Psychology

Behaviorism is a theory which is sometimes called Learning Perspective, and it focuses on the objectively observable behaviors of both animals and human beings. The theory overlooks mental activities. According to behaviorists, learning is just but a process of acquiring new behavior. According to this philosophy of psychology, everything done, either by acting, thinking or feeling should be counted as behavior.  They point out that, both observable and non-observable processes (mental) should be scientifically explained though without any internal hypothesis. Various behaviorists have different approaches to behavior still. For instance, Skinners approach is molecular which is controversial to Tolmans Molar approach. This article focuses on Edward Chace Tolmans theory of behaviorism and his contribution as well as what influenced him to come up with the theory.

Life and Inspiration
Edward Tolman is an American cognitive behaviorism theorist. He is remembered for having greatly contributed to the field of psychology especially in the sector of motivation and learning. Born in Newton in 1886, he grew up and schooled there. His father a business man expected him and his elder brother to join him in business once they were out of school but Tolman decided to pursue his career contrary to their fathers wish. He pursued philosophy and psychology through the inspiration of William James writings. In the process of learning, he discovered that his interest was more rooted in psychology than philosophy and so he made up his mind to go for it. After building up his career there is much contribution that is recorded about him in the field of psychology.  While in school at Harvard, he studied ethics as one of his subjects and the subject of motivation was an inspiration to him. After his studies in Harvard, he went ahead for his Ph. D in German and it is here that he got introduced to Gestalt psychology as he was taught and also through readings of Koffka. After the summer season, he went back to Harvard where he studied in the laboratory under Hugo Munsterberg who was also an inspiration to him. He later on went back to study Gestalt psychology which formed the basis of his theory (Hergenhan. 2005, p. 457). This approach opposed the molecular approach to behavior and accepted Molar approach which he argued would give an individual a chance to study phenomenological experience. This refers to studying the physical to explain the invisible. According to this approach it was argued that it would be very important to concentrate on the whole than to study parts as opposed to those who were suggesting molecular approach (Hergenhan. 2005, p. 457). Tolman could not understand how psychology could be defined as the examination and analysis of the conscious and incommunicable elements and this prompted him to come up with his own theory (Hergenman. 2005, p. 427).
                                       
His Theory
Edward came up with a theory which was molar and was in opposition to molecular approach to the study of behavior. He defined it as a way of giving proper definition to behavior in psychology. He did not regard the neural and muscular elements as necessary in his study. In his opinion the molar part of humanity has more influence than the molecular in the establishment of human behavior. According to him, molecular basis of behavior was inadequate and reductionism resulted in the loss of psychological level. He is remembered to be the founder of Cognitive Behavior. Edward was not radical in his behaviorist theory as was with B.F. Skinner. His work later on influenced Watsons work and he also used Gestalt psychology when describing nature of holistic as well as insightful learning. The approach consisted of studying human behavior so as to establish what goes on or mental processes in both men and animals. His theory of behavior was greatly influenced by his school, Gestalt psychology where he borrows the pattern idea. These patterns refer to motivation perception and cognition which are regarded to be processes involving identification and interpretation of patterns of stimulation (Hergenman. 2005, p. 428) In addition to identification and interpretation, reactions are also planned and finally executed.  In his concept of behaviorism, he explained that mental processes are defined objectively. He viewed it as necessary for both animals like rats, monkeys as well as human beings. In this, anything that is private to an individual cannot be scrutinized scientifically.

Contributions to psychology
Edwardss contributions to psychology are many. Out of the many, he has some outstanding ones. To begin with are his showing maps in rats. Using examples of rats, he portrayed that they did not only ran from left to right or anyhow but that they used cognitive maps. To prove this argument, he used a maze and always had a habit of running them through it. In his experiment the starting point was A, and he would run the rats to B. The experiment involved directing the rats to get food at B and so they learnt to turn in order to arrive at B. After having learnt the route he used a different direction, C and out of it he still discovered that the rats were using the cognitive map since they did not turn to D.  He illustrated this in his book, the Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. It is through this experiment that he purposed to explain that animals as well as human beings learn facts in their surrounding that could be used in a flexible manner than just learning automatic responses triggered by the world around them. The Cognitive Map is illustrated here below (A2zpsychology.com, 2010).

