Psychology

The Encyclopaedia Britannica (2010) defines Biological Psychology as the study of the interrelationship of biology and psychology that affects behaviour. In other words, it takes careful examination on the physiological bases of behaviour that is manifested by an individual in certain conditions. Biological Psychology as a discipline concerns itself with

...the relationship between psychological processes and the underlying physiological eventsor, in other words, the mind-body phenomenon. Its focus is the function of the brain and the rest of the nervous system in recognized as characteristic of humans and other animals (httpwww.britannica.comEBcheckedtopic458833biological-psychology). 

Nervous system in activities refers to functions of the brain such as thinking, learning, perceiving, feeling and sensing. Biological Psychology concerns itself with the application of biological principles to the workings of the mind and bodily mechanisms. Biological Psychology is also known as Behavioural Neuroscience, Psychobiology and Biopsychology. Basically, biological psychology makes use of the biology to explain and understand the behaviour of both human beings and animals through the use of controlled experiments.

To understand Biological Psychology, it is best to trace its history and developments through the years. Avicenna, in the year 980-1037 C.E., was the first to study and associate psychology and physiology in his study involving treatment of illnesses that are related to emotions. Wickens (2005) gave background on the emergence of biological psychology as a contemporary discipline under psychology. He explained that even before the time of Plato and Aristotle, the mind-body-problem was already emerging in both the scientific and philosophical world. In the 1600s, dualism became popular through the works of to Ren Descartes. Descartes was the first to distinguish the brain from the mind and awareness.

Other notable philosophers also contributed a lot in the development of biopsychology. These people maintained that psychological processes can be associated with biological or physiological processes.

The Principles of Psychology as written by William James in 1890 was one of the earliest books in the field of Biological Psychology. James argued that biology is always vital in the scientific study of psychology. Psychology must be grounded on the principles of biology. Influential scientific researcher made by William Harvey, Claude Bernard and Charles Bell also reinforced the legitimacy of the connections between psychology and biology. Moreover, the term Biological Psychology was made popular in the modern era through the work of Knight Dunlap in his publication entitles An Outline of Psychobiology. Leahey (2000) explained that Dunlap has published his research with great emphasis on the interconnection of mental and bodily functions and behaviours which has become the basis for the general validity of the discipline of biological psychology.

The study of Biological Psychology also stems from the knowledge base of other disciplines such as psychology, biology, genetics and neurology. All these disciples are vital in explaining behaviour of animals and humans beings. The human brain is very complex that is why understanding it would require several inputs from other disciplines. Psychology and biology together with other related sciences can explain the workings of the mind in relations to bodily functions. It cannot be isolated from other disciplines as it is itself a product of a convergence of disciplines. Considering the scope and themes of Biological Psychology such as brain and behaviour, development of the nervous system, control and coordination of perception and actions, motivations, language and cognitive processes, memory mechanisms, mental disorders and emotional problems, it is indeed imperative that inputs from other sciences are being applied to biological psychology. All other disciplines overlap in biological psychology as this is crucial in the holistic understanding of the biological and physiological interconnectedness.

The advent of the discipline of Biological Psychology was paved by some important underlying assumptions about human mind. Biological Psychology is based on the premise that mental processes cause biological of physiological consequences. At the same time, biological events or situations cause mental consequences. Biological Psychology holds true the assumption that bodily and mental processes are influenced by one another and are directly linked to one another. These two are inseparable.

In the study of Biological Psychology, the debate on Nature vs. Nurture will always arise as this would naturally involve the topic on genes and acquired behaviour. Our genes comprise our biological make-up. It has been proven by biological researches that the genes are the main reasons of our present make-up, including behaviours. However, the environment where we grew up and the kind of upbringing we received while growing up also affect our behaviour. This debate on nature and nurture has only led to the intensification of the connection between biology and psychology. Indeed, our behaviours are partially based on the kind of genes we have and the kind of nurturing we experienced in the course of our lives.

Biological Psychology is relatively a new but advanced discipline. Though we cannot fully comprehend the workings of both body and mind, biological psychology can give us insights and answers to our long debated concerns in the interconnectedness of the brain and bodily functions.

During pregnancy women undergo many changes inside their body as the new baby takes its form within the mothers body. One such change associated with pregnancy is change in memory status which suffers loss according to some researchers. This controversy forms the basis of this research with the hypothesis of this research study being that cognitive performance, especially working memory, is indeed impaired during pregnancy and the postpartum period. The data was collected from three groups of women Women who were primigravida, primiparous, and who had never been pregnant. The participants of the study were tested on their working memory and answered questions about their levels of absentmindedness, quality of sleep and stress. 

On analysis it was found that the primigravida and primiparous women had poorer results on the objective working memory test when compared to the control group and they were more absentminded, had a poorer quality of sleep and were more stressed.  When comparing the primigravida and primiparous groups to one another, the primiparous women had poorer results on the working memory test, but were less absentminded, had a poorer quality of sleep, yet an equal stress level.

Introduction
During pregnancy women undergo many changes inside their body as the new baby takes its form within the mothers body. One such change associated with pregnancy is change in memory status which suffers loss according to some researchers. However there is a controversy in this belief which has been reported in the press this year that whether or not there is such a decrease in some aspects of cognitive functioning during pregnancy. This controversy forms the basis of this research with the hypothesis of this research study being that cognitive performance, especially working memory, is indeed impaired during pregnancy and the postpartum period. This study for confirmation of our hypothesis shall play a significant role in creating awareness among pregnant women regarding their condition during pregnancy and may help set their mind at ease knowing this deficiency that they are experiencing is part of being pregnant and not something permanent.

Method
The full details of the Method were not required for this assignment. In summary, the participants were 60 volunteer women who responded to an advertisement. Of these, 20 were 6-7 months pregnant with their first child, 20 were 2-3 months postpartum with their first child, and 20 had never been pregnant. The mean ages in years for each group (SDs in parentheses) were 28.5 (SD  3.1),   29.6 (SD  3.4), and 27.3 (SD  3.9).

The ethical procedures for research with human participants were fully implemented. Subjects first gave details of their age and then took the backward digit component of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.  Next, participants completed the three questions from the Absentmindedness subscale of the Short Inventory of Memory Experiences scale reporting on their level of absentmindedness over the past month (using a scale that ranged from 1 never to 7 always).  Participants then rated the quality of their sleep over the past month on a scale of 1 (I sleep very well) to 5 (I sleep very badly).  Finally, participants rated their level of stress over the past month as either (a) Not-at-all-stressed, or (b) Somewhat-or-very-stressed).

