Psychology

Hypothesis
Students who have higher grades are more likely to be chosen to participate in extracurricular activities or after school clubs as compared to those with records lower grades due to assumption that those with higher grades have the ability to prioritize evenly.

This assumption is important for two reasons  one, in the event that the hypothesis is proven to be valid, the author can make recommendations on how students with high grades can efficiently manage their time while performing excellent on extracurricular activities, and two, make some recommendation wherein those with lower grades can be given assistance on how can they manage academics and extracurricular activities at the same time.

Review of Literature
A study by Carl Schessler (2004) titled The Correlation between Extracurricular Activities and Grade Point Average of Middle School Students aims to identify the correlation of the students examination grade points in relation to their participation on extracurricular activities.  Among the factors considered in this study are the students ages, extracurricular participation, and their GPA (grade point average).  The experimental study took 111 students from three different rural Midwestern eight grade classes as its subjects.  A two-way Analysis of Variance is used to study the correlations of the variables.  As a result, the author found significant relationship between extracurricular activities and the students GPA.  Findings suggests that there is no evidence that the students participation in such activities led to the lowering of their grades, in fact, it was found out that those who participate in extracurricular activities recorded higher grades than usual.  As a conclusion, such effect is understood to be brought by the students encouragement to excel in academics and the teachers and parents bias towards them.

Research Design
This research will use experimental methodologies in determining whether grades serve as bases for student selection on extracurricular activities or after school clubs.  The independent variable is the teachers knowledge on the grades of the students while the dependent variables are the grades of the students for those who are selected to participate on clubs.  Since this research proposal will seek to identify relationship, correlation techniques will be used.  In this case, quasi experimental methods will be used such as the most common non-equivalent group design wherein the researcher will conduct a pre-test and  post-test among the participants.  To closely analyze the results, it is recommended that the experiment will be initialized on small rural or urban schools.

Budget
Among the expenses that may be incurred in pursuing this research would be
Transportation costs
Costs of activities for the clubs (extracurricular costs)
Professional fees for consultation
Since this study will only accommodate small group of respondents, it is anticipated that costs are only minimal.

The learner is the first in the list of the components of the educative process, followed by the teacher and the learning situation.  This is so because the learner is the reason why there is education (Duka,2003)  .

Learning modalitiesthis word labels emphasize the different ways children and adults learn best. Just as a single shoe size doesnt fit everyone neither does a single learning environment ensure learning for all. Learners come not only from differing localities, abilities, cultures, and home experiences, but are inherently have different learning modalities. In addition, they possess varying combinations of these learning modalities - its not an all or none issue (Boiser, 2004).

Thus, in order for the teacher to meet the needs of the learners, heshe must have a sufficient knowledge on the background, strengths and weaknesses which can contribute in the full potential development of the learners (Boiser, 2004).

Human beings learn primarily thru senses which are referred to as learning modalities.  From the knowledge on psychology, all knows that humans have five senses and from these senses, persons become aware of hisher environment which eventually leads to learning (Boiser, 2004).

Basically, there are three learning modalities thru which learners process information to the memory, these are visual (learn by seeing), auditory (learn by hearing), and kinesthetic (learn by doing, touching and moving).  Every learner has one predominant learning modality which a teacher must know in order for himher to provide learning experiences that suits the childs unique personality and can facilitate in hisher full development (Boiser, 2004).

A childs primary learning style is referred to as his or her dominant modality. The next favored learning style is referred to as the secondary modality. A childs least favored modality is considered a weakness (Tobias, 2001).

The researchers would like to help teachers know about the learning modalities of their learners so that they can design approaches, activities and learning aids suitable to them.  Thus, this research was conducted.

Conceptual framework
According to Dr. Howard Gardner, the man behind the Theory of Multiple Intelligences,
The biggest mistake of the past centuries in teaching has been to treat children as if they are all variants of the same individual, to feel justified in teaching them all the subjects in the same way.

These words of Gardner were used by the researchers as scaffolding to this present study about the learning modalities of learners as an important factor in the teaching and learning process.  The researchers believe every individual is unique, and thus, in some ways needs to be treated differently from others.  It is therefore important to have a birds eye view on how can a learner grasp ideas easily and process them in memory for a permanent learning experience.

Statement of the Problem
This research was done to find out the learning modalities of grade four at (certain school).

Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following questions
1.   What is the dominant learning modality of the respondents
2.   Is learning modality dependent on gender
3.  What learning activities should be employed to enhance learning in the basis of the  
      identified modalities

Hypothesis of the Study
Learning modality is not dependent on gender.

Significance of the Study
This study will serve as basis through which learning approaches, techniques, strategies and methodologies suitable to the learners be designed. This study is dedicated to

Teachers and school administrators
The researchers believe that awareness on the learning modalities of the learners can help teachers as well as school administrators to frame strategies, curriculum or even training programs that can help in the full potential development of the learners.

Parents
This study can help them develop awareness on how could they help educating their children because from this study they might acquire knowledge on how their children learn best.

Children
This can help them understand and determine how can they easily understand lessons, and from that they may be able to focus well in school using their dominant learning modality.

Future Researchers
This study can be a basis on future researcher related to the present in order to help more human being called future leaders of our nation.

Definition of Terms
Approach.  It refers to the way how a teacher attacks the prior knowledge of the learners so that they can connect the ideas to the present lesson.

Auditory.  This refers to the easy grip of sensory information thru the use of ears.

Kinesthetic.  It refers to an easy grasp of ideas thru the use of bodily movements.
Learning modality.  It refers to the way how sensory information could be processed easily in the memory of the learner.

Method.  It refers to the step by step procedure in teaching the concepts of the lesson.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This part presents the procedure utilized in the collection of data, the method employed in the presentation and interpretation to answer the problems presented.

Research Design
This study utilized the descriptive survey as methodology using questionnaire as main data gathering tool. Descriptivesurvey research method can be useful when a researcher wants to collect data on phenomena that couldnt be directly observed (Babbie, 1989).  Descriptive survey method was utilized in this study because it seeks to investigate prevailing conditions about the learning modalities of grade four pupils at (certain school) (Tamondong-Diaz, 2002).

This study also wants to unfold whether or not gender is a factor that affects learning modalities of pupils and also on what appropriate learning activities could be used to learners who have visual, auditory or kinesthetic learning modalities.

The researchers used grade four pupils of (certain school).  Grade four was chosen for it is the beginning of intermediate course.

Instrumentation and Data Collection
The main tool for data collection was the questionnaire, which was adopted from the book of Dr. Diosdada C. Boiser, a Career Executive Service Offficer and consultant in Lipa City Colleges.  She earned her degree in Doctor of Philosophy in Education from the University of Sto. Tomas, earned Dr. Boiser a Meritissimus.  She also earned her Bachelors degree in Science Education and Master of Arts in Guidance at the Holy Name University both earning with honors.

The questionnaire is composed of two parts, first is about the profiles of the respondents and the second part is composed of fourteen assessment questions with three options each regarding how the respondents do in case of a given situation.  The questions were adopted from Dr. Boisers own works.  The questions also include situations outside the four corners of the classroom because according to Boiser, learning modalities are consistent in wherever setting the pupils are in.

Tools for Data Analysis
The researchers utilized the following tools for analysis of the data gathered
For objective number one, the frequency count method was used in determining the dominant learning modalities of the respondents.

The scoring is done by counting the frequencies for A, B and C answers.  A answers stand for Auditory, B for Visual, and C for Kinesthetic learning modality.  The greater the frequency, the more dominant the learning modality is.

To answer objective number two, the Chi Square Test of Independence was utilized.  This test seeks to answer whether or not gender served as influential factor in the learning modalities of the respondents (Fraenkel  Wallen, 1993).
The formula used was

Where
Oi   observed frequency
Ei  an expected (theoretical) frequency and
n  the number of possible outcomes of each event.
Discussion

In this study, the expected data that can be gathered are categorical or nominal data.  The respondents may be classified according to their dominant learning modalities.  The data that can be gathered will be treated statistically using the chosen tool.

After the data has been treated and analyzed, conclusions will be made as well as recommendations.  The researcher will also incorporate in the recommendations the things or strategies that can be used in dealing with pupils of each of the learning modalities.

