The Connection between Child Abuse and Depression
The purpose of the research done in the first article by Harkness, Bruce, and Lumley (2006) was to examine the effect of childhood abuse andor neglect on lowering the threshold of stress before the onset of depression in adolescence. The hypothesis was that among depressed adolescents, a previous history of childhood abuse and neglect would be connected to a lower level of stressor needed to cause the onset of depression.
Participants were 103 adolescents from a middle sized town in Ontario, Canada. Reflecting the racial makeup of the area, 98 of the participants were white and 2 were Asian or Hispanic. The depressed adolescents were referred by community agencies the only requirement was the participants were in a current bout of depression. The control participants were from local high schools and not suffering from depression.
The results confirmed the hypothesis that among depressed adolescents, a previous history of childhood abuse and neglect was connected to a lower level of stressor needed to cause the onset of depression. Results showed that adolescents with childhood abuseneglect had a lower severity of life events before the first depressive onset compared to adolescents without child abuse.
There were possible issues that could have affected the results. This study consisted more of depressed girls than boys, but other research cites that abuse has a more pathological effect on boys. This suggests future studies should include more boys, especially in the depressed group. The participants were volunteers, so it is possible the sample was not a true representation of depressed adolescents. Finally, the reports of abuse were from the participants own memories, which could have caused the participants to remember the past in a more negative light.
The second article considers the ability of depressed people to recall positive and negative life memories, such as the abuse discussed in Harkness et al (2006). The hypothesis was depressed patients would report more negative experiences and recall negative experiences more quickly. They would also recall more generalized memories.
To test this theory, Kurken and Brewin (1995), compared the memory of two groups of depressed participants. They believe depressed patients who suffered abuse would report more intrusive memories and more of a negative severity of memories.
Participants were depressed women recruited from various sources, totaling 33 people in all. The next group was participants thought to be abused, of 58 only 2 refused. All of these volunteers were in a major depressive episode.
The results supported the hypothesis depressed patients would report more negative experiences, would recall negative experiences more quickly, and would recall more generalized memories. Participants who retrieved inappropriately generalized memories were significantly related to reports of certain events of abuse and high amounts of avoidance of memories of abuse. However, a link between early abuse and latency to recall a negative autobiography was not supported.
A problem with the study was it represented a nonrandom sample a purer result would come from a more representative sample. Also, Kurken and Brewin had a very definite definition of abuse and another interpretation could have changed the results. Finally, the study was unable to rule out the influence of such variables as prior episodes of depression, more suicide issues, and terrible parenting.
The third article considered the link between childhood abuse and such issues as depression, anxiety, and post traumatic stress syndrome. The hypothesis of this study by Boney-McCoy and Finklehor (1996), considered if being a victim affects the person, victims would show more symptoms than the non-victims. Also, due to the influence prior issues and family environment has on being a victim, when these facts were taken into account, would they reduce the simple association between being an abuse victim and illness. This relates back to the research done by Harkness et al (2006), which proved the connection between abuse and mental illness.
The data for the study came from the National Youth Victimization Prevention Study. Data was collected by a two-wave random digit dial telephone survey of a geographically stratified group of young people and their caretakers. The first wave (T1) had 88 participation with adults and 82 of kids. On recall, (T2) 520 (26) were unavailable, 360 not located and 160 refused.
The findings advanced the idea there is a causal link between being a victim and psychological distress. They also supported the hypothesis child abuse has an independent affect on future illness. The studys longitudinal, prospective design considered prior issues and prior abuse characteristics of the childs family and community environment. Abuse in the time between T1 and T2 was connected with post-traumatic stress and depression.
There were possible limits to the study. Some children might not have reported abuse, lessening the effect of the study. There was not an extensive measure of illnesses or testing of a wide range of potential responses to abuse. Many of the acts were mild and did not lead to life threatening terror, which might have weakened the results. Finally, there was not a strong attempt to control for possible other connects between abuse and symptoms.
The fourth article explored how the negative effects of childhood abuse continued into adulthood. Yet, despite child abuses negative effects, some resiliency due to personal and social stress resistance resources.
The hypothesis of the research done by Hotfoll et al (2002), was four fold. The first part was adult women who tell of a great amount of sexual or physical-emotional abuse in childhood would have more depression, anger, more sexual contact with riskier partners, and more STDs. Second, women who reported both types abuse, physical-emotional and sexual, would have a greater risk of emotional distress and sexual risk compared with women who only endured one type of abuse. Third, women who reported more personal mastery and who had a strong support system would have less emotional distress and less sexual risk than those who did not. Finally, due to a strong sense of community among Native Americans culture, social support would have a greater effect than mastery on emotional and sexual risk.
