Psychology

The human being is known to be a complex being whose existence is influenced by diverse spheres both internally and externally. However, even as he exists in planet earth, he faces various challenges that result in shaping his character and behaviour. These challenges are both from within and without his environment. The occurrences of circumstances in his life contribute to the growth and development of his personality. His psychological processes, a vital component of determining his well being, have a direct bearing in one way or another on his lifestyle and general perceptions. Therefore, in order to sculpture his development to fit his existence, several theories have been developed to address issues known to have compromised his peaceful co-existence. These theories have been widely discussed below and are supported by a case study.

The Psycho dynamic Theory
This theory was developed by Sigmund Freud. It is fundamental in the field of psychology as it mainly focuses on personal development and aims to establish the causes of current behaviour as based on past actions both consciously and unconsciously motivated. It further aims to establish that events in the childhood life of a person play a vital role in shaping their lives and therefore builds their character. This theory has been employed to prove that there is more than meets the eye when it comes to analysing certain human behaviours. According to this theory several concepts come into play in the development of certain behaviours and includes childhood experiences, implicit psychological experiences, unconscious motivation, egocentrism as well as defence mechanisms. This theory as put across by Grohol (1998) further focuses on human personality as dependent on three distinctive and integrative parts, that is, the id which involves the biological needs, the superego where society dictates human actions and the ego which is consciousness determined by personal judgements and thoughts.

Freud in his theory believed that the emergence of conflicts in the human life is based on the notion that humans seek to reconcile their biological demands with their social selves. As put by Ray et al (2003), these conflicts occur unconsciously and result in the development of certain behaviours that one is unaware of. As a result, the psycho dynamic therapy mainly focuses on making the unconscious world conscious thus allowing individuals to have better control over conflicts that arise during the reconciliation process.

Stevens behaviour would relate to the above theory in the sense that most of his childhood life was controlled by his parents which establishes the super-ego concept of the theory, whereby he had to be a saint by being dutiful and adhering to the house rules. In order to satisfy his id, which includes hunger, thirst and sex, Steven sneaked out of home to drink, smoke dope and engage in sexual activities. The ego concept in the theory can be related to Stevens actions of having extra marital affairs and lacking the capacity of being sensitive to his partners closeness. These are defence mechanisms, adaptive strategies and reality testing opportunities.

This theory is relevant in counselling to address Stevens problem, the psychodynamic counsellor would focus on Stevens unconscious processes which are evidenced in his present behaviour. The counsellor would initiate an evaluation process with a central issue in focus such as Stevens childhood conflicts this would be relevant in determining the structure and goal of treatment. The psychodynamic therapy therefore aims to balance activities of the id, the ego and the super- ego. All port (1963) supports that the human existence therapy would be essential in dealing with Stevens problem as it emphasises on constructive ways of dealing with everyday challenges. Steven would have an opportunity of analysing his individual experiences that lead to exploration of his personal beliefs and values. Through this therapy, Steven would be able to counter his challenges by questioning limitations of his actions, assumptions and possibilities.

The Cognitive Behavioural Theory
This theory aims to solve problems related to dysfunctional behaviours through a systematic goal- oriented procedure. It recognises that thoughts impact to a large extent the actions of an individual. Its interventions seek to change ones thinking and behaviour through education and reinforcing positive actions. This theory is based on the fact that human beings are susceptible to change by instilling positively through actions and knowledge in their lives. However, even as individuals constantly seek to change their situations, motivation to do the same should be evident. Lack of this motivation shows lack of commitment to change their behaviours. This can be seen through failure to complete relevant tasks assigned to them.

Furthermore, in this theory, Nelson-Jones (2005) argues that there is a great need to consider and distinguish priorities during therapy which plays a significant role in drawing a line between critical issues and those that are minor. He also supports the claim that behavioural therapy is encouraged to enable individuals develop adaptive strategies, that is, coping skills that contribute to solving relationship problems.

The Cognitive Behavioural therapy can be used to address Stevens case as the symptoms of his behaviour are noticeable to the Counsellor. This is because he is aware that the reasons behind his divorce can be traced from his childhood experiences. The Pure Cognitive Therapy by Aaron Beck focuses on the individuals thought patterns. Here, an individuals perception on situations influences his or her emotional feelings hence changing thoughts results in change in subsequent change in behaviour.

On the other hand, as Correy (2000) emphasizes, Pure Behavioural Therapies such as operational conditioning and classical conditioning focus on change mainly in behavioural change. Some genres of treatment such as Rational Emotional Therapy (RET) focus both in behavioural and cognitive therapy by integrating behaviours, emotions and personal beliefs.

In Stevens case, the Cognitive Behavioural Theory can be recognised from the fact that he is aware of the causes of his current situations as binge drinking, extra-marital sexual relationships over the years, and his incapacity  to be sensitive to his partners needs for closeness. These would therefore become the focal points of evaluation by the Counsellor. In addition, prompting interaction with Steven to assess the assumptions and consequences of his behaviours would result in obtaining viable solutions that would necessitate change in both his thoughts ad behaviours. It is essential to note that this interaction would help impact him positively by emphasizing on positive thinking as he faces lifes challenges.

Several differences can be recognised between the two theories. Firstly, Pure Behavioural Therapy for example Operational Conditioning, a concept in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy does not take into consideration the need for an individual to understand the reason behind them changing. They therefore do not get an understanding of the causes of the symptom while Psychodynamic therapy aims to identify the initial cause of certain behaviours.

Secondly, Cognitive Behavioural Theory addresses specific problems by making one aware that they have them hence its therapy takes a shorter and is less costly as compared to Psycho dynamic therapy which addresses interrelated symptoms and therefore takes a longer time for the individual to recover. Michael (2004) supports this claim fully.

Thirdly, Psychodynamic theory focuses on an individuals behaviour over time hence it is able to recognise the growth and development of certain behaviours and therefore consider therapeutic sessions in proportion to the magnitude of the problem. Cognitive theory is evidence based but does not take into consideration the time scale.

Fourthly, the Cognitive Behavioural Theory is mostly based on an individuals behaviour and thoughts only but fails to recognise the external environment which includes society that is known to shape our actions. This is however instrumentally captured in the Psychodynamic theory mainly in the super ego concept.