In the movie Mean Girls, Cady, played by Lindsay Lohan is faced with a new chapter in her life when she enrolled in a high school for the first time. Since she was home schooled and never had an experience of being in a regular school, she finds everything different as compared to her life back then in Africa. This means she has to go to school and deal with everyday life like normal kids do. Despite her new environment, Cady found true friends in the person of  Janice and Damien.  They taught her everything that she needs to know about the school and the various kinds of students  in their campus. They also introduced her to the different classes tagged  in  every group of friends, one of which are known as The Plastics.  The Plastics gave her peer pressure by transforming her into something she is not.  They changed her looks and attitude towards other people. Cady, on the other hand, confirmed with the peer pressure for fun, at first, since she  wants to share what the Plastics are like for real with her other friends.  Cady spied on the Plastics and shares with Janice and Damien every details she learn about them. Every story and every secret the Plastics would tell her, she shares them with her two friends and they would laugh about how low the Plastic could be. Along the way, she yielded to peer pressure when she decided to join the Math club despite everybody telling her that being a member of that team means social suicide. For her part, Cady did not care much about being accepted by the society because she preferred to be on the Math team despite the effect it may have on her status. Only through this, did she show her true colors because she admitted she loves Math when everybody hates the subject. Cady persisted with peer pressure as she continued tagging along with the Plastics until such time she did not realize she was becoming just like them.  Being with the popular group, made Cady popular as well. She was able to catch the attention of many just by hanging out with the Plastics.

Regina George is like an evil in human form  as quoted in the movie. She is regarded as the most popular girl in campus in two directions students either love her or hate her. Some see Regina as a role model because of her physical features, while some hate her because they know what Regina is capable of and what a horrible person she can be. Due to the pressure with her school mates, Regina and her friends keep a book they call the Burn Book. This is where they write all the gossip and rumors they made about other people. By the Burn Book, they can retaliate to students who did wrong.  As the story goes on, conflict arises when Regina allowed the contents of the Burn Book to be seen by all students in the campus. Regina can manipulate people around her in so many ways. Thus, she always get  what she wants. She can create a perfectly made-up story about anyone and gets away with it. This is how she was able to turn the table around and make other people look bad, instead of her, when the Burn Book was read by everybody. She persisted with this peer pressure because this is how she can control other people and take advantage of the situations. She controls her fellow Plastics decisions and makes rules they should follow so they can be her friends. Cady was even influenced by Regina when she was allowed to be one of the Plastics. Regina taught her the harsh reality about high school and without Cadys knowledge, Regina was pulling her down, as well.
Because adolescents spend most of their time outside the home with members of the peer group, it is understandable that peers would have greater influence on adolescent attitudes, speech, interests, appearance, behavior than the family has (qtd in Hurlock 230). This concludes why Cady was easily influenced by her peers at school. As a teenager, it is important to feel accepted in social group. To be accepted, they follow what the majority is in favor of, regardless the morality of the acts. Whether these acts are good or bad, they follow and do it so they can fit in the society they are in. Social norms are sets of regulation that are needed to be understood and followed by other members of the group. Sanctions or punishments are done to those who does not observe these rules (Gilbert, Friske, and Lindzey 154). Conformity exists when these rules are followed as presented.

Normative social influence is the ability to conform with the different expectations in a positive side of other individuals (Deautsch and Harold 629 ). The head of the Plastics, Regina  George, does most of her dirty deals by influencing others that what she does is the acceptable and the right way to handle situations. In everything she does that is unacceptable, she turns it around so it can be perceives as the acceptable to social norms. To those who do not conform to her ways, she punishes them by spreading rumors around the campus, thus making them have a miserable life all throughout their high school.

Informational social influence is the way people accept information obtained from others as evidence about reality (Deautsch and Harold 629). An example of this in the movie is the controversial, Burn Book. Details that were written in this book were false, but they were assumed to be true once it was viewed by the public. The students and teachers  in the campus started to run amok and confront each other when they read the book because they accepted the information as true. By this, Regina George, with the help if her friends, were able to influence the way others think.

High school life can be the most difficult, yet the most crucial time for a teenager. Peers have a lot of influence when it comes to attitude, actions and appearance of a child in this stage. The child decides which way to go or what norms to follow and parents are unable to control their kids. High school life is a crucial period because this is the time when kids practice their decision-making skills. Whether they will go with the bad or good society, they must know each step they make has consequences. Although teenagers do not want parents to probe during this period, it is still advisable for parents to keep an eye on their children. Just watching out for their kids from afar will do no harm. It is better to be safe than sorry, as they say.

In a modern society, interactions with other people are inevitable. Whether at the workplace, home, school or any other social context one is expected to interact with others for the achievement of either individual or collective goals. In the organizational context, both employees and management officials are engaged in continuous consultations and relations in the workplace. As human beings it is expected that these interactions may be characterized by pleasantness or disagreements. While amicable interactions are beneficial to the individual and organization, disagreements relate to polarized interactions which undermine productivity. Among issues which may arise in the workplace are conflict and anger issues. Conflict as indicated by Dubrin (2004) involves the arousal of contrary motives and demands which if not adequately resolved may result to negative outcomes. On the other hand, anger is a consequence of pent up frustration over an existing conflict. As both issues may be detrimental to an individuals and organizations welfare, it is vital to derive strategies for alleviating conflicts and managing anger issues.

Conflict resolution is a necessity in any organization largely because conflicts are more often than not part of the everyday operations. Therefore, the best alternative is to arm oneself and organizational members with ample anger management and conflict resolution skills. The capacity to resolve conflicts immediately they arise creates room for better performance and even aids the management of anger. In addition, when individuals are able to understand themselves appropriately and develop tactics for controlling their anger emotions they are better placed at resolving conflicts. This paper seeks to apply the principles and conceptualizations of anger and conflict management in a real life workplace experience. The discussion will draw insight from this past experience with conflict situations and anger issues and in detailing the skills and tactics employed or lack thereof in the management of both.  From these experience, the discussion will then proceed to predict amicable future management of anger and conflicts. Predominant in the paper is the comprehension that conflicts and anger are negative constructs which if not properly reiterated may cause harm to individuals or organizations. However, the extent of negativity in conflicts is highly dependent on the reaction techniques used for addressing the conflicts. As will be illustrated in the paper, it is possible to alter conflicts into positive aspects in the workplace. Dubrin (2004) clearly outlines the relationship which exists between conflicts and anger. Anger is necessitated by both the events building up to a conflict and those which occur thereafter. It is often as a result of frustrations in either the conflict or the lack of its resolution. This interrelation will also be out rightly elucidated in the discussion.

It is critical to understand the root causes of conflict if one aims at comprehending conflict resolution. In fact Mcfarlane (2003, p.17) asserts that this will be vital in formulating a framework for guiding individuals through the conflict process. It entails taking into account the behaviors and circumstances which instigate conflict behavior. The roots of conflict include the competition for resources which are limited in a bid to satisfy individual or collective needs. Differences in opinions and objectives also heighten the probability for conflict. Others include class and gender differences, generation gaps, clashing personalities, sexual harassment and competing work and family demands.  Regardless of these individual circumstances, the observable common characteristic is the presence of incompatible elements. As a junior manager in the workplace, I had been assigned the task of foreseeing the companys community service project. The project had been suggested as a form of giving back to the community where the large textile organization was located. During one of the meetings with other involved employees, it became eminent that most of the employees wanted a mildly engaging community service project like donating text books and sports facilities to schools. On the other hand, I made it clear that the best form of community service would be a project which involved active engagement and interaction with the community. Following this, I made suggestions to formulate a fundraiser for the sports departments in the neighboring school or even partake in a cleanup activity of the surrounding environment.

Evident from discussions among the project members was the fact that those employees who supported a mildly active approach were in favor of not wasting their time and energy in doing good for the community. Those agreed with my suggestion felt that it was the best placed approach. At this particular time, a conflict had already emerged. The belief that either approaches were the best to both parties established a difference in preference and opinions. These beliefs and suggestions were not in tandem with each other. An attempt to come to an understanding was not fruitful immediately after the conflict arose. As a result, most project members I included left the meeting feeling frustrated.

As indicated by Macfarlane (2003, p.18) the above conflict may have been fuelled by such factors as imperfect communication and emotions. The feelings of frustration had definitely not been a direct consequence of the incompatibility of ideas proposed. It was as a result of the aggravation of the realization of incompatibility by emotions felt by both parties and their inadequacies in communicating their needs. This would later be evident in project discussions on resolving the conflict. Even though this conflict was not of a large extent, it still created friction amongst employees meant to work towards increasing productivity. It stalled the process of developing the community service project which was a waste of the organizations time and resources. Conflicts have adverse effects when left unresolved and these are indicative of the same. Also, resolution of conflicts is vital as it undermines work relationships and costs both individuals and organizations heavily. Levine (1998, p.5) explains that resolution of conflicts gains the organization both productivity and satisfactions as these outcomes are only present in individuals capabilities to collaborate with others. This is why it becomes crucial for employees to have conflict resolution skills at hand as they foster resolution and consequently high productivity.