The concept of cognitive map has been widely applied in the 21st century among scientists who might be ignorant that its purpose was initially to explain the behavior of rats in a maze. His main purpose was to establish a way in which psychology could be used to solve human conflicts thus he wrote a book entitled Drives toward War. He is also remembered as one of the professors in the University of California who refused to sign a loyalty oath which according to him was meant to infringe academic freedom, he is still remembered for this legacy and a n Education and Psychology faculty building was named Tolman Hall in commemoration of his good work. By borrowing his ideas Daniel Kahneman won a Nobel Prize in 2002.

Latent learning is his second contribution which he built from the first one. The first one  showed that rats would be motivated in their movements basing on the rewards they got but still in this second experiment he discovered that even without rewards the rats would still maintain their movements latent learning theory. He used three groups of rats in which one was one that got food immediately, another after three days and the last one after, seven days.  Once the reward was introduced it was evident that the rats increased their pace of movement though despite the absence of rewards they still followed their cognitive maps. Through this experiment, he also related to human beings that many at times they also use latent learning. This was taken up by another theorist called Clark L. Hull who came after him and built on it (A2zpsychology.com, 2010).
   
His third contribution was also founded from the second experiment. He came up with intervening variables. He said that these were determinants of behaviors although they could not be seen. An example is hunger which influences ones behavior once the individual is hungry although no one can touch it nor see it, it is only felt. Behaviorists were then forced to change their model from S-R (Stimulus-Response) to S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response). He finally has also contributed to the use of white rats which is still in use in experiments today. In his experiments he preferred using rats since he viewed humanity as quite unreliable and found the opposite in rats (A2zpsychology.com, 2010).
   
Edward Tolman is still considered as the pioneer of Cognitive psychology. He was a very kind, honest and flexible individual that could accept change and correction. He listened to peoples views and adapted or changed where necessary (Hergenman. 2005, p. 428). His work is still helpful to individuals in psychology. For instance his work of rats in a maze was well explored by Hull. Skinners paper of Are theories of learning necessary made many animal psychologists to focus on the behavior rather than on the internal processes thus majority focused on Tolmans theory. Tolmans ideas began declining in the late 1950s and early 1960s although his achievements were much. Tolmans work paved way for the study of decision theory especially through borrowing ideas of cognitive psychology (A2zpsychology.com, 2010). Every contribution was equally important but more specifically the intervening variables which led to more studies on the measurement of the unseen behaviors has had more influence.
             
He is not only well known for his studies of rats using a maze  but also in  his publication of articles especially like one that he published with Ritchie and Kalish in 1946. Others involve his book, Purpose of Behavior in Animals and Men. Most of these books are being referred by present psychologists in attempt to solve current psychological problems.
         
Unlike the former theorists like structuralism, Talmon focuses on the outside and does not put much consideration on the mental processes. Structuralism being the first school of psychology was focusing on the breakdown of mental processes to more basic elements. The study of such components was being approached by the process of introspection. The similarity that exists between it and behaviorism is that both attempt to explain the process that individuals undergo when they are learning. Functionalism on the other hand also tried to build up in structuralism especially by trying to explain mental processes in a more elaborate manner. The theory focused on the purpose of consciousness as well as behavior. Just like behaviorism, the theory tries to explain why people behave the way they do. Functionalism is recorded to have influenced behaviorism theory. Following his former theorists of behaviorism, Tolman differed with the well known theorist of behaviorism, Watson. He believed that the kind of behavior that Watson was focusing on was the wrong one. He could not understand how he could use the term purpose yet still remain to be a behaviorist.

Conclusion
Psychology generally attempts to explain the behavior of man as well as animals. Tolman through his experiments stood his ground that one could not study behavior by focusing the unseen elements instead he approached from the outside, Molar approach. Former psychologists were an inspiration to him as well as his studies and lectures. The relevance of his work is still important to scientists in this twenty first century who are trying to get solutions to problems.