Last but not least, the defence mechanism common in humans that is carved out of the unconscious mind  results in driving our actions to certain extents. In Michael and Michael (1997), it is the exit route of what lies within. This according to the Psychodynamic theory needs to be recognised to institute change. It therefore brings out our true inner selves. However, the Cognitive theory fails to address this as it only deals with the seen and not he unseen.
Similarities that exist in the two theories include
Both of them focus on changing individuals behaviours that have developed unconsciously.
Both take into consideration the physical and mental aspects of the human well being. They recognise that these components are mutually interdependent and cannot be separated thus solutions need to incorporate both.
Both of them implore positive ness thus they work towards reducing negative action and thoughts.
Both of them as widely discussed by Holmes (1999) recognise that change starts and ends with the individual, it cannot be entirely developed from the outside environment.
Both recognise that individual differences exist and are not idiosyncrasies. They work towards developing dimensions applicable to all in their therapies while at the same time address relevant issues unique to each individual. Eysenck (1989) discusses that the theory of personality is moulded by extraversion, the external environment, that is, neuroticism and psychoticism. This then differentiates individuals and solidifies the need to consider their situations differently.

      As illustrated by Maxwell, (2008) both theories stress on the need for interaction between the Counsellor and the client. This provides a well founded and agreed upon solution that would address in detail the clients needs.

Self evaluation is an important component employed by both theories. Elizabeth, H and Michael, (1997) use this term in their book Training Counselling Supervisors Strategies to relate to the fact that during therapy individuals generally evaluate themselves in a negative and critical sense which brings out their low self esteem. This then is the beginning of the healing process as individuals let out their inner selves creating a favourable environment for long lasting solutions.

From the above information, it is essential to note that the Psycho dynamic would be a better theory in addressing Stevens situation. First of all, Steven has grown with the same behaviours since his teenage life and the consequences of his actions have resulted in him being separated from his wife. Secondly, the choice to get married was from his parents which show that his conscience was mainly from society.

His ego was compromised by the fact that he felt under pressure to satisfy his parents. He therefore developed defence mechanisms to cope with the pressure by sneaking out of home and engaging in unwanted behaviour. As a result, his marital life has been adversely affected as he was driven by the urge to satisfy his wants. As his behaviours have develop over time there is need to pay attention to the symptoms of his actions for concrete solutions to be found.

In Summary, the Psycho dynamic theory takes into account an individuals actions by addressing the initial symptom to their current behaviour hence tackling the problem wholesomely. The Cognitive Behavioural Theory focuses on making an individual aware of their behaviour and integrates thoughts and actions to instil positive behaviour to individuals facing diverse challenges. It aims to change ones faulty thinking by educating them and reinforcing positive personal experiences leading to vital changes in their coping strategies.

The subsistence of recovered repressed memories has not been widely accepted by majority of the psychologists neither explicitly verified to exist. Skeptics have presented convincing and forceful arguments in this regard. According to some extreme skeptical claims, no convincing scientific support exists for the philosophy of repressed or recovered memory. They further argued that no confirm cases of repressed memories has yet been reported. According to a research report, there must be a distinction between impulsively recovered memory and recovered memories in therapy during suggestions.

The author, in the article, has argued that repressed recovered memory can be considered legitimate. He is of the view that false memories do occur. The controversy regarding false memory should be changed from the biased debate to a scientific inquiry. The author in his text raised a question that whether the uncorroborated repressed memory proofs should be considered reliable while handling the legal actions and proceedings in criminal matter

    Scholars have argued a number of times that the concept of repression is more of a rumor which has not been supported and being tied to other Freudian perceptions and tentative method.

Therefore, scientific society which believes in logical reasoning and proven case studies has rejected the idea of repression on the grounds of being unproven. However, the idea has not been fully rejected. It has been accepted by those logically oriented psychoanalysts who support their viewpoint on the basis of unreliable reports and proven case studies. (Ofshe  Watters, 1993)

After some research on recovered repressed memory, psychologists came to the conclusion that it is not a naturally occurring phenomenon rather it is a culture-bounded disorder.

Despite the fact that love is regarded as a universal experience, theres no known standard definition that can incorporate all the aspects of love. Freuds postulations portray love as an aim or objective-inhibited libido. In this perception, love is described as libido where the sexual feelings have been concealed due to the forbidden means of their fulfillment.

The many research methods and theories used by Freud have always drawn controversies from various quarters since most of his research findings were drawn from self analysis. Such kind of analysis had concealed sources and could be manipulated in his favor. However, his ideas and concepts have over the years had a remarkable impact in psychoanalysis since most psychotherapists still refer to his ideologies.

Freuds interests in the concept of love developed after he started analyzing his relationship with his parents. He recollected his warm relationship with his mother who according to him was attractive and protective. Freuds relationship to his father was rather weak and characterized by several cases of hostility and jealousness. This according to Freud in his Oedipus complex theory was a common event in early childhood development. From Freuds perception, human beings are born with some varying proportions of desires and interests. During their development, they become obsessed with different and particular objects for pleasure. By way of example, infants in their oral stage derive their pleasure in nursing, followed by the anal stage of toddlers whose pleasure is derived from evacuating their bowels. During the phallic stage, humans derive their individual pleasures from the attractions among opposite sexes (Dutton, 1974, p.511).

The primary objective of this post is to discuss Sigmund Freuds postulations and theories on the development of love concepts. In an attempt to bring out the main subject of the paper, his perceptions on love will be clearly explained. This paper shall further discuss the Freudian psychosexual development model and attempt to explain how this model influences his perception on the development of love.

Freuds Concept of Love
Freud perceived love in four distinct ways. His first perception portrayed love as a synthesis of sexuality with tenderness andor affection. He also regarded love as a form of libidinal power usually aim inhibited and used for cultural development tasks and usually inclined to its original intent of a love object. Love according to Freud was seen as lifes natural feeling or Eros which were the driving force behind all humanity including any aggressive andor death instincts.

In the preliminary case in which Freud speaks of affection and love, he tries to associate the origins of love in the relationship that a lactating mother develops with its newborn childs sexuality. During the lactation process, the infant kids according to Freud apparently reach a confluence of satiation that simultaneously satisfies the kids sensuality and hunger. This experience defines the mother as the childs first source of sustenance and sexual love and affection object. Freud asserts that any further child growth and development phases, i.e. from infancy to puberty, are defined and driven by the practically impossible efforts to bring back together these two love aspects (Freud, 1905).

Freuds second portrayal of love is that of libido (a measurable form of energy needed for basic metabolic reactions in humans). Libido in this perspective attempts to hold and maintain together the various segments of living substances.