From the illustrated experience, this conflict had the potential of being both constructive and destructive if left unresolved. As a project manager, my responsibility dwelt on enhancing the functionality of this conflict and aiming at preventing any negative effects. For the conflict to be functional it was imperative that the resolutions assured the motivation and further energizing the involved employees into acquiring better problem solving skills and high creativity. The actual resolution of this conflict involved the reestablishing of relations with project members and restating the desired outcomes of the project. While doing so, I embarked on a mission of seeking to understand why the other party was keen on a mildly active approach for community service. However, even then it was impossible to comprehend why these members did not understand that an active approach would serve the community better. It was then that project members became aggravated, with even others getting frustrated and angry. One of the members even banged the door on his way out from the meeting. It was clear that an amicable solution would be to just get rid of both suggestions and formulate a completely new approach which was agreeable to all.
 As pointed out in Dubrin (2004) this avoidant style of resolution ignores the contributions by either party to the conflict. Even though the heightened frustrations warranted such a decision, it was counterproductive to the organizations objectives. It moved the project a step backward and the incapacity to resolve the conflict was a strong predictor of such future conflicts. More so, this conflict was left unutilized as a mechanism for fostering problem solving skills amongst employees. Faced with such a repercussive conflict, it is only logical to devise better ways of resolving the same sort of conflict. In the future, such a conflict can be better managed in a more cordial and functional environment.

The appropriate approach to resolving this conflict involves the integration of such effective techniques like confrontation and problem solving, negotiating and bargaining, compromise and the management of anger. The guidelines of this process would be to avoid measures and solutions which are of a competitive form or those which were too relaxed. Therefore, as a project manager it would be my responsibility to initially acknowledge the existence of a conflict and decide to confront the opposing project members. This confrontation is best done tactfully and the element of reasonableness implied throughout the process. With a mindset of cooperativeness and collaboration, the confrontation involves detailing my willingness to work together with the other members at resolving the conflict. Also, I am required to admit to the problematic extent of the conflict which may prompt the agreement of the other party.

The willingness for cooperation is only possible when both parties are guided by substantial constructs. This implies that causes of the conflict should not have been of an emotional nature but one which paved way for substantial reasoning and understanding the evident differences. If there are any pending anger issues amongst the members, it is appropriate to address them immediately so as they do not work against the conflict resolution process. Anderson (2001, p.147) cites anger as one of the emotions resulting to such counterproductive behaviors like violence in the workplace. During the conflict resolution process, managing other peoples anger can be done by through the three steps of anger management illustrated by Dubrin (2004). They include confronting containing and connecting. Any anger manifestations like tightened fists, dilated pupils and trembling lips should be closely monitored during the conflict resolution process. Project members who are angry should be confronted and questioned on the source of their anger. This is done tactfully in order to prevent further aggravation. It would also be advisable to draw extremely angry members away from others and try calming them down elsewhere. After doing this, it is effective to ask the member what they think should be done over the issue. This allows one to connect with the member and understand their predicament. As such, their frustrations are alleviated and they become better placed to take part in a constructive conflict resolution process.

After this, the conflict resolution process continues as members narrate their understandings of the causes of the conflict. In doing so, the members are trying to identify the real issues in the conflict. The obvious cause of this conflict was the fact that projected members shared different ideas on what constituted a good community service project. In order to allow members to best understand these causes, it can be helpful to exchange images on this conflict and its causes. Both opposing parties should right down what they perceive their counterparts understanding of the causes. An exchange of these views aids in allowing members to understand each other and also acknowledge the predicaments faced by all of them.

After this, it becomes necessary to collaboratively come up with ample solutions to the conflict. As the members attempt to devise ways of ending this conflict, there should be room for negotiation. In such circumstances where the conflict arises as a result of differences in opinions and some members are not capable of changing these opinions, compromises should be utilized. However, both parties should give each other room for making suggestions for conflict resolution. One way of attempting to alter this situation is to appeal the members commitment to the organization and its objectives. Rahim (1990, p.20) acknowledges that cooperative goals are more effective at contributing to productive conflict management. When the conflict resolution goals are oriented at serving the utmost wellbeing of the organization, project members will be confident and communicate their ideas effectively. Therefore, it would be paramount to suggest that an active approach for the community service project would best serve the organization. It would do so by enhancing the communitys collaboration and assistance which would motivate the organizations employees most of whom were members of the same community. This motivation directly influences the performance and productivity positively.

During negotiations, fairness and logic should be applied. It would be best to understand any misgivings both parties may have towards the suggestions made. It is possible that those members against the use of an active approach are only resistant as a result of personal issues. These can include personal commitments which may not leave time for an active community service project. In understanding this factor as the members negotiate, they can come to a compromise which serves both parties and the organization effectively. If members are in agreement with the fact that an active approach will accrue better results than the mildly active one, they can them compromise on the levels of involvement and participation. It would be amicable to make allowances for members who are committed elsewhere when they are meant to take part in the community services. These provisions should be guided by rules so as to prevent their misuse. For instance, members and organizational employees who anticipate being absent should report to the supervisor and seek exemption from the activity. Eventually, this marks the end of the conflict and paves way for productive endeavors for the project members.

From the above discussion, it is evident that conflicts are part of any form of organizations. This issue has the potential to benefit or destroy the organization. As such with the organizations best interests in mind, employees should aim at resolving conflicts amicably so as to avoid the dismal effects of time wastage and declined productivity. The study has applied conflict and anger management techniques in a real life workplace experience. This experience which details a conflict caused by the incompatibility of ideas has allowed for the application of organizational psychology. Predominant in the paper is the comprehension that conflicts and anger are negative constructs which if not properly reiterated may cause harm to individuals or organizations. However, the extent of negativity in conflicts is highly dependent on the reaction techniques used for addressing the conflicts. The discussion has offered a futuristic framework to resolve the previously unresolved conflict. The same principles are applicable in most conflict resolution scenarios and will foster better management of conflict and anger in the workplace.

One of the many interesting and surprising experience of the beginner in child analysis is to find in even very young children a capacity for insight which is often far greater than that of adults, Melanie Klein (Cherry. n.d.)  This quote summarizes Dr. Kleins passion for child development.  She was a pioneer in child psychoanalysis and had two primary theories Play Therapy and Object Relations.  Klein compared Play Therapy to the free association technique used in adult analysis. She believed that observing a child playing with blocks, puzzles, and dolls and drawing their subconscious issues would surface.  Child psychologists than Freuds theories use this technique more today.

Dr. Kleins Object Relations theory takes a whole object, which includes a person, and divides it into smaller objects or parts.  For example, a mothers breast that feeds her child is a part of a whole.  This paper will introduce you to a phenomenal woman who still affects the psychological world fifty years after her death.  In addition, to a detail overview of Kleins theories, including an analysis of one of todays young celebrities.

Melanie was born in Vienna, Austria on March 30, 1882.  Her first ambition was
to be a doctor following her fathers path, Dr. Moriz Reisez. Dr. Reisez married Libusa Deutsch and they had four children, Melanie being the youngest. When Reisez practice was slow, Libusa opened a shop of exotic plants and animals, but the family had inherited a sufficient amount of money, and Dr. Reisez opened a dental practice (Grosskurth. 1986).

Klein was close to two of her siblings Emmanuel, her only brother who taught her to speak Greek and Latin, and introduced her to the elite society of Vienna and Sidonie who taught her to read and write, to help her pass entrance exams into several schools with a fervent desire to attend a university and study medicine.  Both Emmanuel and Sidonie died at young ages leaving Melanie in a depressed state that would last a lifetime. Her father died when she was eighteen and Melanie stayed close to her mother, who died in l914.

Klein respected her mother for holding the family together and making sure her children had a happy childhood.  Although she though of herself as an atheist, when Melanie was older, she never denied her Jewish roots and had little respect for those who did (Grosskurth. 1986). Melanie actually encouraged all parents to open their children up to an organized religion with their own beliefs.

At nineteen years old, Melanie became engaged to Emmanuels friend, Arthur Stephen Klein. She was studying art and history at Vienna University, but forfeited going to medical school to accompany her husband, an engineer to different countries.  Because of this, she never received an academic degree.  For many, her lack of proof of medical knowledge (Grosskurth. 1986) compromised her validity.  Melanie traveled to Slovakia and Silesia with her husband, had two children Melitta in l904, and Hans, in l907.  Her life changed dramatically in l910 when they moved to Budapest and she discovered the works of Sigmund Freud for the first time.

Melanie had her third child in l914, and this made her become even more interested in analyzing children.  She then started an admirable career in psychoanalysis.

In l917, she met Dr. Freud, and by l919, she read her first paper, The Development of a Child, to the Hungarian Society (Grosskurth.1986).  At this time, she also became a member of the Budapest Psychoanalytic Society.  Klein and her children moved to Slovakia, and by l922, she divorced her husband.

Melanie met psychoanalyst, Karl Abraham, who  encouraged her practice of child analysis (Grosskurth. 1986). In 1921, she moved to Berlin and opened a psychoanalytical practice for adults and children she also went into therapy herself with Abraham, who died fourteen months later. Melanie then decided to analyze herself with Freudian techniques.  At this same time Ann Freud, Sigmunds daughter, started analyzing children their techniques were polar opposites, the Berlin Society acknowledge Kleins as unorthodox.,  because over her academic standings.