Results
Very interesting results were generated after applying the testing methods to the data and following are the important points that have been found

The primigravida group, women who were pregnant with their first child, and the primiparous women, those who had given birth to their first child, both had poor results on their backward digit component of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale when compared to the control group that is, those women who had never been pregnant (Table1 in Appendix).

In addition, the primigravida and primiparous groups both reported that they were more absentminded, had a poorer quality of sleep and were more stressed (Table 2 in Appendix). 

When comparing the primigravida and primiparous groups to each other (Table3 in Appendix) , it was determined that the primiparous women fared worse on the backward digit component of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, but were less absentminded, had a poorer quality of sleep, yet an equal stress level.

Discussion
The analysis of results showed that the primigravida and primiparous groups had poorer results on their digit span component of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (mean  5, STD  1.1 mean 4.85, STD  1.0) in comparison to the control group (mean  5.15, STD  1.2), with the primiparous women having the worst score.  This, therefore, seems to substantiate the hypothesis that women when pregnant and postpartum are more forgetful, when compared to other times in their lifespan.

Janes et al. emphasized on the importance of research to determine the impairment of working memory of a pregnant woman as the authors reported in 1999 there were no research conducted to compare the working memory of pregnant and postpartum women with that of a control group.  They felt that it was important as the working memory capacity has a parallel relationship with performing concurrent tasks simultaneously and therefore helps in determining how successful one shall be to manage the activities of daily living, which many times involves handling of many tasks concurrently.

Janes et al asserted that an increased forgetfulness in some areas could either result from a decreased capacity in the working memory or an increase in load on the memory of the pregnant women.  This might explain why the primiparous group has the lowest score on the digit span component of the Intelligence Scale as these women now have a newborn infant to attend to, they have additional tasks at their hand that had to be handled concurrently, and this put an increased load on their memory (Janes et al, 1999, pgs. 80-87).

Viewing the results in the light of the above research it becomes clear that the primigravida and primiparous groups were more absentminded (mean  4.46, STD  1.4 mean  4.44, STD  1.4) than women who had never been pregnant (mean  3.29, STD  1.0), with the first two groups now having to handle more tasks concurrently as well as having an increased burden on their memory.  Yet, the primiparous group was less absentminded than the primigravida one.  Some studies report that the increased absentmindedness experienced during pregnancy is associated with a temporary overload of the working memory capacity.  Indeed, the temporary overload that is hypothesized by some is in accordance with the previous discussion on working memory, and is also in agreement with the results of this research study.  Both primigravida and primiparous groups are more absentminded, are more forgetful, due to an increased load on their working memory capacity.  But the primiparous women, no longer pregnant are slowly returning to levels that will match that of the control group (Casey, 2000).

Another important factor that affects the working memory is the sleep pattern. Both the primigravida and primiparous groups had a poorer quality of sleep (mean  3.65, STD  1.2 mean  3.85, STD  1.0) as compared to the control group of women who had never been pregnant (mean  2.55, STD  1.1).  The changes observed in memory may, therefore, be related to the poorer quality of sleep. Poor sleeping pattern is most likely in women that are six to seven months pregnant undergoing all the pregnancy related anatomical and hormonal changes and in women who have recently given birth and are caring for a two- or three-month old infant. Therefore it is evident that they would have poorer quality of sleep as compared to women who are neither pregnant nor caring for a child.  Similarly both the primigravida and primiparous groups had a higher stress level (mean for both at 70) when compared to the control group (mean at 25), which is also an important factor that can also affect memory working.

Crawly et al (2008) explains that there are actually several potential reasons why pregnancy results in changes in cognition these being the changing hormonal levels of progesterone, estrogen and cortisol. All these hormonal changes during pregnancy have been shown to affect cognition, although the evidence is not consistent stress, depression and anxiety as well as the demands of adjusting to a major transition also play a major role in memory impairment during pregnancy.

Hence from the above literature review it is clearly evident that cognitive abilities and memory is indeed adversely affected during the time of pregnancy and postpartum.  And this hypothesis has been substantiated by the research results which was the purpose of this paper. Some interesting facts to know at this time is that although memory impairments do occur in women during pregnancy and post partum, significant improvement is observed after some time and the working memory may return to its normal functioning once the period of stress and sleepless nights are gone. Also, the degree of impairment is dependent on many factors and may vary among person to person depending on factors like problems experienced during pregnancy or sleep routines of infants for recent mothers. The more problems associated with pregnancy and new motherhood more shall be the load on memory resulting in memory loss. Future directions in this study can include research on the diversity of memory loss experienced by the pregnant women during and after their pregnancy and the extent to which this memory loss hinders women in performing their daily chores. These studies would help women get acquainted with a major problem of memory loss associated with their pregnant condition.

Design  a  marketing  strategy  for  Deluxe  Chips  new  product  line.
The  target  consumer  for  Deluxe  Chips  new  product  line  is  35  50 years  old.  The  tag  line  for  these  products  would  be  you  need  not  compromise  on  taste  anymore.  It  will  be  marketed  as  a  snack  for  the  middle-aged  which  not  only  satisfies  ones  taste-buds  but  also  helps maintain  good  health.  The  consumers  which  would  most  certainly  be  well  aware  of  the  brand  Deluxe  Chips  will  eagerly  accept  the  treat.

Explain  how  you  would  propose  that  the  company  implement  the  marketing  strategy
The  market  analyst  will  identify  the  retail  stores  which  are  frequently  visited  by  middle  aged  consumers.  Then  we  will  do  a  survey  to  find  out  the  food  habits  of  those  consumers.  Accordingly,  the  right  product  will  be  positioned  in  the  right  neighborhood.  Also,  we  will  compare  the  fat,  cholesterol  and  food  value  of  other  similar  products  available  in  the  market  and  advertise  our  superior  quality.  We  would  give  away  free  samples  to  middle  aged  consumers  in  gymnasiums  and  sports  clubs.

Explain  what  additional  value  you  as  an  OPD  professional  might  offer  a  company  in  terms  of  sales  and  marketing.
I  would  talk  to  the  target  consumers  and  understand  their  psychology.  Then  I  would  tell  the  marketing  team  what  the  consumer  really  needs  and  how  they  could  sell  the  product  to  the  consumer  better.  Success  of  marketing  depends  on  consumer  needs  and  behavior.  So,  understanding  the  consumer  is  the  highest  priority  for  every  manufacturer  these  days.