In as much as the inclusion of Eros in the Freuds love concepts and theories sound controversial, its inclusion is allegedly based on the natural inborn physical  affectional inconsistencies in the natural way of sexual development. To further defend his arguments, Sigmund Freud postulated that the prevailing phenomenon of egotism, narcissism and self-love could only be explained in terms of the libidos interminably unanswered quest for a union with the affectionate and the sensual. The fact of self centeredness clearly demanded the presence of powerful personality instincts coupled with the love instinct. Freud attempts to explain the two sets of instinct in using sexuality whereby he points out that the personality instinct often turns inwards and manifests itself as a sex object whereas the love instinct seeks fulfillment from other items and objects.

The otherwise engorged ideology of libido by Freud at this stage was referred to as Eros and had drawn major similarities to Platos original theory which uses the analogy between Eros and biological processes. In this analogy, Eros was kind of biological processes deriving their driving forces from chemically induced libido energy.

From Freuds individual perception, ego and personality is not in born in human beings. Personality often develops during the early childhood development phase. This development is derived from the preliminary disruption of narcissism resulting from the formation of the ultimate personality with a greater influence outside forces, usually parental expectations and proscriptions. Achieving the demands of the idyllic ego is regarded as a primary basis for libidinal fulfillment for the self-personality and ego

The fourth concept of love as depicted in the Freudian theories entails yet another controversial argument relating love and hatred presumably from the libido driving forces behind all humanity including any aggressive andor death instincts Eros. In later research findings, Sigmund Freud reluctantly incorporated in his theories, an instinct of antagonism and aggression in humans since it had equal weight to the love instinct. He argued that since humans allegedly emerged from inorganic substances, they were expected to return to their origins at some stage. In Freuds model, all forms of life are defined by the everlasting struggle between the desire to live, and the natural forces that result in death so as to sustain the species (Santas, 1989, p.254).

During the development of the ego, libido is directed to outward objects in a logical sequence. Libido in this case is first directed to the mother during the earliest development stage, subsequently to other family members, neighbors, family friends and lastly to other objects.

This sequence of events in turn eliminates egotism which according to Freuds love concepts is replaced by the attraction and love derived from other objects. Self- concept revolving around self pride, esteem, love for others and self confidence is derived from either of these factors. The factors include the satisfaction or reward obtained when one loves you back, the remainder of ones original primary egotism which does not fully disappear during the developmental stages and finally the satisfaction of the several fantasies concerning ones egos for instance the sense of virtuousness (Dutton, 1974, p.516).

Despite some criticism, Sigmund Freud and his followers agreed to identify in Eros and the general concept of the love of humankind by describing the model of universal love as the main motivating factor and realizable in ideal cases. According to his theories, any society that promotes the love instinct to prevail without any self-regulation and limits had the risk of simultaneously nurturing hatred in the community.

Cultural parochialism had several impacts on Freuds theories and love concepts. This impact was most pronounced in the infringement of women rights. Freud was authoritarian and paternalistic in the extreme, just like many other psychoanalysts of his time. His excessive obsession with sex made him to make various false diagnoses of his patients, often referring them as coitus interruptus and failures on the part of women (Dutton, 1974, p.510). Freuds controversial perception of libido was less a human presumption than a firmly male one. His arguments strongly suggested that the limitless amount of mens mental energy required him to successfully carry out his duties by dispensing his libido in a manner that is advantageous to him. According to his love concepts, whatever activities that men indulge for cultural purposes are wholly or partially derived from their own sexuality and women (Dutton, 1974, p. 514).

The Strong Maternal Link
The strong love between any mother and his child has always been a difficult subject to understand over the years. The relevance of this bond is still rhetoric to many psychologists who are still carrying out researches in order to internalize and have a better understanding of the subject. Sigmund Freud strongly considered the mother-child link as the springboard to all possible future relationships the child was to encounter. Freud asserted that children often developed strong attachments with their mothers since they are regarded as the ultimate source of food to children at this early stage.

In his love theories, children, especially boys want to gratify their individual sexual desires through their mother who had initially been considered as the major love object. With time, the child accepts the fact that its ideas were practically impossible and against the norms of the society. It therefore grows to become an adult and looks for another potential figure to meet this need. It is from this basis that future relationships are founded and modeled to substitute the initial mother child-bond, or love.
According to Freuds postulations, children who lost their mothers at birth or at a tender age and immediately got adopted had an opportunity to live a normal life. This was contrary to those brought up in orphanages since they ended up being socially maladjusted. This, according to Freud (1905) is attributed to the fact that children at birth have not mentally grown to identify their natural parents and thus could easily adjust to their adopted families.

From these arguments, children who are securely attached to their mothers may show some distress in the absence of their mothers but could still socialize and interact with strangers since they were assured of motherly comfort. This behavior directly contradicts those exhibited by children with weak maternal bonds andor love. The maternal attachment and love therefore plays a big role in the childs future relationships and influences many other aspects such as self esteem, confidence, altruism, classroom behavior and sociability.

Freuds Psychosexual Development Model
Freuds theories and concepts often had scientific models for analyzing various subjects. His main interest was the sexual desire which he identified with the appetites, instincts, and formative drives that had the overall effect of influencing ones personality and beliefs. This model is used to analyze the libido development during the various stages of growth based on average ages (Felluga, 2002).

The Oral PhaseLess than two years old
At this critical developmental phase, all the childs desires according to Sigmund Freud revolve around the lips and the mouth for nourishment. Anything that a child in this age bracket can get hold on using hisher hands is often directed to the mouth. This phase declares the mother as the kids first love object since at this stage, the kid is first exposed to its mothers breast (Felluga, 2002).
The displacement from this earlier object of love (i.e. the breast) often manifests itself in other habits such as thumb-sucking which might in this case be regarded as the second object of love and attraction to the child. At this stage, a second figure, usually the father is introduced into the childs life (Felluga, 2002). This according to Freuds Oedipus complex theory brings about some internal conflicts within the children since they usually tend to be possessive of their mothers and secretly want their fathers out of their lives.

The Age Bracket of Two to Four
This phase is also referred to as the sadistic-anal phase and is usually split between the passive impulse which is basically the love of gazing and the active impulse which is characterized by the impulse to mastery. If not checked, this impulse may develop into cruelty (Felluga, 1992). During this phase, the child usually shifts to a different object of love usually the kids contentment in defecation. This, according to Freud, is interlinked with the childs pleasure in bringing forth something of its own. This kind of pleasure is often shifted to child-bearing in women (Felluga, 2002).