Dr. Klein went on a lecture tour with Ernest Jones and she comprised the speeches in her first book, The Psycho-Analysis of Children (Segal. 1980). Melanie then moved to England, and in l927, the British Psychoanalytic Society warmly accepted her
this was a tremendous acknowledgement.

Ann Freud and Melanie never agreed on a similar psychological theory in child development. Kleins theory that fear and aggression are important concerns in childrens psychological development brought her into continuous conflict with the Ann and Sigmund Freud.  Many controversies came from this disparity between ll942 and l944 eventually splitting Freudian and Kleinian groups of analysts in the British Psychoanalytical Society.

Dr. Klein still struggled with depression, which intensified with the death of her oldest son, in l933.  She wrote numerous papers on her theory called death instinct, attributing depression to unresolved childhood issues (Cherry. n.d.). Melanie remained in England until her death on September 22, l969 from complications from surgery.

Dr. Kleins theoretical work examined extremely aggressive fantasies of hate, envy, and greed in very young and very ill children (Anderson.2009). She believed that the human psyche flips position in which Eros, the libido, or Thanatos, the death instinct is in the forefront.  The psychological state that has a strong tendency of Thanatos, Klein called paranoid-schizoid, and the state of psyche dominated by Eros, the depressive.  

Paranoid -schizoid and depressive positions occur in the pre-oedipal, oral phase of an infants development. They are underlined by unconscious fantasy, and are stages in the normal development of the ego and object relationships. Klein believed that the infant interjects both good and bad objects.  Internationalization of good objects is essential to the development of a healthy ego (Klein.1946).   Klein concluded the depressive position as the most mature form of psychological organization (Klein. 1946) which continuously develops throughout their lifetime.  This happens during the second quarter of the babys first year before that their in the paranoid-schizoid position.  Depressive and paranoid-schizoid facets entwine for the first few years of childhood.
(Klein. 1946).

Sigmund Freud, W.R.D. Fairbairn, and Melanie Klein developed object Relations Theory.  The idea is that the self, exists only in relation to other objects, which may be external or internal (Anderson. 2009).  Internal objects are formed through parents interaction a childs first object of desire is his caregiver (Anderson.2009), who satisfied their needs.  There are three components to this theory attachment, frustration, and rejection. These representations are universal emotional states, and are the major building blocks of personality (Anderson. 2009).

Play therapy was developed by Dr. Klein to assist in analyzing children which
as you can surmise was the basis for her analysis.  She believed that, since children cannot express themselves easily through verbal associations, they could do so through play and art (Anderson 2009).  The childs unconscious fantasies and hidden emotions would be revealed through play.

Play therapy could also help release negative or aggressive feelings opening the door to treating the emotional disorder.  Klein used it to uncover unconscious conflicts underlying childrens dysfunctional behavior (Anderson.2009). Ann Freud saw play therapy as educational and helpful for children to adapt to reality she did not think it revealed any unconscious conflicts.

Klein did concentrate on child development and psychoanalysis, but her practice did include adults. She coined a term called projective identification in l946, and used this psychological process frequently with her adult patients.  Projective identification is considered a primal defense mechanism. The premise is when a patient is severely traumatized they may describe the incident, but remain unemotional.  When questioned by Klein they deny having any feelings about the incident.  The analyst when listening, they begin to experience emotions, in response.  This journey initiates the analyst to project the patients feelings resulting from the trauma.  Projective identification allows the patient to recognize the painful feelings or thoughts they were previously blocked out of their memory (Grosskurth. 1986).

Klein made immense contributions in the field of psychology, especially in
child development.  She emphasized the importance of interpersonal relationships in the psychoanalytic field. She particularly stressed the importance of the mother-child relationship in child development (Grosskurth. 1986). Her development of play therapy
was a milestone in child analysis  Kleins object relations theory continued to be
Enhanced in the 1940s and 1950s by British psychologists, and this British Object Relations School became quite influential (Grosskurth. 1986).

Utilizing Melanie Kleins theories I am going to apply some of the concepts to
a famous celebrity pop singer and actor Lindsay Lohan. Lindsay was born on July 2, l986 in New York to Michael Lohan and Donata Sullivan.  She has three younger siblings all in the entertainment field.  Lohan is of Irish and Italian heritage and was raised a Catholic this was a positive step in Kleins theories to be part of an organized religion.

Lindsay started in the entertainment industry as a young child model at three years old, and at age ten, she began her acting career.   She had scandalous family issues that became known in 2004 about her father. He was in prison for securities fraud for most of Lindsays adolescence Michael was sent back in 2005 for aggravated unlicensed driving, and attempted assault. Later that year her parents divorced (Lindsay-Lohan-updates. 2007).

With this brief biography, we can see Lindsay had a confusing, colorful childhood. It has been reported through many sources that she had drug problems,
an obvious eating disorder, and drinks alcohol excessively.  A party girl, like most of the celebrities her age, in and out of rehab, and a history of bad relationships. Did her childhood influence her choices as an adult  Would Dr. Kleins theories have had a positive affect on Lindsays tumultuous life

The mother-child relationship was a critical concept of Dr. Kleins child development theories.  Lindsays mother worked when she was a child, as did Lindsay.
How could that relationship have been as strong as it should have been  This aspect of
Lindsays life could be the reason she cannot find a stable, healthy relationship.  As a young child, she did not have that with either parent even before their divorce.

Kleins Object Relation Theory, states, internal objects are formed through parent interaction (Anderson.2009). The theorys leading three components are attachment, frustration, and rejection (Anderson.2009). Ms. Lohan did not have sufficient parent interaction which through her adolescence and into adulthood is extremely noticeable. She struggles with substance abuse an escape from her unrealistic lifestyle. She has an eating disorder, which is possibly a cry for attention from her parents, attention she never experienced as a child.  Lohan is a good example of someone Klein was creating her theories to help.  

Data-collection is as crucial as any other step in the process of carrying out research. The medium used makes a significant difference in the quality and reliability of data, owing to the characteristics of the data as well as the targeted population. Questionnaires possess numerous advantages over the other data collection methods available to researchers. The concerns of a researcher range from the reliability of data to the cost-effectiveness of the medium.

Steps followed during preparation of a Questionnaire
The researcher has to take into consideration some points when preparing his questionnaire. The structure his questions should be inclined towards a specific objective, which has to be supported by the sequence of the questions (Bhaskaran, 2010). The specific objectives will determine the kind and depth of information sought from the respondents. It is important to note that clarity of questions is a necessary attribute of the questionnaire, since the respondents will rely solely on the questionnaire. The researcher should include the questions seeking general information in the initial sections, such as gender, geographical location and age. This will give the respondent enough time to generate a rapport owing to the fact that he or she will feel involved in the process. Similarly, by graduating from simple to involving questions, it prepares the respondents mind and thought-process.

Structure and Design of a Questionnaire
The structure and design of a questionnaire calibrates the success of the data-collection exercise. A well-prepared medium is bound to source the required information with respect to the objectives of the study. The questionnaire should contain information outlaid in such a way to ease the process of responding. By dividing the questionnaire into appropriate sections, the researcher will be able to motivate the respondents to provide the information in an appropriate way. According to  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22LiyingCheng22as_brr3clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad10 Cheng (2005), it is imperative to outline the theme of each section to enable the respondents appreciate the necessity of each piece of information requested. It is also necessary to have a validation medium to confirm the reliability of the information therein. For example, the researcher can acquire attendance records for the school to ascertain the volume of student who are expected to participate in the study. Appendix 1 shows some of the structure and design requirements for a questionnaire.

Some verbs have a strong negative or positive connotation and are capable of derailing the respondents view of the research activity. The researcher has to refrain from words that are prejudicial about the subject being researched. Since it is not possible to predict the situation of the specific respondents, a balanced tone enables the researcher to position himself as non-partisan and neutral regarding the issues at hand.

Advantages of Using Questionnaires for the Study
Questionnaires are a cost-effective way of collecting information from the targeted population. Compared to other media, questionnaires will enable the researcher to reach a large number of students within a short period ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22ValsaKoshy22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad9 Koshy, 2005). The geographical dispersion of students within the campus can be catered for by using questionnaires to conduct the research. The process of preparing a questionnaire is marked with inclusion of questions that are easy to understand and respond to ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22WilliamFoddy22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad10 Foddy, 1994). This emanates from the reason that the questions contained therein are standard and are not subject to interpretation by an intermediary.

The flexible nature of questionnaires makes them a favorable method of conducting research. As asserted by  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22ChrisGratton22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad10 Gratton   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22IanJones22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad10 Jones (2004), the respondents are not pressured to respond to the questions on receiving the script, but can shelve it and dedicate ample time later to fill out the answers.  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22PamelaMunn22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad6 Munn   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22EricDrever22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad6 Drever (1999) outlined that the standard nature of questionnaires makes the data collected easy to analyze.  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22CaroleKayrooz22as_brr3clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad9 Kayrooz   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22ChrisTrevitt22as_brr3clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad9 Trevitt (2006) were of the view that data entry and tabulation can actually be done through use of computer application packages. Thus, the responses of the students will be restricted to the available choices in the questionnaire.