The participants were 160 Native American women who were recruited at community centers. They were unmarried women ages 16-29.
The results supported physical-emotional abuse had a greater impact on emotional distress than sexual abuse. Women who were abused either way had an increased risk of HIV, but physical-emotional abuse played a stronger role. Psychosocial resources were connected to better emotional outcomes and less AIDS risk. The communal culture of the Native Americans resulted in a larger impact of social support over mastery.
The limits of the study included a few things. One issue was self-report, which could have been inaccurate. Also, the women were volunteers and might not be a true sample of the Reservation population. Finally, the participants were all Native Americans and could differ from the non- Native American population.
The fifth article by Yama et al (1993), considered how victims responded to abuse stressors, with some kids being more resilient. The hypothesis questioned if the connection between sexual abuse, family dysfunction, and mental illness could be proven in regression. Also, could current levels of anxiety and depression, along with perception of family environment, differ if the abuse was inside or outside the family This study relates back to the study by Boney-McCoy et al (1996), which also proved the importance of family on such issues as depression and anxiety.
Female volunteers from an Introduction to Psychology class were sought. Finally, 46 women were in the sexual abuse group and 93 more in the control group.
The results stated no differences found between intra and extra familial sex abuse in affecting family environment or symptoms of anxiety and depression. The main goal was to clarify the ways family environment affected the impact of childhood sexual abuse. High family conflict, less emphasis on rules, and high cohesiveness, along with sex abuse, puts victims at a greater risk for depression.
There were a few limits. Retrospective information about family environment could be distorted by reporters. Also, current depression and anxiety could have distorted the view of family. This issue also affects the self-report of sex abuse.
The sixth article reviewed an experiment which was designed by Sternberg et al (1993), to identify the distinctive effects of experiencing child abuse. The hypothesis is two fold. First, children who both witness abuse and are victims themselves would have the most externalizing (acting out) and internalizing (stress turned inward) because they witnessed two forms of violence. Secondly, children who were physically abused would have more behavioral problems and depression than just observers. Like Yama et al (1993), this study focuses on the impact of family environment.
The study consisted of 110 children (61 boys and 49 girls), between 8-12 yrs old and their parents. They were recruited through social workers from the Department of Family Services in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. The families were lower class, two-parent Jewish households. They were divided into four groups. Group 1 were participants who had been abused, Group 2 were participants who had witnessed spouse abuse, Group 3 had suffered both abuse and witnessing abuse, and Group 4 was the control who had not experienced either.
The results showed victims and abuse witnesses were more likely than others to have depression and internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems. Abused children were more at risk for clinical depression which is connected to suicidal ideals and attempted suicide. Witnessing abuse, however, was not as affecting as being a victim.
The limits to this study were there was little agreement between children and parents. Also, different types of abuse, especially sexual abuse, could affect children differently, so another study might not group all types of abuse together.
The final study by Lizardi, et al (1995), dealt with the topic of dysthymia which is chronic depression with mild to moderate symptoms beginning in childhood and adolescence. The hypothesis presented two questions for the research to answer. First, was early-onset dysthymia connected with disturbed home environment Secondly, did adverse childhood experiences explain the differences in dysthymia and major depression
The participants consisted of 97 outpatients with early-onset dysthymia, 45 outpatients with nonchronic major depression, and 45 with no depression. The early-onset group and major depression group were found from admissions to State University of New York Stony Brook and the control group from random calling to find participants who lived in the same areas as the other two groups.
The results showed patients with early-onset dysthymia had significantly more physical and sexual abuse, a poorer relationship with parents, less parental care, and more overprotecting parenting than the control group. When compared with the majorly depressed group, there were only three significant differences. The early-onset group had a poorer quality relationship with father, more sexual abuse, and more overprotective mothers.
There were a few limits to the research. One issue was patients in the early-onset dysthymia group were significantly more depressed than the major depression group, which could have affected the results. The retrospective reports could be biased in various ways which could have changed the outcomes just like in the study by Yama et al (1993). The reports of bad home life with the early-onset group could have been due to parental psychopathy, a factor not considered in the research. Finally, the illness of the early-onset group could have changed how they reported their childhood.
All the studies mentioned above confirm the beginning statement, child abuse has a direct, significant effect on major mental illnesses starting in childhood and continuing into adulthood. Also, logically, usually the worse the abuse the worse the following mental issues. Future research needs to take this information and apply it to the issue of treatment. Now there is proof of the connection between child abuse and mental issues such as depression, future work can focus on how to help these sufferers who have had a double dose of hardship in their lives.
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