The Phallic Phase Four to Seven years old
During this developmental phase, Freud argues that the penis or clitoris becomes the main centre of attraction and object of love to the developing children. Usually, they are captivated by the urination process which the might regard as pleasurable, in its retention or expulsion (Dutton, 1974, p.515). At this stage, the childs main fear is the trauma of castration as portrayed in the Oedipus complex (Felluga, 2002).

At around the age of five or six, Freud argues that the boys association and love for their mothers usually takes sexual connotations and may regard his father as a competitor or rival, all targeting the mothers love. Since the father is often regarded as an extremely powerful image in the family, the kid is forced to copy some of his fathers features and character and tries to identify with him (Freud, 1905).

In addition, the childs ego at this stage becomes accustomed to controlling the pleasure principles and follows the realities of the prevailing circumstances. During this age bracket, the child develops a super ego which helps him to understand the parental function that is in the long run manifested in the child conscience.

Age Bracket of 7-12
This according to Freud is a dormant stage in the sexual development of the child. At this phase however, much effort is put on either sublimating or repressing the preliminary desires by trying to adopt the realities of the prevailing situations. The developing child at this stage usually tries to establish his or her own independence by slowly freeing himself from total parental care (Freud, 1905). Those who were initially close to their mothers may work on reestablishing their paternal relationships by overcoming their childhood narcissism and in turn learn to love and appreciate others (Felluga, 2002).

Thirteen years and above
The preceding development stage allows the child to enter adolescence which is the ultimate genital phase. Here, the main object(s) of love are members from the opposite sex. Those over the age of thirteen are usually driven by the unending desires to satisfy their instincts in procreation (Felluga, 2002).

From Freuds psychosexual development models, it can be clearly deduced that he had the difficulties and challenges when it came to incorporating feministic desires into most of his concepts and ideologies. He argued that young ladies were at some point expected to surrender their very first object(s) of love, i.e. the mother as well as her breast and embrace the father as her appropriate object choice (Freud, 1905).

The mothers subsequent and final transformation into heterosexual femininity, culminating in child bearing usually contradicts her preliminary desires. The child in this case becomes her main centre of attraction and object of love (Felluga, 2002)

Understanding of Sigmund Freuds ideologies and theories on love requires a proper internalization and evaluation of the various philosophical frameworks that either motivated andor demoralized him during his various researches. His instinct theory was regarded as an analogy to the Darwinism extended to cultural and psycho-social affairs. His theories have however faced much criticism and have flawed in many aspects.  Despite this, many psychoanalysts have successfully employed his ideas when dealing with psychiatric cases and psychotherapy.

Freuds concepts of objective-inhibited libido were extensively founded on his preliminary research findings on sexuality and sexual development. Sigmund Freud extensively believed that sexual growth and development started during the infancy stage and ended when the person in question engaged in sexual activities (Freud, 1905). At this stage, the sexual partner is considered as a substitute love object replacing any other objects associated with love during child growth and development.

The survey was conducted on grassland passerines in summer of year 1995 on the Buffalo Ridge Wind Resource Area that is located in south-west of Minnesota (Leddy et al., 1999). Its aim was to examine the behavioral effect of wind turbines present there on population sizes of highland nesting bird species in Conservative Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands.

The behavior of bird species was examined along forty meter transects that were adjacent to wind turbine strings within three CRP areas and in three CRP areas, where there were no turbines. CRP grasslands of 180-m with no turbines turned out to have a larger population of grassland birds than the 80-meter land with a certain number of turbines. According to calculations, the numbers were 261.0-312.5  males100  ha and 58.2-128.0  malesl00  ha respectively (Leddy et al., 1999).

The human intervention, the turbine loud noise and the physical movement of turbines, when running, were said to be a disturbing factor for these nesting birds. It was recommended that wind turbines should be established within cropland habitats, as these areas hold less population of grassland passerines than those determined in CRP grasslands (Leddy et al., 1999).

Though wind turbines do not increase the death rate in the direct way, the functioning of wind turbines can indirectly have a negative impact on the population of local grassland bird species. The wind turbines also decrease the size of grassland habitats that nature has given to breeding birds (Leddy et al., 1999).

The comparison of the destiny and richness of bird populations on these two territories showed that the number of birds on the grassland of 180-m without turbines was almost same as that observed in CRP land where there were no turbines.  Another study completed in the Netherlands also has shown that turbines prevent waterfowl and wading bird species from using any other appropriate habitat (Winkelman 1990, Pedersen and Poulsen 1991). The mechanism that stopped bird species from using grasslands near turbines were not mentioned.

Proposal for a New Study
 Wind turbines, though a good resource of cost effective energy production, are a nuisance for nesting birds. Our new study will find a new solution. The basic study proposed the placement of wind turbines in the cropland region instead of CRP grasslands. Cropland will support lower densities of grassland passerines (Leddy et al., 1999).

Little research has been carried out to study the habitat impact of wind turbines on the nesting birds. Most researches deal with short and long-term disturbances, but, occasionally, there are studies on the indirect impact. We must consider the post-construction impact on the habitat of birds. Wind turbines must not produce much noise.
Independent and dependent variables
Independent variables include the following a field, an area, a cropland.
Dependent variables include the following the number of birds, the number of turbines, the noise of turbines.
Design of the study

The design of the study proposes the usage of alternative sources of energy in places, where this is possible, as well as the use of low noise turbines. On certain croplands new turbines will be placed and in some places, where alternative sources of energy are used, it will be checked, if the number of birds reduces or not as compared to croplands with old turbines.
Findings of the basic study that can be applied to the social problem
The basic study suggests placing turbines in cropland region. However, in addition to this, we suggest a more suitable technology to be applied, where it is possible, such as the use of solar energy or new turbines with lower noise levels to lessen the interference with the birds habitat.

Potential ethical issues
Wind turbines, though not the cause of direct killing and mortality, they may affect the population of local grassland birds and decrease the habitat and breeding birds in the grassland area. Research has shown that turbines have caused the reduction of the habitat of waterfowls, wading birds and bats in the areas they live, which would have been otherwise a good habitat to develop. The most probable mechanism of preventing birds from inhabiting certain territories are the noise, movement of turbines, human noise, which disturb their environment.

Only recently, the American government passed a bill in Copenhagen regarding the protection of the endangered wildlife species, the harm the overall environment is facing and global warming issues. The considerable threat to the wildlife around the globe is never-ending, despite the countless efforts to preserve it to the maximum.

