaviors among adolescents. Future research should focus on the establishment of more preventive programs and determining the effectiveness of the existing ones with respect to influences of culture, age, gender and sexual orientation differences.