The elderly, ages 65 and older, is part of the vulnerable population that needs significant protection and assistance from their family and community.  Salt Lake City has a growing elderly population, which comprises 10.3 of the citys total population (Assisted Living Directory, 2010).  It is the most populous region in Utah where the total elderly population comprises 9 of the statess total population (US Census Bureau, 2010).  This statistical figure is lower than than the average national percentage of elderly population.  However, Utah has the fastest growing elderly population, hence the elderly population is expected to increase in the very near future.  This increasing trend in the aging population prompts for community action in predicting the needs of the elderly to adequately support them (The Utah Aging Initiative, n.d.).  In addition, these current demographics illustrate that there are a lot of opportunities for an elderly to be abused, hence, a call for action.

There are very few cases of elderly abuse that are reported in proper agencies in comparison to the actual high number of occuring elderly abuses.  According to the Utah Adult Protective Services, the vulnerable elderly population mostly suffer from self-neglect, exploitation, and physical and emotional abuse among the 3 highest ranked elderly issues (n.d.).  An awareness of this calls for adequate protection and support from available agencies that cater to this population.  In Salt Lake City, Utah, there are a number of agencies that provide support and protection to the elderly population and aid them in maximizing the quality of their remaining life.  Three of the agencies that address the needs of this population are the Utah Adult Protective Services, the Salt Lake County Aging Services, and the Eddie P. Mayne Kearns Senior Center.

The Adult Protective Services (APS) in Utah provides their services to elder adults who need protection from different forms of abuse and exploitation until such time that they no longer need external help.  Services are provided by the agency primarily on a voluntary basis as well as by court order.  It is the sole responsibility of the APS to provide protective services to any vulnerable elderly and dependent adult regardless of their financial capacity (APS, 2008).

A vulnerable adult is defined as an individual who is 65 years or older.  In addition, an adult (18 years old and above) with physical and mental disabilities, who cannot provide self-protection, basic physiologic needs such as food and shelter, and unable to carry out daily chores, is included in the agencys target population.  This person is also unable to discern the dangerous situation he is in.  According to the agency, an eligible referral fulfills the two provisions previously stated and presents a risk for abuse, neglect, and exploitation.  First, abuses can take the form of emotional, psychological, physical, and sexual abuse.  Second, neglect is two-way, it can either be from the caregiver or the individual himself.  Third, exploitation can be financial, criminal, or legal in form (APS, 2008).

It is mandated by law that any person who is aware of a presence of abusive conduct against a vulnerable adult should report this to the Adult Protective Services.  Failure to report has a corresponding charge against the person (APS, 2008).  Once the Adult Protective Services is notified of the abuse report, the process of intake starts.  The reporting individual should contact the receiving intake worker from the APS through their phone numbers or via internet referral.  The reporter provides all necessary information regarding the individual who needs the protective services of the agency, as well as the abusers pertinent information.  After documenting all information, the intake worker informs the reporter regarding referral services and the assigned investigator for further assessment (APS, 2008).

The APS is responsible for receiving and screening abuse reports.  However, not all abuse reports are prompted with immediate action.  A process of in-depth investigation follows the abuse report.  The APS also assesses the immediate needs of the adult and provides crisis intervention to alleviate the patients condition.  Furthermore, referrals are made to the appropriate community agencies.  These services are provided to the adult only when the adult permits and needs help.  These will be discontinued once the adult regains independence and the ability to protect himher self from abuse (APS, 2008).

The services of the APS incur costs to participants receiving their services.  Primarily, the vulnerable adult shoulders all expenses from protective services received if  a) heshe is financially capable of paying the costs, b) heshe is eligible to receive services from other agencies, and c) heshe is required by court law to pay his appointed guardian with hisher own money (APS, 2008).

The needs of the elderly can be protected not only by reporting abuses but also through health promotion in this group.  There are agencies in Salt Lake, namely, Salt Lake County Aging Services and Eddie P. Mayne Kearns Senior Center, that advocate for healthy and active elderly by offering activities in younger seniors.  Abuse, neglect, and exploitation of the elderly are prevented through th

The Salt Lake County Aging Services provides their services to young and active seniors, as well as the frail elderly.  Their target population are the seniors, disabled adults, and their caregivers (Salt Lake, n.d.).  The agencys mission is to promote independence in the older population in Salt Lake City.  The agency is composed of eligible volunteer staffs and program managers for the various services they provide.  Interested individuals who want to join the agency in helping the elderly can apply through volunteer opportunities.  Volunteer positions are available for all the different programs offered by the agency.  There are assigned volunteer coordinators and program assistants for all programs and services.  However, there is an eligibility criteria that a participant should pass before being accepted into the agency.  Likewise, there is also an eligibility criteria that needs to be fulfilled by an elderly person who wishes to receive such services offered by the agency (Salt Lake County Aging Services, 2009).  Specific requirements for eligibility in the different services offered by the agency are available in their official website.

For instance, the senior transportation program assists the elderly in gaining access to health care facilities needed for their treatment by providing a means of transportation.  This program greatly helps elders who have neither vehicles of their own nor a family relative who can drive for them.  Transportation may include rides to the hospitals for critical treatments such as chemotherapy or going to the pharmacy to pick-up prescribed medicines.  Rides are available during weekdays from 8 in the morning to 415 in the afternoon, except for Thursdays, when schedule starts later at 930 am to 415 pm.  Schedules are requested through phone calls and should be set one week in advance to allow sufficient time to organize shifts.  Donation statements requesting 2.00 for each trip is sent out monthly to clients (Salt Lake County Aging Services, 2009).