The cognitive-behavioral model is described in some detail by Corey (2000). Its basic concepts are the linkages between cognition, affective behaviors and emotions. The understanding here is based upon two propositions
Irrational and pathological behaviors are based on a thought process that is distorted
The human mind is capable of restructuring those thought processes in order to lead to more rational and social behaviors (Corey, 2000 338).
    Attached to these propositions are several assumptions
That it is behavior that is the problem and must be changed
That emotions can be learned and unlearned
That behavior is linked comprehensively with thought processes.
That the distorted thought process of the patientclient does not cohere with reality.
Reality is always much better than the thought process that interprets that reality

    All of these form the basic conceptual apparatus of the cognitive school. Therefore, the purpose behind cognitive therapy is the restructuring of the internal, mental process to more carefully and realistically reflect the real world. In the Corey book, the cognitive model is seen as more or less a rationalist and mechanistic model. It seems to want to break down thoughts into their components and see what components are irrational and hence lead to cognate behaviors. Then the thoughts are put back together with rational premises included where before, irrational premises led to irrational conclusions. Hence, thought is made up of well defined ideas, propositions and concepts that are lined together with each other and with behavior. The cognitive model sees thought, behavior and feeling to be a) well defined and quantitative and, b) linked together in one large chain. Once the  bad  parts of the chain are replaced (i.e the client is habituated to think differently), behaviors will change.

    The clients that can benefit from such an approach are those clients who are professionals, those who have a live that is worth living but insist that it is not. This writer refuses to believe that the cognitive model works for those whose lives are miserable. In this case, their depression (or whatever the ailment) is not irrational, but a faithful reflection of what is. Clients whose lives are clearly above par, yet still are convinced of their worthlessness are pathological cases. It is likely that cognitive models can assist them.

    Putting this differently, ordinary folk with ordinary problems can begin distorting these to make them far larger than they are. They take on a vividness that is far and away from their actual significance. In such cases, the problem is cut and dry   the mind has taken vividness for significance, and therefore, the cognitive process is preventing the mind from reflecting reality from what it really is. This is the classic relevance of cognitive theory.

    One of the great benefits of cognitive theory is that cultural barriers often do not matter. Behavior is behavior. No culture countenances depression as rational. No culture considers thought that does not reflect reality a good thing. No culture countenances anti-social forms of behavior. If anything, coming to seek help itself becomes a barrier, where some cultures might consider this  form of weakness, a sort of  confession  that provides an institution with power over the individual. This might not be so much a cultural as an ideological issue. Needing therapy as  weakness  is a common stereotype of many traditional cultures. I foresee no serious cultural barriers in cognitive therapy. It remains, however, a limited approach that can only work with those lives (objectively speaking) are far better than their perceptions (subjectively speaking).

    The vocabulary of the cognitive school is purely Enlightenment it is scientific in the materialist sense of the word, where all thought and emotion must have a physical or behavioral counterpart ideas do not exist in themselves, but both have materialsocial sources and consequences. A  thought,  to use a simple example, is the mirror of an action, and vice versa. Action is preceded by thought and is then justified by thought. The thought is cognate with action, in that the thought is fully competent to explain the action, and the action is fully explained by the thought. Thought is internal, action is external   this is the only significant distinction. These are two pieces of  puzzle and the dividing lines are more or less neat and clean.  Emotion is another matter. While conceptually foggy, it can be defined with some level of clarity. Negative emotions derive from a distorted form of thought connected to proportionally distorted actions. Using an example
    a. The client, outwardly successful, begins to view himself as a failure
    b. The successes that the person has are  flukes  or based on  luck,  and can never be placed at the doorstep of the client. The client is a failure, his success is based on other factors that have nothing to do with the building of self esteem or even on skill. The client clearly has self-esteem issues.
    c. The result of this is that the person becomes sullen, withdrawn and anti-social.

    What does all of this say It says that, for some reason (and that will be dealt with in therapy), the thought process of this person has become irrational. Somehow, premises of ones failure have become so powerful that they can overcome all the objective evidence to the contrary. The job of the therapist here is cut and dry   replace these irrational premises with rational (i.e. realistic ones).

    Both in terms of the vocabulary of the school as well as the skills of the therapist, Corey has reduced these to five, and is as mechanistic as the cognitive school itself
Assess and define problems   given the above example, the therapist must find out what experiences have suddenly brought this successful man to view himself a failure. Marriage Family Mid-life crisis issues Trauma Health  What is the root of this sudden depression and sense of failure, especially in light of all objective criteria of success.

Formulate goals   we can assume that the client is interested in begin cured. Therefore, goals must be precise. The client should agree that eventually, his depression will wither away once he is able to see what he really is, not how he (or others) interpret him to be.
Alternative Solutions   in this case, the client and therapist brainstorm in order to consider approaches to his eventual cure. Self-affirmation exercises  are important here. The facts and just the facts should serve as the basis of the clients sense of self.

Some form of decision must be made as to what kinds of solutions will work. Outside of medications, various forms of self-esteem building exercises must be used. Facts must be put in the place of feelings. Reason must have pride of place over emotion. 
These must be implemented and results evaluated (Corey, 2000 349-350)

    These are the pieces of the cognitive skill set that a therapist must use. It is a highly rationalistic approach that works only with certain clients. In the simple example given above, the fact that this client is highly successful in an outward sense in very important. The objective reality and subjective assessment are clear. There is a distortion in the thought process. Of course, not all cases will be this clear, but the example brings out the spirit of the school and the nature of the questions.

    The humanist, or person-centered approach to therapy is another important school of counseling. Since it does not depend on simple mechanisms and linkages to operate, it is much more complex, foggy conceptually and easier to misinterpret. It is a complex approach to human problems that cannot stop at the therapists office. It is holistic at root.

    The basic conceptual apparatus here is defined by Rogers (1980)
Human beings have the internal resources necessary to find purpose and see that purpose unfold.
Clients who are cared for with a maximum of empathy will be those clients that will eventually learn to see inside themselves. There is no mechanism here, the person and the person alone is in charge of giving herself purpose.
Rogers writes  . . all things move to the instinctive fulfillment of all potentials  (118). If this is true, then the therapists job is laid out   how can therapy show the person their purpose and modes of achieving this.

All personal development includes and is performed in the context of the whole of human life
    The basic approach therefore is the opposite of the mechanistic approach of the behaviorist. There is no cut and dry objective. Reason, emotion and action are not links in a chain, but are conceptually included in each other and among the community the client works and lives in, there are no borders, at least, no borders that are therapeutically relevant.