Questionnaires enable the respondents to remain discrete regarding the inclination of their responses and regarding participation. First, respondents are not required to identify themselves by name or designation. According to  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22ValsaKoshy22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad9 Koshy (2005), the presence of the researcher interested in certain sensitive issues, for example player violence, the use of drugs or cheating in sports may inhibit the respondent p 89.  This comes in handy when the survey relates to sensitive issues with far-reaching implications ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22NormanM.Bradburn22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad8 Bradburn et al, 2004).

Pilot Study
As posited by  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StanleyPresser22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad10 Presser (2004), it is necessary to do a test-study to review the appropriateness and efficiency of the questionnaire for the intended research. Maxwell (2005) explicates that a pilot study tests your ideas or methods and explore their implications, or to inductively develop a grounded theory (p 57).  As a result, the researcher should choose a small sample that will enable him test the qualities of the questionnaire. Incase no inefficiencies are realized, the data from the pilot study is still viable for use in the study.  As a result, the sample chosen for the pilot study should comprise individuals from the study group. Success of the pilot study mirrors on that of the actual research exercise. Consequently, it is imperative that the researcher put his tools to test and gauge their appropriateness (Altman et al, 2006). If the first pilot study reveals weaknesses in the process, a second pilot study is necessary.

Rationale for using closed-ended questions
By using closed-ended multiple questions, the researcher is able to give direction relating to the kind of responses to be given. Using such type of questions and responses will ease the tabulation of data. All the researcher will do is to add up the corresponding choice number and translate the sum or percentage into a meaningful calibration of the objectives as articulated by the objectives. For example, if the respondents had chosen options 3, 4, 5, 7 and 2 for the five questions provided, and each question had seven choices, the respondent will be classified under the 60 category. Such a score will be designated a specific meaning according to the objectives of the study, thus making the process of analysis easier. Similarly, closed-ended questions will limit the responses to those provided by the researcher. However, if the respondents views are not expressed by any of the options, then the outcome will be limited by the choice of media.

Conclusion
The researcher invests in the proposed research with an aim of acquiring reliable information to which is sufficient for a reliable conclusion. As a result, it is imperative that he or she accords ample intensity to the process of data acquisition. Without reliable data, the reliability of the postulations from the research is minimized. The nature of research makes it unviable for a repeat performance, thus the researcher has only one chance to achieve his objectives. Consequently, he is mandated to strategize on how to best utilize the opportunity to come up with meaningful propositions.

Quiz 1
1. The study of human development may best be described as an attempt to understand
 how and why people from diverse cultures are different. how children learn to speak and understand language. Xhow and why people change across the life span. how humans and animals are similar and different.2. Which of the following best summarizes the relative importance of nature and nurture in our development

The relationship between the two moves only in one direction. In other words, our genes set the stage for our development nurture affects the manifestation of those genetic influences. Nurture has no effect on our genes. XThe relationship between the two is clear. Genes (nature) determine our physical traits, while nurture affects the development of our psychological and behavioral traits. Nurture is the primary influence on our overall development. Genes only set the stage, and from the moment of birth nurture takes over. The relationship between the two is reciprocal. In other words, our genes set the stage for our development nurture affects the manifestation of those genetic influences. Nurture, in turn, affects genes.3. The values, assumptions, customs, clothing, technologies, and art that a group of people have developed over the years as a design for living are referred to as their

Xculture. cohort. ethnicity. environment.4. Scientific observation permits
 the study of individuals behaving as they normally do. determination of cause-and-effect relationships. precise control of the environment. Xsystematic manipulation of variables.5. To study peoples thoughts about aging, a researcher would most likely use a laboratory experiment. Xa survey. naturalistic observation. the case-study method.6. The set of moral principles used by each academic discipline and professional society to protect the integrity of research is referred to as their policies and procedures. participant rules. Xcode of ethics. conditions of liability.7. In seeking participants for research studies, researchers must explain the purposes and procedures of the study in advance, obtain written permission, and allow participants to stop at any time. This process is known as
 holding harmless. Xinformed consent. release of liability. rite of research.8. Researchers have an ethical obligation to choose topics of study that may be researched quickly. may be researched inexpensively. Xare of major importance to society. are politically correct.9. When an emergent theory becomes a consistent and recurring source of research, and becomes comprehensive and widely applied, it has become what type of theory

Experimental XGrand Immersion Descriptive10. Danielle sucks her thumb because she finds it very pleasurable. According to Freud, Danielle is most likely in the anal stage. Xthe oral stage. latency. the phallic stage.11. Piagets theory of development focused primarily on Xhow our thinking changes as we grow older. biological and physical changes. our unconscious issues. the ways in which our environment influences our physical development.12. Piagets second stage of cognitive development is called formal operational. Xpreoperational. concrete operational. sensorimotor.13. According to sociocultural theory, the zone of proximal development refers to the skills that the learner can master with assistance. can overwhelm the learner. the learner wants to learn.X the learner can perform independently.14. Vygotskys theory has been criticized for overlooking how people learn from one another. failing to recognize how much children can learn when encouraged. Xneglecting genetic contributions to learning. ignoring the dynamic interaction that occurs between people.15. An epigenetic effect that influences the sex of a child is the X age of the mother. use of birth control. month of conception. birth order.16. Parents who spend a great deal of time and money trying to find the best school for their children are emphasizing the importance of Xnurture. the zone of proximal development. nature. operant conditioning.17. The molecular basis of heredity is the gene. thymine. XDNA. the cell.18. The sperm and the ovum are chromosomes. Xgametes. eggs. zygotes.19. The first hours and days of human development involve the processes of Xduplication, division, and differentiation. duplication, specialization, and progression. division, multiplication, and specialization. differentiation, division, and centralization.20. What is unique about stem cells
X They have the ability to differentiate into any type of cell. They are only found in humans. They are only found in adult humans. They make up less than 1 percent of autosomes.21. Chromosomal abnormalities occur when a zygotes cells have the usual 46 chromosomes. gametes with 46 chromosomes. Xmore or fewer than the usual 46 chromosomes. the usual 46 chromosomes with damage to the gametes.22. Phenylketonuria is caused by a(n) dominant gene. Xdouble-recessive gene. X-linked gene. single recessive gene.23. The germinal period ends approximately
 two days after conception. two months after conception. Xtwo weeks after conception. twelve weeks after conception.24. What is the function of the placenta to screen out potentially harmful substances to exchange blood between the mother and the developing embryo Xto protect and nourish the developing fetus to create antibodies for the developing fetus25. Babies born between 23 and 26 weeks after conception often experience developmental abnormalities such as cerebral palsy or some level of mental retardation. What percentage of children born during this gestational age do NOT develop any disabilities 5 percent 10 percent 15 percent X20 percent26. The heart is the most susceptible to developing birth defects during the first two weeks after conception. Xbetween the third and sixth weeks after conception. between the eighth and twelfth weeks after conception. during the two months immediately before birth.27. Which of the following is a psychoactive drug
 Lithium Streptomycin retinoic acid XTobacco28. The five characteristics that are evaluated in the Apgar are the Babinski, Moro, stepping, swimming, and grasping reflexes. Xheart rate, breathing, muscle tone, color, and reflexes. cuddling, startling, irritability, vocal response, and visual response. sucking reflex, breathing reflex, size, weight, and disease symptoms.29. Which of the following statements best summarizes the incidence of low birthweights in the United States over the past four decades The rates of low-birthweight births peaked in the 1960s and has been falling steadily since. The highest rates of low-birthweight births have occurred in the 1960s and in the 21st century. XThe highest rates of low-birthweight births occurred in the late 20th century and are now declining. Low-birthweight births were rare in the 1960s, and the rates have been steadily increasing since then.30. Postpartum depression is partly influenced by the amount of time spent in labor. having a cesarean section. giving birth to a preterm infant. Xthe mothers beliefs about her ability to care for her infant.