The process of intake of clients in the program starts with screening for eligibility which is done through phone interview.  In this specific program, a client may receive ride services if a) heshe is 60 years or older, b) heshe resides at Salt Lake County, and c) heshe lacks other means for transportation.  Meanwhile, a participant can become a volunteer driver for this program if heshe fulfills the volunteer requirements.  These include possession of a current class D Utah drivers license, good driving record, and commitment to work at least 4 hours per shift in a week.  HeShe must also pass a background check and complete a course on defensive driving (Salt Lake County Aging Services, 2009).
The Eddie P. Mayne Kearns Center is operated by the Salt Lake County Aging Services.  The agency was founded to address foreseeable needs of the growing elderly population in Salt Lake.  They provide their services to older adults, 50 years and above.  The agencys staff is composed of elder adults which is a good representation of who they are and who they serve.  The staff is composed of a center manager, program and office specialists, special instructors for the activities offered, and other aides to manage the meals, security, and transportation (Eddie P. Mayne Kearns Senior Center, n.d.).
Volunteer opportunities are available for participants who want to render their services for the agency.  Volunteers with special skills in performing and teaching classes offered in the agency are highly encouraged to apply.  Requirements include reliability and being people-oriented.  There are no minimum hours of work required from volunteers.  On the other hand, a person may participate in the senior activities offered by the agency if a) heshe is 60 years and above, or b) heshe is a spouse of someone who is 60 years or older.  As long as these requirements are fulfilled, an individual may participate in the activities by giving a small amount of donation (Salt Lake County Aging Services, 2008).

There are available, accessible, and affordable agencies that address the needs of the elderly population in Salt Lake County, Utah.  These agencies are very important in helping the elderly population if indeed abuses are being committed against them and in preventing abuses from being conducted through opportunities for independent and healthy lifestyle.  Awareness of the presence of these agencies is very important so that the elderly population or people who want to help can readily access and contact the said agencies.

Traditionally, a mothers role has been considered to be in the home. When women enter the work force, they do not lose their unique attributes with respect to their nurturing roles nor do they give up the functions and reciprocities of the home. Instead, they have added new functions and dimensions of social participation to their key role as home-makers. Through time, the society has accepted that women not only have the capacity and the potential but also, they have the right to seek and enter the work force if they want to or if economic necessity so requires. This is the case for single mothers with find it imperative to work in order to earn her family a decent life. For single mothers, to provide for their children and for themselves the physiological needs such as food, water, sleep, and safety. Hence, a good quality of life is essential for a single mothers well being. The psychological well-being of over-burden single working mothers may have decreased as they are more prone to depression as compared with mothers with their husband.

This study revolves around the effects of multiply role strains experienced by single mothers and the social support they have to improve the quality of life of single working mothers. As a consequence of mothers performing multiple social roles, they are exposed to many sources of social support. These consist of help or assistance received from others that may promote emotional well0being and facilitate the performance of mothers social roles. These may take form of instrumental aid, information, or emotional sustenance. The objective of this study is to determine the quality of life of single working mothers in pursuit of striking a balance between role strains of work, mothering and leisure activities with the help of available social support. This may determine the significance of role strains and available social support on the quality of life compare the quality of life of mothers who are in different age groups and, identify common role strains of single working mothers and the coping mechanisms most commonly used by them.

METHODOLOGY
This study will simply revolve around life issues of single and working mothers, particularly the roles they perform and the kind of support they are receiving in return. Its focus is on the psycho-social domains of quality of life of single working mother of a certain state. In this effect, the study will be using the World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL)-BREF survey questionnaire. Depending on the given time frame, approximately 100 respondents will be asked to participate in this study. Statistical reports are very minimal however, given that the researcher will find any statistics on single working mothers, the number of respondents will vary accordingly. The respondents should be randomly picked and should comprise at least one-half of the population. A qualitative method of research will be done through in-depth interviews using several key-informants from different age groups. A panel discussion would also be helpful to greatly distinguish different themes from different age groups.

In the hopes of providing valid results in this study, a survey that is well tested will be used that shall study the different variables of this study. It will be presented in Likert-scale format. Each part will be focusing on each variable. These variables consist of the social roles of mothers as the independent variables social support as the extraneous variables and, lastly the quality of life of single working mothers as the dependent variable of this study.  The third scale that will focus on social support will be surveyed using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support created by Zimet, Dahlem  Farely (1988). Their direct relationships will be studied using the Social Interactionism by George Mead in 1934. With this theory, the behaviour of single and working mothers can be explained through their perception of their roles as workers, mothers and social beings in general. These perceptions can aid or hinder them in their fulfilment of role expectations.

Data Analysis will be through tables of frequency of answers. Means will be computed to show the group score per item. Furthermore, ranking of domains will be done to show priority or significance in life of single working mothers. Pearsons correlation will be used in analysing variables of the study and the socio-demographic of respondents. In the qualitative research, key themes and patterns of responses will be identified and analyzed a narrative summary of each will be given.

RESULTS
Results of the socio-demographic study of Single working mothers across the state will probably show that most mothers have at least one dependent child, a sole provider, living with only their children, at least a college graduate, and with middle rank gross annual income. Over-all, role strains will be high among single working mothers. The biggest role that mothers have to fulfil with be working apart from taking care of the children and managing the household. However, quality of life of these single mothers will be perceived by them as good while some will rate themselves as having a poor quality of life. These may be accounted for by the amount of social support they receive. Majority will come from the family and friends while others consider their new significant other as their kind of social support.

DISCUSSION
Age plays a factor in a mothers quality of life. Results show that despite their more from the middle adulthood age group will have a good quality of life. Craig (2004) Asserted that time has always been an important aspect of the lives of single working mothers and their children. Parental attention children of single mothers receive are greatly decreased as single mothers are burdened with time pressure and time commitment to both work and their children.  In the study made by Milne (1999), he supports these findings wherein the most serious problem was lack of time to satisfy the demands of both work and domestic life. As much as mothers would like to spend time with their children, work has become a necessity for them. Time in finding balance is seen as a precious commodity that individuals attempt to manage, often competing demand on their time (Condon, 2007). Prioritizing of needs is also essential and these burdens act as a great stressor in a life of a single and working mother. Social support helps alleviate these role strains and psychologically maintains a good way of thinking.

This paper discusses two methods of phenomenological research transcendental and hermeneutic research. It includes the definition of the two approaches, their similarities, differences, strengths, and weaknesses.

Phenomenological Research Methods
Introduction
Phenomenology is a movement in philosophy started by Edmund Husserl in 1905. This movement is based on the notion that reality is all about what is perceived by human consciousness and not by anything that deviates from it. Husserl focused on what is directly given. He pointed out that experiences are immediate and must be isolated to its essence, stripping it off with all metaphysical theories and assumptions. From Husserl, the movement spread across the world influencing many significant persons in history such as Max Scheler and Martin Heidegger.

A book entitled Phenomenological Research Methods written by Clark E. Moustakas (1994) discusses different methods of research regarding phenomenology. In his book, he focused on different approaches in research such as ethnography, grounded theory, hermeneutics, empirical phenomenological research and heuristic research.