    Similar to Rogers (and in fact, citing him regularly), Corey writes  when therapists experience genuineness, acceptance and accurate empathy for clients. . .therapeutic personality change and growth will occur  (249). In this case, he is speaking about the role of the therapist. There is no obvious goal as mechanistic as the behaviorist school the client must learn to see inside himself and find both the purpose important for their lives and the means to get there, in other words, to actualize the potential that exists, but is unseen due to the patients present pathology.

    Corey comes up with five conceptual points that summarize the difficult to summarize elements of humanist theory
Self-awareness is the central key, both for clients and for therapists. Without self-awareness, no cure can be seen. Self awareness is about finding purpose and a reason to live and function.
Important as well is phenomenology, that is, the respect necessary to the fact that objects only becomes objects once they are reflected upon and become a part of consciousness. Therefore, the subjective becomes important while the objective becomes less so, since nothing is truly objective in this approach.

Self-awareness should lead to self-actualization
Human beings are free and self-directing. They do not necessarily exist at the mercy of logic.
The therapist must support, given the above, the subjective experience and awareness of the clients (Corey, 2000 247-249).

    This last portion is important for cultural differences, since culture is one great phenomenological approach. Culture pre-digests external experience even before it is digested by the person. Culture is a form of humanization and interpretation that is not objective, but inter-subjective. Therefore, this approach in particular takes culture as seriously as consciousness itself. One theoretical problem is the very nature of culture in our work, in that pure and particularist cultures are hard to come by, most are  Americanized  to one extent or another. It may be the case clinically that getting deeper into ones native tradition is a good way to begin the curative process the sense of belonging and solidarity that cultures bring to the person should never be underestimated.

    The vocabulary of this school is far richer than the cognitive approach. Words like love, freedom, relatedness, awareness, purpose, growth are to be seen throughout this literature, each overlapping with the others and creating a tapestry of subjective experiences that must be taken as a whole (Corey, 2000 247). For Corey,  all masks and pretensions should be dropped  in therapy, whether group or individual, so that these experiences and the therapists understanding of them can flow freely (Corey, 2000 259).

    Rogers holds that it is not stability that is the goal of therapy, but the ability to grow, to develop in a healthy and self-aware sort of way. For Rogers, the final end of therapy is to help the client find the  freedom to become  rather than the static focus of the behaviorist school (Rogers, 1980 133). Rogers uses a cosmological and evolutionary approach to his idea of therapy (and often borders on theoretical overkill in the process) based around the constant development of all things. This does not apply to human beings, however.

The use of evolutionary and cosmological (and even metaphysical) metaphors eventually get lost in contradiction. Evolutionary biology exists according to fixed rules of conflict, survival and development. DNA is proof of this. Yet for Rogers, the ability for human beings to participate in this is the fact that human clients can choose any life path they want. If this is the case, then the evolutionary metaphor breaks down, since that is the precise opposite of what happens in nature. Nothing in nature is free to become, or chart their own territory. Rogers, without mentioning it, posits an immaterial soul that can abstract from any material object confronting it, and thus choose to accept it or reject it. Only an immaterial soul can do what Rogers says the client should be taught to do   to find for herself a sense of purpose and direction without preconditions or judgment (Rogers, 1980 118).

    Regardless of this, this writer cannot see any client group that cannot benefit from this approach, regardless of Rogers scientific overkill. It rejects the very simplistic approach of the cognitive school, replacing its pure logicbehavior nexus with one that more subjectively and reflectively absorbs (rather than perceives) the world around it. Reality (social and otherwise) is really seen as a set of symbols with concurrent emotional and rational reactions. Each symbol, memory and feeling is a part of a complex personal history and reveals itself gradually in an unpacking of an almost endless content. While this is true (and all of us have experienced this relation with symbols), Im not so sure how this can be approached from the point of view of therapy. Therapy, like any other part of life, is partial, abstract and must be incorporated into life as one set of symbols along side other sets.

    It is almost as if Rogers has obfuscated the issues to such an extent that the simple approach of seeing potential and worrying about manifesting that potential is lost in the epistemological categories of Rogers school. One need not accept Rogers evolutionary argument to hold that manifesting potential is just as valuable as proper thought patterns. These, of course, are not exclusionary, but complimentary. The real difference between the two is in the relation between objectivity and subjectivity. For the cognitive school, the two realms are separate. Logic is a means of making sense out of objective data. For the humanist school, these two realms are radically indistinct, since our pre-existing ideas are always imposing themselves upon external reality. Where one begins and the other ends is impossible to say, therefore it goes beyond the cognitive school because there is no clear demarcation between thought, perception, action and emotion.

    To conclude, one might be able to say that the distortion of thought so central to the cognitive school is precisely this lack of demarcation between objective and subjective. The subjective vision of the person is thrust outward into external objects and situations, hence distorting them. Cognitive therapy wants to maintain the radical distinction between inner and outer, with the former taking its data from the latter. The humanistic school rejects that they are, in fact, two different things, and hence,the approach to therapy should be radically different.

According to Miller (1991), excessive consumption of alcohol to a point whereby this behavior interferes with the normal physiology and social life of a person leading to mental or physical harm is referred to as addiction  The abuse of alcohol and its consequent addiction are grave medical conditions whose causes the medical fraternity do not clearly understand. The only thing that is clearly evident about these conditions is their effects. Alcohol addiction generally occurs at all stages of life but the occurrence is mostly marked during the youthful stages of a person. According to Hinckley (2009), the effects of addiction can manifest themselves in very many ways.  Some of these manifestations cannot be clearly noticed by an outside observer. The medical fraternity considers alcoholism as a disease that has no cure. This is so because the physiology of an individual depends on the presence of alcohol in the bloodstream. Though treatable, addiction of alcohol is not curable and addicts live with that condition for the whole of their life (Lescau, 2009).
This post is going to look at some of the physiological effects of alcoholism.
Physiological effects of alcoholism

Effects to the liver
Alcohol causes Cirrhosis of the liver, a condition characterized by permanent scarring of the liver associated with development of nodules. Alcoholism causes jaundice due to liver damage. As a result of improper handling of bile by the liver, it starts circulating in the bloodstream causing the skin to turn yellowish (Quertemont  Didone, 2006).