Quiz 2
1. The average North American newborn measures
14 inches (36 cm). 16 inches (41 cm). X20 inches (51 cm). 24 inches (60 cm).2. Approximately how many hours per day do newborns spend sleeping
10-12 hours less than 16 hours 20-21 hours X17 hours3. Which of the following is a reason why first-born children have more sleep difficulties than later-born children
X because of hormonal differences between first pregnancies and later pregnancies because first-born children are more likely to be male and male children have more sleep difficulties than female children because parents tend to be more vigilant with their first-born children because first-born children are more likely to be fed cows milk than are later-born children4. In the process of transient exuberance, great brain growth is seen, especially in the number of axons. nucleus.X dendrites. axon terminals.5. According to research by de Haan  Johnson, increasing cognitive complexity is due to
 transient exuberance. synaptic regeneration.X axonal pruning. synaptic pruning.6. Jen had little to play with as an infant but developed into a curious, intelligent preschooler who concocted toys out of whatever she could find. She is developing her brain through experience-sculpting. cognitive independence. Xself-righting. selective attention.7. Whenever the eyes, ears, tongue, skin, or mouth detect a stimulus, ______ has occurred. Perception Interpretation XSensation Response8. When one-month-old Lily is held upright with her feet touching a flat surface, she should Xmove her legs as if to walk. curl up her toes. kick out her legs. move her legs upward toward her body.9. Research on SIDS has shown that babies should be Xput to sleep on their backs. swaddled tightly before being put to bed. kept in a warm bedroom. fed right before being put to bed.10. The Swiss scientist who emphasized that infants are active learners and that early learning is based on sensory and motor skills was Noam Chomsky. Eleanor Gibson. Sigmund Freud.X Jean Piaget.11. Which of these stages develops prior to new means through active experimentation stage one new awareness of things new adaptation and anticipationX new means through mental combinations12. Five-month-old Patricia has learned to clap her hands and play patty-cake when her sister claps her hands and smiles. In which of the following behaviors is Patricia engaging acquired adaptation making interesting sights last active experimentation Xmaking mental combinations13. A technique that measures electrical activity in the cortex of the brain is a(n) ECG. XEEG. MRI. PET scan.14. According to dynamic perception, 1-year-old Diane would most prefer to look at a brightly colored beach ball. a picture of Barney. Xa mobile spinning over her head. the puzzle being held by her Aunt Cynthia.15. New research on infant long-term memory has shown that infants can remember if the researchers
 use situations that are different from real life. do not let the baby move during the memory event. use highly emotional events.X use special measures to aid memory retrieval.16. According to Chomskys theory of language acquisition children learn language through a complex process of imitation and reinforcement. Xchildren have an inborn ability to learn language. the inability to learn language is due to specific brain dysfunctions. language learning depends on specific structure in the brain.17. Bill constantly talks to his 3-month-old infant. His friend Ted tells him that it is useless to do so, because an infant cannot understand language. Social-pragmatists would Xagree with Ted, since cooing and babbling are reflexive. suggest that Bills behavior indicates he needs therapy. agree with Ted, since too much listening slows talking. disagree with Ted, because Bills behavior teaches communication.18. Which of the following is characteristic of the emotions that develop over the course of the first 2 years of life They remain purely reflexive. They remain cautious and anticipatory. They are spontaneous and uncensored. XThey adapt and change according to cognitive maps.19. Tammi, age 4 months, and Dawn, age 13 months, are left with a baby-sitter. How will they react
 Tammi will be more upset than Dawn. XDawn will probably show more distress than Tammi. Both Tammi and Dawn will be similar in experiencing separation anxiety. Neither is likely to show distress.20. Eriksons second stage of development is called attachment vs. self-awareness. pride vs. shame. synchrony vs. attachment.X autonomy vs. shame and doubt.21. Claire is 1 year old and lives in a noisy, loving family home with her parents and four siblings. She receives much positive attention and has a trusting relationship with her family. According to Piaget, she will likely develop which of the following a fixed cognitive schema that families are large a fixed cognitive schema that she will always be the youngest in her familyX a cognitive schema that families are as loving and loud as her working model a cognitive schema that children are reinforced for making noise22. Margarita and Roberto are warm, nurturing parents who held their baby all of the time and cradled him. They are exhibitingX Proximal parenting. Distal parenting. authoritarian parenting. autonomous parenting.23. Which type of attachment normally develops between 2 and 6 years of age
 attachment revisited Xnew attachment attachment as a launching pad classic secure attachment24. Emily and Ryan are 18-month-old twins. Their mother has been drinking heavily since her husband left her when the twins were 6 weeks old. Emily and Ryan are likely to develop which type of attachment insecure-avoidant Secure insecure-resistantavoidant XDisorganized25. In a Canadian study, which of the following groups of children fared least well when cared for by someone other than their mothers during infancy girls from low-income families Xchildren of African descent boys from high-income families children of French descent

Quiz 3
1. The body mass index (BMI) is the lowest of the life span at age
 1.X 5. 9. 13.2. The ethnic group from which children tend to be tallest is
 Africans.X Europeans. Asians. Latinos.3. Which of the following is the best way to ensure adequate nutrition and vitamin intake
 Eat 6-8 times a day. Take vitamin and mineral supplements. Eat breakfast cereals which contain 100 percent of the days nutrients and vitamins. XEat well-balanced meals with a variety of foods.4. The 2-year-old human brain weighs ______ percent of the adult brain.
 55 65 X75 805. Once a young child starts to cry, it tends to continue to do so long after whatever the initial cause, sometimes frustrating the parent. This behavior is an example of Xperseveration. myelination. lateralization. transubstantiation.6. The area of the brain that is crucial in expressing and regulating emotions is theX limbic system. prefrontal cortex. frontal lobe. corpus collosum.7. Many preschoolers have trouble dressing themselves, writing, or stringing small beads. This can be explained by a lack of X brain maturation and having short, stubby fingers. practice and motivation. encouragement and having short, stubby fingers. motivation and brain maturation.8. Four-year-old Michael has drawn a picture of you and a picture of his teacher. Which of the following is most likely to be true The two pictures are likely to be very similar, and if you switch them when the child isnt looking, they wont be able to identify which is which. The two drawings will have distinctly different characteristics.X The two pictures may look very similar to you, but the child will be very insistent about which picture is which. The drawings will reveal valuable information about the childs temperament and personality.9. Symptoms of maltreatment include X an out-of-body feeling. hypervigilance. hypo-manic reactions. depersonalization.10. An example of kinship care is
 XMichelle baby-sits her brother Tommy. Patti and Rob adopt two brothers. Eric and Sherral provide foster care for their neglected nephew. Mari is placed in a group home with other abused children.11. Preoperational intelligence differs from sensorimotor intelligence in that preoperational intelligence
 goes beyond senses and motor skills. includes logical reasoning. Xis characterized by reversibility of thought. is comprised of simple abstractions.12. To focus on one aspect of a situation and simultaneously exclude all others is called magical thinking. static reasoning. Xcentration. focusing on appearances only.13. To assume that the world is unchanging is to engage in
 magical thinking. Xstatic reasoning. centration. a focus on appearances only.14. Skills that a person can perform with assistance, but which they cannot quite perform on their own lie within the
 zone of proximal development. Xarea of demarcation. realm of operational thinking. range of potential performance.15. The child, not yet being able to read on her own, gets assistance from an adult to accomplish the skill. This assistance will only be effective if the child is in
 a static reasoning period. Xa scaffold. the period of preoperations. the zone of proximal development.16. Which of the following is true of the study conducted by Kelemen with Mexican American mothers and their children regarding theory-theory Older children ask more questions in general than do younger children. Mothers with more years of education recorded fewer questions as they were asked by their children. Mothers and children of lower SES asked the most questions overall. XYounger children ask for more clarification of instructions than do older children.17. Britney understands that her father is crying because his best friend died. This shows that Britney
 is egocentric. has a script for crying.X has a theory of mind. has learned conservation.18. When children hear a new word in a familiar context, they can simply add the word to the general category without fully understanding the word. This is called lexical addition. categorical embellishment. vocabulary expansion. Xfast-mapping.19. Research data suggests that the amount a child talks is strongly influenced by ______, while ______ determines the words and grammatical constructions a child understands.
 culture genes myelination genes genes experience Xexpression reception20. To find a good preschool, a parent should look for a curriculum geared toward behavioral control experienced teachers. Xteachers responsive to childrens needs low teacher-child ratios. a desk and a chair for each child a curriculum geared toward cognitive development. experienced teachers curriculum that teaches children as a whole group.21. An angry 5-year-old might stop herself from hitting another child because she has developed social referencing. self-esteem. identification. Xemotional regulation.22. The presence of imaginary friends positively correlates with an increase in
 shame. extrinsic motivation. Xintrinsic motivation. initiative.23. Diana Baumrind is known for her work on the Electra complex. types of play. Xstyles of parenting. cognitive stages.24. Authoritarian parents are affectionate with their children and often praise them. allow children to question their decisions but punish misconduct. Xseem aloof from their children. make few maturity demands on their children.25. At least among the majority of families, adolescents who are successful, generous individuals are from authoritarian homes. permissive homes. Xauthoritative homes. traditional homes.26. Sara, age 3, seeing a little boy fall and hurt himself, gets a look of concern on her face. She is probably experiencing fear. sadness. Xempathy. frustration.27. Research on spanking suggests that it is quick and efficient at age 2 or 3, and that the child will become more self-controlled. the spanking is less harmful if the parent expressed honest anger at the childs negative emotions. Xit may have negative repercussions later. the child will be less likely to shove or hit as retaliation.28. Freud would say that a typical 5-year-old is in the latency stage.X phallic stage. genital stage. superego stage.29. Theorists who support a focus on childrens understanding as opposed to observable behavior are sociocultural theorists. Xpsychoanalytic theorists. behavioral theorists. cognitive theorists.30. The view of development that asserts that girls tend to be more responsive to language than boys isX sociocultural theory. psychoanalytic theory. behavioral theory. epigenetic theory.