This paper focuses on the concepts of transcendental and heuristic phenomenological research methods as discussed in the book of Moustakas.

Transcendental Phenomenology
In the book, Moustakas relays Husserls concepts regarding transcendental phenomenology. According to him, this approach deals with eliminating all assumptions, prejudgments, and presuppositions. He explains further that observing phenomenology requires perviewing openly without outside influence. Basically, it is to observe phenomenon as they happen and appear in the human consciousness. Moustakas further explained that what is in consciousness is an absolute reality while what appears to the world is a result of learning. He also points out the importance of intuition as a process of withdrawing towards the self in order to achieve meaning and essence. Descartes referred to it as epoch (26). Transcendental phenomenology revolves around only one thing, which is what the person perceives. According to Husserl, Ultimately, all genuine, and, in particular, all scientific knowledge rests in inner evidence as far as such evidence extends, the concept of knowledge extends also. (25).

Hermeneutic Phenomenology
Hermeneutics is basically to read through appearances to understand the meaning behind it. It gives importance to the point of view of the event, as well as its social and cultural influences. Moustakas highlights the statement of Gadamer saying, the starting points of hermeneutic studies are to be found in art and in philological-historical insights. (10). One of the proponents of hermeneutic phenomenology was Martin Heidegger. He was born in Germany and started his career in the field of theology. At first, he was a follower of Husserl but never became his formal student. He succeeded Husserl in the field of phenomenology but disagreed with him afterwards. Heideggers concept was called Dasein, which means the mode of being human. He also emphasized that humans are concerned with their destiny in a foreign world (Laverty, 2003).

Similarities and Differences
Heideggers view of phenomenology shared similarities with transcendental phenomenology of Husserl. Both of these approaches are concerned with human experience as it happens. The goal is to shed light on the details of human experiences that are often taken for granted. It aims to create meaning and understanding of human life.

In research, both methods view human experiences as something that cannot be applied by quantitative means. Both methods take experiences as a whole, not just their subjective parts. They look for the meaning and essence of each experience rather than explaining or measuring it. They gather information as perceived by the person through interviews and non-formal conversations. Both of these methods also reflect the interests and the commitment of the researcher. They perceive behavior and experiences as a bond between the subject, object, and the parts of the whole.

Strengths and Weaknesses
Transcendental phenomenologys strengths as a research method lie in the fact that it aims to discover the meaning and essence of a person through reflection on subjective acts and their subjective counterparts. It emphasizes that it is only what comes to our consciousness that is certain and guarantees its objectivity. It promotes the notion that humans must withdraw towards themselves to find meaning in their experiences. These advantages are shared by both transcendental and hermeneutic phenomenology. Hermeneutics, however, does not just tackle the understanding of the phenomenon as it happens but also digs deeper and uses it to access reality in itself.

The main idea that transcendental and hermeneutic researches are only limited to what is actually happening and are used as a basis for understanding its essence also renders it weak. These approaches are qualitative and therefore cannot be measured. They are applied to understanding events such as behavior. However, a researchers perception is also relative to hisher interpretation of the observed behavior of the object. Although methods include interviews and formal conversations, the outcomes are not standardized to make it agreeable. These approaches are also not applicable on studies which require certain inquiry on a particular population. It is also a challenge to distinguish the absolute reality in an object from the influences of the outside world.

Abstract
Emotional attraction involves feeling a deep connection to another person. When there is an emotional attraction together with romance, it ends up building a strong relationship. The context of this paper is establishing how romance and emotional connection relate to each another.

Attraction is experiencing an emotional connection towards someone. It can be more than physical in cases where an individual has romantic feeling to the one that heshe is attracted to. In cases where couples continuously connect, attraction may result to love that may go way past comprehension. When individuals are physically, intellectually and also emotionally attracted to each other, they may end up in a more intense relationship. When there is an emotional attraction between individuals, a powerful bond usually develops between them. This bond usually becomes obvious to people around the individuals. It can be seen through the way the couples look at each other.

Emotional together with physical attraction between individuals can be so powerful to the extent of leaving them in a state of bliss or intoxicated with love. This type of attraction is not common and the feelings and emotions in such situations are difficult to understand. Just a touch by another partner is usually enough to leave the other weak with passion.

Emotional attraction involves an individual being attracted to another persons emotions unconsciously but passionately. This is usually an indication that an individual is in love with another persons feelings and that they relate at the same level such that they are able to affect each other emotionally. When one individual is sad, happy or hurt, the other one is likely to respond in a similar way.

Romance is a pleasant passionate feeling that is brought about by love. In romantic situations, it is not always that there has to be an emotional attraction. People may be intellectually or physically attracted which results in a wide range of bonds. A couple my not be emotionally connected but they may have physical intimacy.

Is there a right way of love
There are different definitions of love depending on individuals. This is because of the different views that different individuals hold about love. An individuals act of love may not be perceived to be so by a different individual. Love is distinctive to different individuals and couples. To some couples, small acts of kindness to each other may be their way of expressing love to one another while to others they may require more than just simple acts to express love. In a relationship, for love to exist, there are expectations that need to be met by both partners, failure to which tension arises between them (Hulk  Pollock, 2001).

When people enter into a relationship with expectation to have their partners behave like them, it leads to misunderstanding and unhappiness. This strains the relationship. Unless the couples appreciate the fact that they are different, they are bound to experience problems in their union. Most successful relationships have been built on respect for one another and compromise of some things. For a successful and loving relationship, couples need to trust their heart and do what will favor both of them. They should be able to appreciate one anothers differences and try to cope with them instead of trying to criticize. The fact that they are different and were raised in different environment, they cannot expect to possess the same characters and behaviors. They should try to connect to one another emotionally and with that, they could be able to find love and peace with each other (Constable, 2003).

The feeling of lovechemistry
This is a biological electric feeling that brings about a rush of passion to couples when together. In some relationships, this feeling can be so powerful that when they are together they can mutually feel it without touching. The feeling may keep growing with time such that when the couples touch each others hands, an instant biological response is experienced.

True chemistry can be intoxicating to the couple involved such that they cannot be able to fulfill their daily duties perfectly. They may find it difficult to separate from each other. They may experience an intense passion for one another that alienates them from the real world. Although chemistry involves strong feelings towards each other, it may exist without the actual love (Hulk,  Pollock, 2001). This can be especially challenging and hurting when it is only one party involved. Although a couple can love each other but lack the chemistry, this does not make the relationship less good to those that get a privilege of experiencing it. A couple may lack chemistry during their earlier days together, but this may come to exist as the relationship grows and matures (Coale, 1998).