Effects to the Pancreas
Davies (2003), states that alcohol has got a very toxic effect on the pancreas. Alcohol is believed to alter the secretion of pancreatic juices. Increased digestive juices production causes irritation to the pancreas. The alcohol induced protein concentration increase in the pancreatic juice precipitates is believed to be the disease causing mechanism. This causes acute and chronic pancreatitis.

Effects on the gastrointestinal tract
According to Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies (2009), Dyspepsia which is a general feeling of discomfort after eating occurs due to alcoholism. Alcohol inhibits the small intestines from absorbing the nutrients necessary for its proper functioning and also it leads to increased propulsion of food from the small intestines. The end result of these effects is recurrent diarrhea.
Alcoholism also results in Ascites, a condition characterized by accumulation of fluids in the abdominal cavity. This occurs as a result of increase in the size of the liver which greatly compresses the blood vessels thereby causing fluid leakage to the abdominal cavity from the liver (Bullers  Ennis, 2006).

Effects to the cardiovascular system
Alcohol intoxication causes irregular heart beats in an individual. Alcohol addicts also develop cardiomyopathy. Alcohol inhibits the bone marrow capability of using iron to make hemoglobin. This leads to development of anemia. Alcohol intake also leads to the destruction of platelets.  According to Bullers  Ennis (2006), alcohol also causes peripheral blood vessels dilatation. As a result, the body temperature regulatory mechanism is greatly impaired. It is a disagreement for some researchers to claim that moderate alcohol consumption may help in protecting against some cardiovascular diseases (Lescau, 2009). Excessive consumption of alcohol has been shown to have adverse cardiovascular effects.


Effects on the respiratory system
Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies (2009) states that alcohol causes inflammation and irritation of the organs of the respiratory system. It also increases susceptibility to various forms of respiratory infections. Due to its numbing effect, on the lungs it becomes very hard for them to get secretions out. As a result, the secretions which consist of microorganisms clog in the lung and may lead to development of infections.

Musculoskeletal effects
According to Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies (2009), nutritional status of an addict change greatly leading to nutritional deficiency. Muscle wasting occurs due to improper diet consumption. This is referred to as muscle atrophy. Alcoholic myopathy occurs due to increased secretion of the enzyme serum creatinine and phosphokinase which causes muscle cramps and weakness. Excess alcohol consumption also causes finger clubbing. This is the swelling of the finger tips as a result of alcohol cardiomyopathy which greatly impairs blob circulation to the extremities.

Amenorrhea and Impotence
Due to its interference with the absorption of calcium in the small intestines it may greatly impair the efficient functioning of the ovaries and thus make some women skip menstruation (Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies, 2009). Due to the excessive damage caused by alcohol to the liver it cannot properly assist in the regulation of sex hormones levels. As a result, testosterone levels in men decrease as estrogen levels increase. This may lead to feminization of male features such as enlargement of breasts and loss of facial hair. The toxic effect of alcohol on the testes leads to decreased plasma testosterone levels and shrunken testes. As a result fertility decreases (Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies, 2009).


Effects to the fetus
According to Boggan (2004) ethanol freely mixes with water found in the body. If a pregnant mother takes alcohol it is freely transported to the fetus and the fluids surrounding it through blood circulation. Growth and development are directly influenced by alcohol. The negative effects of alcohol to the mother can also indirectly affect the fetus. These may be things like alteration of nutrition status of the mother thus subjecting the fetus to poor nutrition. Metabolites of alcohol for example acetaldehydes are also very toxic and can cause adverse effects to the fetus (Boggan, 2004).
Increased risks to secondary diseases

According to Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies (2009), Addiction of alcohol increases a persons risk to acquiring other complications.  These may include grave infections to the liver, sleeping disorders, infections of the esophagus, and Cancer of the mouth. Cancer of the mouth also occurs due to the effect of alcohol on the salivary glands especially the parotid glands that swell greatly. Excess production of saliva occur leading to the blocking of the salivary ducts
Effects of alcohol to the nervous system

McCarthy, (1959) states that a large doses of alcohol acts as central nervous system depressant. This is because of its action on inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Excess alcohol in the brain increases the release of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA resulting in inhibition of impulses. As a controversy it is claimed that use of alcohol increases euphoria to the consumers whereas others claim that consumers experience a livelier, easy and relaxed lifestyle. It is also claimed that a consumer is able to talk in an open way to other people whereas in some occasions an addict becomes withdrawn and acts as a social outcast (Distance Learning Center for Addiction Studies, 2009).

As shown alcohol consumption has adverse physiological effects which affect almost all the major components of the body. Many of the physiological effects do not manifest themselves on the outside and are very difficult for an outsider to detect. Most of these effects cause internal damage which is more adverse than the external damage.

In the rapidly changing and increasingly demanding environment that organizations find themselves operating in, it is imperative they be designed in a way as to anticipate and adopt to change seamlessly. 

Presently, dynamic organizations need to adopt designs models that are collaborative and integrative in nature.  This means that information flow is not one way but multi dimensional. The concept is to have everybody involved in improving the whole system.   In order to best understand the dynamic organization that is daily responding to changing stimuli, Business Process Management is a paradigm that is increasingly being adopted for its versatility in addressing different arising situations (Jeston  Nelis, 2006).

It has three basic components that support the fundamental concept of turning challenges arising into exploitable opportunities.  This is achieved through business process enactment, lifecycle and improvement.  The idea is to use each challenge as a learning experience with a view to improving the response should there be a next time.  It also calls for continuous improvement of best practices inline with different circumstances. 

The design of the organization must be such that everybody within and without is engaged in incessant dialogue and be able to offer findings, breakdown and simulation opportunities intentionally focused to achieve results in a participatory environment (Mohrman, 2007).  This strategy model allows for both preservation and transformation of the organization depending on the outcome.

Organizational design is the process of aligning mission and structure in an organization.  When achieved it aids in ensuring communication, innovation and output are not impeded.  It creates within the organization an effective efficient working environment.  When information flow channels are open and clear, what can be achieved is immense. 

It is clear from the evidence adduced in this paper that organizations presently operate in dynamic environments.  That their ability to adapt to the dynamics of the environment they operate in could mean the difference between survival and collapse.  Organizations that get the organizational design spot on and understand and use the business models that allow for corrective mechanisms seamlessly end up having a competitive advantage.