Quiz 4
1. When you look at the rate of growth for children from ages 7 to 11, you see that
 children grow more slowly than they did in early childhood. children grow faster than they did in early childhood. the rate is about the same from ages 2 to 12.X children have a tremendous growth spurt during the school years.2. Children should start brushing their teeth by age ______ and seeing a dentist by age ______.
X 1 3 3 4 2 3 3 53. Which of the following is NOT a contributor to the decline in neighborhood play among children
 overpopulated cities stranger danger Xparental obesity fewer open spaces4. The ratio between a persons height and weight is expressed as
 HWP. BMW. APGAR. XBMI.5. Madeline is 9 years old and considered obese. While her parents acknowledge that they could adopt a healthier lifestyle, they blame genetics for her weight problem. How many genes are estimated to influence Madelines weight
 1 25 100 Xmore than 2006. About two-thirds of all those who take IQ tests score in the average range, that is, between 85 and
 100. X115. 125. 135.7. Both the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler are
X intelligence scales. performed entirely with pencil and paper. achievement tests. used only for children born in the United States.8. The IQ test specific for preschoolers is the
 WISC. WAIS. Stanford-Binet. XWPPSI.9. Which of the following groups is most likely to be diagnosed with ADHD in the United States
 White children non-Hispanic Black children Hispanic childrenX third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade children10. If an intelligent 8-year-old cannot read, this might be attributed to
 dysgraphia. dysphonemia. Xdyslexia. dyscalcula.11. Emmas speech at age 3 was difficult to understand, and she did not demonstrate the typical language explosion. Now at age 8, she is experiencing difficulty in school. Her early speech history may have been an early indication for
X dyslexia. pervasive developmental disorder. ADHD. Asperger syndrome.12. Maria has dyslexia. Maria is taught in the regular classroom, where she has her own reading tutor for part of the day. This is an example of mainstreaming. the resource room. Xinclusion. indoctrination.13. According to Piaget, which of the following abilities do children gain during middle childhood conservation abstract reasoning logicX egocentrism14. The ability to understand connections between one fact and another, even though it is not stated, is called transitional thinking. abstract reasoning.X intuition. transitive inference.15. Which of the following accurately reflects Vygotskys view of the education system of his day XHe felt that children were incapable of memorizing facts at such a young age. He felt that the rote memorization of facts impeded childrens ability to apply their acquired knowledge. He felt that the teachers of the time were inadequately educated. He felt that too much was required of school-age children and that this led to a sense of shame and guilt.16. At what age are children able to develop their own memory aids and organize information on their own 2-5 years X5-7 years 7-8 years 9-11 years17. The change in cognition that allows children to focus without becoming distracted, persist at tasks, and exhibit quick, efficient memory is a result of the development of X preoperational thought. reciprocity. the limbic system. the control processes.18. Identify the best example of selective attention.

XRyan reads while other children in the room are singing. Shelley decides to do her math homework before going outside to play. Bill is drawing a picture, but he is distracted by his brothers radio. Karen is fixing a snack, trying to work on puzzles, and listening to the radio.19. Metacognition refers to
 better problem-solving strategies. better problem-solving abilities. Xthinking about ones thinking processes. considering multiple alternatives.20. The sudden understanding that ones tone of voice, word selection, and the context in which the language is used may override the literal content of ones speech requires a complex knowledge of metacognition. automatization.X the pragmatics of language. working memory.21. What percent of the worlds 7-year-olds are in school
 45 percent 60 percent X75 percent 90 percent22. In the rankings on math achievement (TIMSS), which of the countries does the textbook report to have scored the lowest in 2003
 Singapore The United States Canada XIran23. Jefferson High School has rules and regulations that guarantee student representation in school affairs. John, a senior, has learned that the administration of his high school wants obedience. Obedience at Johns school is a(n) hidden agenda. Xhidden curriculum. hidden value. hidden assumption.24. In 2002, the Japanese government instituted yutori kyoiku in order to Xease educational and testing requirements for schoolchildren. lower the standards of public education. increase the competitive edge in world scholarship competitions. duplicate the No Child Left Behind program instituted in the United States.25. Childrens increasing ability to regulate themselves, to take responsibility, and to exercise self-control all contribute to their sense of
 conservation. peer values. Xautonomy. egocentrism.26. Why is it so important that children learn a sense of industry or competence

It allows them to stand up to their parents and gain a sense of autonomy. It assures them a place high in the peer group. It provides structure and discipline in their lives. XIt provides a crucial defense against emotional problems.27. If you were to ask 10-year-old Stephen Who knows you best which of the following would likely be his answer XMy mom knows me better than anyone. My older brother knows me better than anyone. My best friend Jake knows me better than anyone. I know myself better than anyone.28. The child who weathers severe family problems, even abuse, and somehow remains unscathed in the process is termed as buoyant. resilient. parasympathetic. Xunflappable.29. Joey, age 8, lives in a very stressful, chaotic home where he sometimes witnesses his mother being physically abused. Joeys problems may be overcome by denying they exist. running away from home. being actively involved in his church. Xhiding in his room when trouble starts.30. In order to accurately measure the influences of family on childrens personalities, what have current researchers done looked at the weaknesses of earlier research and tried to avoid these aspects of heir methods developed totally new research, ignoring earlier research findings relied more on biological, objective, methods of research and less on subjective measures such as surveys Xpaid less attention to controlling for variables such as genes, gender, and age31. Com

The use of tactile pictures for the blind
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relevance of using tactile pictures in the cognitive development of the blind. This paper examines two experiments, the first evaluates the cognitive development of congenitally totally blind children using tactile-based tests and the second experiment examines the neural activity triggered by exposure to tactile pictures for both sighted and blind subjects.

Cognitive Patterning in Congenitally Totally Blind Children

Introduction and hypothesis
The aim of the study is to explore whether the absence of vision impairs the cognitive development of totally blind children. The hypotheses of the study are 1. The global-articulated cognitive style observed in sighted subjects is also manifested by the congenitally totally blind subjects 2. Visual impairment slows down the development of articulation of congenitally totally blind children and result to lower cognitive performance and, 3. Articulation and comprehension have no relationship with each other (Witkin, Birnbaum, Lomonaco, Lehr,  Herman, 1968, p.770). These were all explored using a series of tests given to the subjects.

Method
The subjects considered for the study, the various tests given to evaluate cognitive skills of the subjects and the procedures followed in conducting the experiment is provided below.

Subjects
For this experiment, 25 participants (13 boys and 12 girls) who are totally blind since birth made up the experimental group. All of them had no visual or light visions. The age of the participants ranged from 12 to 18 with the mean age of 14. Their IQ ranged from 92 to 153 with a mean of 114.8.
The control group on the other hand consists of 28 sighted children (15 boys and 13 girls). Their age ranged from 12 to 19 with mean age of 14 which is equivalent to that of the experimental group. Both groups were also equated in their average grade which is 8.7 and 8.8 for blind and sighted children respectively.

Tests and materials
The different tests conducted for this experiment are tactile embedded-figures, auditory embedded-figures, tactile design, matchsticks test and body concept test. The materials used in these tests include simple and complex objects made of plastic, matchsticks, textured blocks, musical note recordings and modeling clay.

Procedure
To test the analytical ability in perception of the subjects, the tactile embedded-figures test developed by Axelrod and Cohen (1961) was used (cited in Witkin, et al, 1968, p. 771). The test was conducted for both the control and experimental group. The participants were asked to examine a complex and simple object made of 4-inch-square sheet of plastic. For each trial, the participants were given 15 seconds to examine and describe a complex object. The figure is then removed and replaced by a simple figure embedded in it which the participant again examines for 10 seconds. The participants are then told that the simple object is embedded in the complex object. Then, the complex object is returned and the subjects were asked to find the simple object within it.  The maximum time provided was 300 seconds. Subjects who gave the wrong answers were allowed to continue until they find the right answer within the allotted time. Subjects who failed to give the right answer after 300 seconds automatically get the maximum score which is 300. Three practice trials were given before the actual test. The test consists of 14 trials. Sighted participants were asked to examine the objects behind a rectangular screen with a curtain to prevent visual exposure of the materials.

The next test conducted for the experiment is the auditory embedded-figures test developed by White (1953). It is an auditory version of the embedded test. For this method, 50 pairs of simple and complex tunes were played for the subjects. Subjects were asked to listen to each pair of tune and identify whether the short note is present in the complex tune. If the subjects are not sure of their answers, they were asked to guess.