 Chemistry may not be a necessity for love to exist but if it happens to be present, it can take couples to unimaginable levels. For one to experience it, you need to open up feel and express emotions that exist within you. Other people become so stressed up and worried that they do not get the opportunity to loosen up and get to experience the feeling. If a person releases the inhibitions that exist within and expresses the feelings inside, they may be amazed to find that a friend that they could have stayed with for long without emotional attachment could turnout to be their soul mate (Constable, 2003).

How to reveal to someone you are attracted to the truth
There are several ways in which this can be achieved. The first step should be ensuring that the person is available and that heshe is single, after which you can proceed using any of the following ways
If you are the kind of person who is free and outgoing, you can decide to share your feeling over coffee or dinner. But if you are reserved and could like expressing your heartfelt feeling in a private and quite place, you can do it at home, while walking or on a nature trail. If you are the type of person who doesnt like talking openly about their feelings, you can write an email or send a letter to the person. You can also express them through romantic gestures. Such gestures could include sending roses accompanied with a card expressing your feeling or if its a woman who is interested in man, she can buy him a gift related to his interest. Gifts bring out the feeling and attraction a person has towards the other (Cupach  Spitzberg, 2004).

A romantic dinner can also do or you could decide to spend a weekend away in a romantic place. One should basically spend more time with the person heshe is interested in and engage in activities that both of them like. Generally, notes indicating affection can also help in expressing out your feelings. You can put a romantic note in a place that you know the person is likely to find it and wait for their response as this can be fun. Body language is also important as it can be expression of your inner feelings to a person. Acts such as hugs, warm smiles and even reaching for ones hand can say a lot (Galician, 2004).

Emotional attraction
According to Holmes (2006), most relationships with an emotional attraction turn out to be successful. Although looks count in a relationship, they cannot form a basis of a relationship. This is so because, with time, looks may disappear and if there are no other attractions to sustain the relationship, it may end up failing. As much as physical emotions together with emotional attractions are important, intellectual attraction should also not be left out. Emotional attractions have been found to result in relationships that are stronger compared to physical attraction. People, who are able to emotionally relate to each other, treat each other in a better way. The way a couple relates to each other can tell if they are emotionally attracted to one another (Cupach  Spitzberg, 2004).

Emotionally attracted people enjoy doing things and spending time together for a long period of time regardless of the activity that they are involved in. They care about thoughts and feelings of one another in a sincere way. In majority of people, body language, attitude together with emotions play an important role in attraction. Confidence, attitude regarding various life issues and also views about relationships matter to some. A closed look with introverted body language keeps people off you. Body language speaks volumes about an individual such as if heshe is approachable. Simple actions such as smiling or having a positive attitude help in bringing out a positive body language (Greven, 2006).

Signs that could indicate if true love really exists
According to Galician (2004), when somebody is in a relationship, it is difficult for that individual to determine if heshe is in a true love or not. But generally, there are aspects that an individual needs to look for which can disclose true love.

The most obvious one is when people are always smiling when together. If individuals are happy together, there is a possibility that they are both in love. This happiness in not the normal happiness but its the kind of happiness that expresses peak happiness for both.

Another aspect is passage of time. When individuals are in love, they dont seem to notice time flying. They may lose track of time and vanish into their own time zone without a beginning or an end. It may seem like a dreamlike condition of shared happiness (Piep, 2003).

Couples in love prioritize each other. You may find that there is a lot of work that they are supposed to attend to but they could be able to spare time for one another. Understanding one anothers work forms part of true love so that you could be able to program your schedule to fit into each others. This could ensure that a balance is made between work and your relationship.

Unplanned acts of love together with thoughtfulness can also be an indication of real love. This are those little gestures of love that come when least expected. They can be kind and affectionate gestures or sincerer conversations with your partner expressing how you feel about himher. (Gifra, 2000)
People who are in true love involve one another in their activities. This can be seen when one of them has a plan of traveling to a place and requests the other to accompany himher. This acts as a show of true love as it brings out the desire of involving the other partner in their plans. The feeling experienced when touched or hugged by people in love is also different. 

Common values and goals in relationships
According to Coale (1998), it is essential to know your partners aspirations and things that matter to both of you. It is also important to figure out individual values and goals so that you can see if they match. Sometimes people come to realize that they have different valuesgoals long after they have started a relationship. Its important for couples to determine if they share general values and if what each partner wants out of the relationship is acceptable or shared by the other. They should be able to access how each of the unshared goals together with values will affect their relationship and if they could be able to overcome the challenge.

Differences in brain sex of men and women
According to Schlinger (2004), men and women recognize the world in considerably unlike ways. This is because brains of both men and women differ in a number of ways. They include hearing abilities, tasking abilities, language functions, spatial capabilities, emotional availability and also breadth of attention. These changes are partly due to the different structural and functional structures. Because of this, one should be able to recognize and appreciate limitations together with gifts from the opposite sex. An open mind should be encouraged in cases where brain sex differences are manifested. Through this, proper and strong relationships both physical and emotional could be able to be developed (Brooks, 2007).

The purpose of this research was to test the prediction that exposure to extremely thin celebrity pictures leads to low body-esteem in college aged women resulting in high stress levels, and exposure to more realistic celebrity pictures leads to high body-esteem. Using ANOVA, all the independent variables were compared with the celebritys body type. .  A correlation was performed on all the independent variables as well to establish whether there was any relationship between body esteem, body approval, and stress level.

On the issue of effects on celebrity body approval, the results obtained were as predicted exposure to images of female celebrities with different body types affects the way that participants rate the celebrities bodies. On the effects on body esteem, the hypothesis that was tested was that the body type of the celebrities to which the participants were exposed, affects body esteem. Subsequently, ANOVA was performed to test the prediction. Though it had been hypothesized that body esteem would be lower for the participants considered emaciated celebrities as compared to those who perceived the more realistic celebrity images, the results of the test did not support this hypothesis. On the other hand for the effects on stress, the hypothesis was that women who were exposed to the images of emaciated celebrities would have higher stress levels. However, final the results of the ANOVA test did not hold up this prediction.