    Psychology refers to the scientific study of human mental processes, motivations, and behavior (Heffernan, 2005, p.1). The discipline thereby focuses on applying the scientific method in its explanations of how mental states and intentions affect human behavior. Due to the diversity of the different phenomena that characterizes and influences human behavior, the discipline of psychology may be further divided into sub-disciplines. One of these sub-disciplines is social psychology. Social psychology deals with issues pertaining to personal identity, interpersonal relationships, aggression, and discrimination to name a few. A formal definition of the sub-discipline refers to it as the study of the interrelations amongst individuals, their interactions and the societies they live in (Fraser, Burchell  Hay, 2001, p.2). Since a study of social relationships and interactions requires knowledge of the individual, the field also considers the social nature of the individual (Fraser et. al., 2001, p.3). Such is the case since a persons cognitive abilities is also an important factor in determining how a persons social behavior is affected by cultural and social practices (Fraser et. al, 2001, p.3). Social psychology may thereby be conceived as the study of human mental processes, motivations, and behaviors as they are contextualized within the social sphere. An example of the concepts and issues that social psychology deals with is evident in Jane Elliotts (1996) documentary, Blue-Eyed.

    Elliotts documentary presents an application of her Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes exercise. The exercise aims to provide individuals with an experience of the effects of social discrimination, specifically the effects of racism, by utilizing an individuals eye color as the basis for his treatment in the experiment group. Eye color is used as the main determinant for the type of treatment that an individual will receive within the experiment since the same biological mechanisms that determine skin color affect an individuals eye color (Elliott, 1996). In order to strengthen her comparison between skin color and eye color as the basis for social discrimination, Elliott formulates a context wherein blue-eyed individuals are considered to be inferior to brown-eyed individuals. She states, 

(A)s peoples hair and skin got lighter, it didnt have a bad effect on their brains, but as their eyes got lighter, it allowed more and more light to enter their eyes, pierce their brains and damage their brains. And thats why people blue eyed people arent as smart as brown eyed people... Its ridiculous, isnt it People, it is no more ridiculous to make that statement about eye color than it is to make the statements that we traditionally have made about the skin color. If it makes good sense to judge people by the amount of melanin in their skin, then it makes equally good sense, more good sense, to judge them by the amount of melanin in their eyes. (Elliott, 1996)

     Elliott (1996) argues that first-hand experience of discrimination will enable the reduction of stereotypes and acts of prejudice in society. Such is the case since by sensitizing individuals to the behavioral and emotional effects of racial discrimination they are forced to realize the negative effects of stereotypes and acts of prejudice towards African-Americans. Elliots inoculation procedure for the reduction of racial stereotypes and acts of prejudice manifest her utilization of different concepts and methods in social psychology. This is evident if one focuses on Elliotts approach for the eradication of racial discrimination in her experiment.

    Racial discrimination refers to the practices of discrimination based on an individuals membership in a race or ethnic group (Blank, Dabady, Citro, 2004). This commonsensical definition of racial discrimination takes into account social psychologys conception of discrimination as a manifestation of overt behavior towards a group and its members (Fraser et. al., 2001, p.294).   Discrimination may take two forms (1) favorable behavior towards one group and (2) unfavorable behavior towards another group (Fraser et. al., 2001). The initial form of discrimination mentioned above may be understood as a form of discrimination based on prejudice whereas the later form of discrimination mentioned above may be understood as a form of discrimination based on same-group membership (Fraser et. al., 2001).The distinction between the two main forms of discrimination thereby take into account positive instances of discrimination and negative instances of discrimination. It is the later form of discrimination, which refers to prejudice, that is being emphasized in Elliotts Blue-Eyed. 

     Instances of racial discrimination are considered to be manifestation of prejudice. This is apparent as a formal definition of racial discrimination refers to it as a differential treatment on the basis of race that disadvantages a racial group and treatment on the basis of inadequately justified factors other than race that disadvantages a racial group (Blank, Dabady, Citro, 2004, p.39). In Blue-Eyed, Elliott introduces aspects of discrimination based on prejudice as she explicitly instructs the brown-eyed individuals in the experiment to treat blue-eyed individuals in a derogatory manner. She states, All we are going to do is spend about two and a half hours treating these people negatively on the basis of a physical characteristic over which they have no control (Elliott, 1996). Elliotts inoculation procedure thereby involves the recreation of intergroup relations that mirror the cognitive and behavioral aspects involved in cases of racial discrimination. It is important to note that there are different theories that account for the occurrence of discrimination in intergroup relations. These theories range from the psychodynamic theories, the cognitive theories, the acquisition theories and the intergroup theories (Fraser at. al., 2001). Elliots experiment utilizes certain aspects of the acquisition theories since she posits that the acquisition of social beliefs enables the continuance of practices of racial discrimination in society.

    Acquisition theories on intergroup relations argue that the acquisition of prejudices involves the inculcation of these prejudices during the initial period of a childs cognitive development (Fraser et. al, 2001). Such a conception of the proliferation and maintenance of negative discriminatory practices is provided by the social reflection theories (Fraser et. al, 2001). The problem with this view however is evident as it fails to provide the initial source of discriminatory practices. In order to remedy this problem, Abourd (1988, as cited in Fraser et. al., 2001) conceived of the social-cognitive developmental theory, according to which the exact contents of particular prejudices and the choices of targets for prejudice on the part of a group will be conveyed to the child through the socialization processes (p.303). This theory thereby accounts for the processes involved in the cognitive and behavioral aspects of a childs construction of his self which mirrors the beliefs and practices that he perceives to be prevalent in society. A child, in this sense, adheres to practices of racial discrimination as he conceives it as a type of favorable behavior for the members of his racial group. 

    In Elliotts experiment, the utilization of the social-cognitive development theory is apparent as she argues that by sensitizing individuals to the behavioral and emotional effects of racism, it is possible for individuals to recognize that their adherence to practices of racial discrimination is a result of their inability to question their acquired beliefs regarding racial discrimination and their desire to gain a favorable conception of their behavior within their racial group. Evidence of this can be seen as the male participants of her experiment implicitly agree that they adhere to practices of racism since other individuals adhere to such practices (Elliott, 2001).

    In line with this, the aforementioned discussion provided definitions and illustrations of the different concepts in social psychology, these being (1) discrimination, (2) racial discrimination, (3) prejudice, (4) acquisition theories, and (5) social-cognitive development theory. These concepts provided explanations for some of the aspects discussed in Elliotts Blue-Eyed documentary. It was able to show that cases of discrimination, specifically racial discrimination is a result of prejudice which is perceived by the acquisition theories of intergroup relations, specifically the social-cognitive development theory, as a result of an individuals acquisition of beliefs that reinforce the maintenance of practices of racism in society.