Analytical ability of the participants in problem solving was measured using the tactile block design test. In this test, the subjects were asked to duplicate a reference design using a set of blocks. Instead of using colors, the blocks used were differentiated by their textures.  The process is timed and participants were given three points if they finish the reproduction within 30 seconds, 2 points if they finish it between 31 to 60 seconds, and one point if the time is between 61 and 180 seconds. Each subject was given eight trials.

The last tactile test was the matchsticks test. This is developed by Guilford, Frick, Christensen, and Merrifield (1957) and adapted from the visual test. Subjects were asked to reduce the number of squares in the lattice by removing specified number of matchsticks.

Another test given to the subjects is the body concept evaluation. The authors used a modified version of the body concept for this method. Instead of asking the subjects to draw a human figure, they used clay modeling. Subjects were asked to make a representation of a human figure. Models were rated based on their resemblance to the human figure. Lastly, subjects were tested for intelligence using the verbal section of the Wechsler test.

C. Results
For the tactile embedded test, the mean score obtained for the sighted was 64.5 while the blind subjects got a mean score of 134.5. This shows that they it took the blind group longer to find the simple object from the complex object. For the matchsticks test, the sighted obtained a score of 5.3 while the blind got 4.8. In the tactile block design, the scores were 10.9 and 12.3 for blind and sighted respectively which shows a more advanced development in the sighted subjects in terms of analytical ability. In terms of the body concept, the sighted subjects obtained a higher rating of 3.4 compared with the 2.6 rating obtained by the blind subjects. In the auditory-embedded test, the blind group scored 84.9 while the sighted group only scored 66.7.

Discussion
The test for consistency in cognitive functioning of the visually impaired shows intercorrelation among the scores obtained in the tactile embedded test, matchsticks test and tactile block design. The result shows that the performance of the blind subjects in the different tactile tests is consistent with the expectations of the experiment. The correlation scores from the three tests are high and significant ((Witkin, et al, 1968, p. 775). This suggests that blind people have different tactile skills and result varies from one individual to the next.  This confirms the first hypothesis that the global-articulated dimension observed in sighted individuals is also evident in the congenitally blind.

In the case of the auditory embedded test however, the scores obtained are not significant. This contradicts the expectation of the experiment. The authors believe that the inconsistency could be a factor of the nature of the test. Although the embedded factor is present, the fact that the test is more auditory rather than tactile-based could account for the unexpected results.

For the next hypothesis, the performance of the two groups was compared. Based on their mean scores, it is notable that the sighted subjects got higher scores in the tactile tests (tactile embedded test, matchsticks test and tactile block design) and body concept. The analysis of variance shows that the differences between the scores in the tactile tests and clay modeling test are significant. These results are also consistent with the expectations of the experiment.

For the third hypothesis, the articulation and comprehension of the blind subjects were tested for correlation. Using their verbal-comprehension factor IQ obtained from the Wechsler scales and the result of the five tests, the correlation obtained were all low and not significant. This confirms the hypothesis that comprehension and articulation are not related.

The contribution of the study is that the blind show less articulation in their cognitive development than the sighted subjects. The authors noted that this could be a function of their developmental history (p. 779). The sighted subjects had more exposure to the objects due to their visual advantage than the blind subjects. However, the authors noted that the difference in the result obtained from the congenitally totally blind subjects and the sighted subjects is not as great as expected given the circumstances. They also added that some of the blind participants even have more advanced cognitive functioning than their sighted counterparts. According to the study, this shows that blindness is not a hurdle to the development of the children, despite the inconveniences the blind children can learn these skills with time and practice.

The result for the blind and the sighted show that both groups have comparable verbal-comprehension ability as evidenced by their comprehension factor IQs of 115.5 and 113.7, respectively. The sighted group performed better in the tactile tests but the blind group have higher mean attention-concentration factor IQ compared with the sighted children, 124.0 and 110.9. The blind group has lower scores in terms of articulation but this is not correlated with comprehension. The authors believe that these differences maybe factor of their different experiences and that the field can be leveled up if the blind subjects are given more chances to develop these skills.

The next experiment deals with the neural examination of blind and sighted subjects. This examines whether there are differences in the brain activities of sighted and blind subjects exposed to tactile tests.

Object-Based Representation in the Human Ventral Pathway

Introduction and hypothesis
The paper investigated whether neural responses in the ventral visual pathway depend on sensory images or not. The experiment, by Pietrini,. et al (2004) was conducted to test the hypothesis that representations of objects in the  ventral temporal cortex are abstract rather than visual.

Method

Subject
For the experiment, five sighted and four blind subjects were tested. Among the sighted subjects, two are females and three are males and the average age was 336 years. Among the blind subjects, two are congenitally blind and the other two had no recollection of any visual experience, two females and two males with an average age of 5314 years. The subjects went through medical, neurological and psychiatric evaluations and structural MRI to rule out other causes affecting brain function.

Materials
Functional MRI was used to measure the activity evoked by tactile and visual recognition of objects. The images were obtained using gradient echo echoplanar imaging on a GE 3T scanner (Pietrini,. et al, 2004). According to Pietrini,. et al, for the tactile recognition test, 8 time series, each consisting of 174 brain volumes, were obtained for each subject (p. 5658). For the visual recognition, they obtained 12 time series, each consisting of 125 brain volumes for each sighted subject.

Procedure
In the tactile experiment, life masks, plastic bottles and shoes were used. Sighted subjects were blindfolded during the experiment. The subjects were made to lie on an MRI machine and the objects were presented to them using wooden pole with a Velcro. A wooden table was placed above their stomach to aid them in examining the object since they are restrained from the elbow up to avoid unnecessary movements. To even out the performances, subjects were given limited time to examine the objects. They were only given 15 seconds to examine face masks, 10 seconds for shoes and five seconds for bottles.

For the visual experiment, sighted subjects were shown photographic images. The same MRI procedure was undertaken to record their brain activities. Responses for both the tactile and visual experiment were analyzed to determine the recognition patterns.

Results
The result of the experiment showed that the tactile tasks evoked activities in the ventral extrastriate cortex in both sighted and blind subjects. Although there are some overlaps between the regions activated during visual and tactile exposure as shown by the result obtained from the sighted subjects, the authors noted that the inferior temporal activations in sighted and blind subjects were in essentially the same locations as shown in Figure 1 (p. 5660). This suggests that visual recognitions influence in the tactile reaction of the sighted subjects may be affected by their visual experiences but the degree of overlap is not that great which implies that the link is minimal.

Discussion
For this study, the goal was to test whether neural responses in the ventral visual pathway are more visual or more abstract. To evaluate this hypothesis, the study examined the patterns of activities evoked by tactile recognition of faces and other objects and compared them with the patterns of response obtained during visual recognition. Using both sighted and blind subjects enabled the authors to evaluate whether tactile recognitions are affected by sight or not. The authors concluded that although visual imagery affect the tactile representation in sighted subjects, the result obtained from the blind subjects shows that the development of the extrastriate visual cortex does not require visual experience (p. 5663). They added that sensory exposure to the objects alone is sufficient to support the development of these representation patterns in the brain. The study shows that the abstract, supramodal character of neural representation of objects in the inferior temporal cortex enables blind people to acquire normal knowledge about objects and interact effectively with their external world (p. 5663).

Although the visual experience of the sighted subjects influence their tactile reaction, it is remarkable that their brain reaction to tactile recognition mirrors that of the blind subjects. This indicates that tactile recognition evokes unique brain activities from visual recognition. Thus, even people who have never seen the object visually are able to recognize them through tactile recognition. In the same way, even sighted people who have seen the objects visually used tactile recognition rather than visual recognition under the circumstances.

Conclusion
Based on the results of these two experiments, it is evident that there are differences in the cognitive development of the blind and the sighted people. The blind subjects lack some of the development functions obtained by the sighted people or acquire them at a lower level. As shown in the first experiment, the blind subjects faced more challenges in accomplishing tactile tasks, however the results show that their performances of the blind group is not far behind that of the sighted subjects. The authors stressed that the lower scores do not indicate that the blind subjects are handicapped in terms of these skills, rather, it only shows that they have slight disadvantage compared with their sighted counterparts. Their performances also show that with more exposure they can develop these skills.

In the second experiment, it was shown that tactile skills are not visually dependent. Based on the experiment, blind people have the similar brain activities evoked in the sighted people when it comes to tactile recognition. The level of brain activity for both groups is not only equivalent but the areas of the brain functioning are almost similar, indicating that visual skills is not necessary in developing the tactile skill of an individual.

These tests both indicate the capability of the blind to perform well using tactile methods. The implication of the studies is that blindness is not a handicap in terms of cognitive development of an individual. As Witkin, et al (1968) noted, it could serve as an impetus for the individual to strive harder in developing these functions. Furthermore, to answer the question whether blind people have any sense of how objects appear by just using their sense of touch, these studies suggest that visually impaired individuals indeed have a very advanced understanding of how objects look like.