To test the correlation across celebrity body approval, stress and body esteem, the hypothesis tested was that body esteem is correlated with stress level in college-aged women. After performing a correlation across all the dependent variables, the results established that body esteem and stress levels were negatively correlated and this was anticipated. Body esteem was marginally correlated to celebrity body approval which was not expected. Hence, the hypothesis in this study was very relevant and correct.

Derrick, Gabriel, and Tippin (2008), in their research study on the impact of modeling, established that women especially at young ladies- with low self esteem can enhance it through parasocial relationships. In their research model, they conducted three studies by sampling one hundred undergraduate students for each to determine the relationship between parasocial relationships and self esteem. They results of their research study ascertained that parasocial relationships brings about self-enhancing benefits to individuals with low self esteem.

In another study, Smeesters, Mussweiler, and Mandel (2010) carried out research study to determine how different individuals feel when they are exposed to watching thin andor heavy media models. The results of their study established that self-esteem among women with normal body mass index changes positively andor negatively depending on whether or not the models they are exposed to is either heavy or thin. Hence, they concluded that women with normal body mass index have higher self-esteem when exposed to both thin and extremely heavy models. Reason being that they feel being similar to moderately-thin models as opposed to experiencing negative attitude towards heavy models.

However, self-esteem among women with normal body mass index was very low when they were exposed to both moderately-heavy and extremely-thin models (Smeesters et al, 2010).  This is attributed to the perception that such people feel very similar to both the moderately-heavy models and dissimilar to the extremely-thin models. It is thus important to note how exposure to models in the media influences self-esteem in women and especially those that are overweight andor underweight.

This study seeks to analyze attachment theory and cognitive behavioral therapy. It will review the major proponents in attachment theory namely John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. It will demonstrate the sub-divisions of attachment theory namely secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment and disorganized-insecure attachment. It will explore the views of Aaron Beck, who is an American psychiatrist. It will illustrate how cognition plays an essential role in behavior change. In particular, it will illustrate how the cognition or thoughts of an individual impact their behaviors in different ways. In the long run, it will cover the effects of negative thoughts or beliefs, and how they derail positive change on his behavior.


The Influence of Attachment  Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy during Counseling
Today, most people owe what they are to their childhood experiences. Some are either living healthy lives due to the security they got from their beloved caregivers or some are undergoing very negative lives due to the insecurity they experienced from their would-be loved ones. On the other hand, there are people who attach their behavior to their beliefs and convictions. They let their minds influence their behavior where this influence can be positive or negative. This study seeks to more deeply examine the concepts of attachment and cognitive behavioral theories. It will also establish that the two theories need to be integrated with another theory referred to as Psychological Engineering which simply means that no person is condemned to have negative growth.

Aim  Procedure
There are a number of theories that have been advanced in a bid to explain the human personality, growth and development. The impressive thing is that the theories rely on observations and verifications hence making them more authentic and truthful. Human personality is a very controversial issue that has led many scholars to develop theories with the hope that their theories will solve the mystery of human nature. Among these mysteries is the one that takes into account the historical implications or the connection between the different stages of life and have they influence one another. In this regard, the cognitive behavioral theory and the attachment theory are among the best. In this study, the approach will be personalized and integrative or better still, it will be a synthesis of personal approach within the frame of the two theories. The main points in this approach are as follows relationships in tender stages of growth impact the other stages of development in the person the mental content is part and parcel of the actions a person implements every day. In other words it will support the dictum that man becomes what he knows. The study will also capture certain and practical therapeutic practices to emphasize more on the chosen theories. In general, the views of Bowlby, Ainsworth and Beck will be incorporated accordingly. In the long run, it will be indicated that the defects in these three theories constitute another theory which will be referred to as psychological engineering. Therefore, the theory of psychological engineering will be used to conduct the therapy test.

Philosophy and Basic Assumptions
The theory of Psychological Engineering is based on the fact that a human being is like clay which can be transformed into many shapes. One can use clay to model a pot, a chair, a toy name it. This means that a human person is endowed with a lot of potentialities such that no theory can tie him to a certain point. It is true that many theories in Psychology are based on verifiable facts but they fail to consider that humans have the ability to improve from certain situations. The choice to use attachment theory and cognitive behavioral theory is because both theories touch on the core aspects that can be very useful in pursuance of good personal development. A person of good will cannot help another person in his growth if she does not understand the background of his problems. To this extent, both theories provide a basis for such a background. 

In so many instances, persons fail to realize the potential in them. It is exactly from this point that an unhealthy and imbalanced growth begin. Literally, the notion that  am not worth or cannot do it or sense of inability and low self-esteem is what constitutes a dysfunctional personality. By the way, one can get the best nurturance and care from the parents and still fail to be mentally and emotionally healthy. One can also very good ideas, very good thoughts but still fail to have good skills execution. The most important thing is that healthy personality depends with the agent.

Psychological Engineering, bases itself on the principles of existentialism which states that only an individual can shape his destiny and values in life, including his health. Self-consciousness and self-determination can help a dysfunctional person grow out of the problem. It is a matter of self-discovery and self-actualization. In general, psychological engineering rests on the fact that no theory can be absolute and that human development is in itself a potentiality. In this regard, it is possible to achieve a good and health personality even if one did not have secure attachment and it is possible for one to have positive thoughts and behavior through education and self-discovery.

Attachment Theory
The major proponents of attachment theory are John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth  Bowlby, 1991). John Bowlby based his theory on certain concepts such as ethology, information processing, cybernetics, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysts. He brings in a complete revolution in the thinking about a childs bond to the parent and its disruption through disconnection, deprivation, and bereavement. Ainsworth progressed forward on the subject of the theory of Bowlby to empirical experimentation and verification. In fact, she helped expand the theory and even added some more insight to the theory. She formulated the concept of the figure of attachment as a secure base that facilitates the child to explore the world and she is also responsible for the formulation of the notion of maternal sensitivity to infant and its significant role in the development of infant-mother attachments patterns.

Individuals develop certain emotional bonds towards other people in the community. According to John Bowlby (1969) attachment is a lifelong psychological connectedness between human beings. It is believed that the bonds children establish with their loved ones impact tremendously throughout their life. This attachment keeps the infant close to the parent hence enhancing the childs opportunities for survival. It is important that mothers be responsive to the infants need as this will establish a sense of security and belongingness in the child. It is believed that at the tender age of between zero to two years the child is confronted by the crisis of trust and mistrust. In order to gain trust, the child must build confidence and dependability on his parents. Lack of trust cannot enable the child build autonomy and confidence in how he relates with the world.

The growing child should find comfort and solace in those moments when she feels threatened or afraid. The parents or guardians should provide a secure base for the child to explore the world. This prolonged closeness with the parent builds a sense of security in the child. However, the child will undergo enviable amount of separation distress if the connection between her and the parent is terminated. There are deep effects of attachment on behavior. According to some surveys, children between the ages of 12 and 18 months will respond to situations in which they are left alone and in situations in which they are with their caregivers (Ainsworth, Behlers, Waters  Walls, 1978).

Attachment can be split into, secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) and disorganized-insecure attachment (Main  Solomon, 1986).
A secure attachment is when parents spend quality time with their children and provides a safe home base this allows the child to feel safe to wander off and explore the environment. For example, when children are playing in an unfamiliar area that has many interesting toys and games, a secured child will wander off and play with the toys as long as the parent is in the childs view. If the parent is not in eye view of the child, he may begin to cry. However, on the return of the parent a secured child will be happy to embrace the parent and resume being calm and pleasant.

By contrast, some children who are ambivalently-insecure attached to their parents normally express profound distress in the event that they are left by their loved ones. It is believed that this kind of attachment is not common for instance, in U.S., only a portion of 7-15 falls under this kind of attachment (Infolinks, 2009). An insecure child may want to be hold and embraced by the parent one minute and then the next run away. This type of behavior demonstrates a lack of trust in the parent for not being there when the child needed them.

As far as the avoidant attachment is concerned young ones will tend to move away from the parents or relevant caregivers. In fact, they will show no fondness between a total stranger and their guardians. For them, both are one and the same thing. It is believed that this kind of attachment derives from an environment characterized by abusive and neglectful parents or guardians (Ainsworth  Bowlby, 1965). Arbitrary punishment to the child by the parent will only inculcate in the child a sense of insecurity hence making the child de-value the need of seeking help from them in the future.

It is unfortunate to those children who do not get to build some sort of secure attachments during their tender age as this will impact negatively on their behavior right from their childhood and throughout their life. It is acknowledged that children diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), andor post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD) often exhibit attachment problems. This could be as a result of early abuse, neglect, or trauma. Clinically speaking, children adopted with the age of six months have a greater risk of de-merits occasioned by attachment problem. Secure attachments lead to good self-esteem, sound romantic relationships, and the ability to open up to others. (See appendix A).

Cognitive Behavior Theory
The major proponent of Cognitive Behavior Theory is Aaron Beck, who is an American Psychiatrist. He is also regarded as having originated a therapeutic approach that deals with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).  It can be argued and justifiably so that cognition plays an essential role in behavior change. In particular the cognition or thoughts of an individual impact their behaviors in different ways. Negative thoughts or beliefs, for instance, can make it particularly difficult for a client to make positive change of behavior (Ainsworth et al., 1978).

Cognitive-behavioral interventions put together cognitive and behavioral strategies in solving a variety of behavioral and psychological difficulties (Psychcentral, n.d.). One of the many ways to change an individuals irrational or faulty thinking and mode of behavior is through education and reinforcement of the individuals positive experiences that will lead to essential changes in the way that person copes. By better improving their thinking processes, individuals can contemplate more clearly on the choices they make every day and the behaviors in which they engage.

According to Beck, Rush, Shaw  Emery (1979), there is improvement only if beliefs change, and the change in beliefs results to changes in symptoms too. He acknowledges that an individuals thoughts and beliefs, what he refers to as the schema, impacts the individuals behavior and consequent actions. For instance, dysfunctional behavior is related to dysfunctional thinking. However, on the other hand, an individuals thinking is shaped and influenced by his beliefs. There can be positive results if patients could be encouraged to think constructively and disregard negative thinking.

It is suggested that depression derives from defective and irrational psychological perception which causes distorted learning and reasoning. The depressive cognition is embedded in the traumatic experience or incapability of adaptive coping skills. Indeed, depressed individuals have negative and unenthusiastic perception or belief about themselves and their environment. There is a direct relationship between an individuals negative thoughts and the severity of the individuals depression symptoms. This means that the more the negative thoughts, the more the severity of the individuals depression symptoms and vice-versa.

There are three main dysfunctional belief themes or schemas that a depressive individual undergoes (Beck, Rush, Shaw  Emery, 1979), they are as follows the depressed persons look at themselves as inadequate, not capable of success and always as victims of circumstances the depressive person sees all past and present experiences through the kaleidoscope of negativity, continuously emphasizing on defeats, failures and a victim of mentality the depressive person is pessimistic about the future, and just sees it as the failed past and present. This kind of mentality only focuses towards negative aspects of life and the way information is processed. The more an individuals perception is distorted the more selective attention is placed on failures and everything is seen within the windows of negativity. In such a case there is no positivity, always negativity. Unconsciously, the depressed person maneuvers all hisher feelings towards hopelessness and pessimisms.

The best prevention for depression is changing ones core beliefs. It involves restructuring constructively the destructive thinking going on in the person. It is possible to bring positive change in the patient by re-ordering hisher mentality. This is the role of a therapist. He is required to help the patient in setting realistic and achievable goals and taking responsibilities or actions and thoughts (Beck et al., 1979). Indeed, by changing and transforming ones thought and perception, a positive change can be brought in the patients behavior and emotional responses. The therapists and other people of good will should establish special programs that will educate victims of depression on the concept of faulty thinking. Novelty in ideas and approaches ought to be generated so as to develop a positive impression of oneself, experiences and the environment around. People in the community should try to establish home assignments where depressed persons will be helped in reviewing and understanding the impact of faulty thinking in their behavior and emotional well-being (Beck et al., 1979).

In cognitive-behavioral therapy, much emphasis is on the important role of thinking in how one feels and does. It is important to note that, cognitive-behavioral therapy exists not as a distinct therapeutic technique. It can be noted that, the term cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a very wide term for classification of therapies with similarities. It has a number of approaches as follows rational emotive behavior therapy, rational living therapy, cognitive therapy, rational behavior therapy, and dialectical behavior therapy.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is founded on the notion that an individuals thoughts influence her feelings and behavior little influence emanating from external experience for instance, people situations, and events. The good side of this fact is that individuals can amend the way they feel andor act in spite of their incessant unpleasant situations. Socrates, the great philosopher, created his own method that enables therapists to better comprehend their clients concerns. Called the Socratic Method, it brings the challenge back to the client by making his discover himself. It is a journey back to inner self and as a result uncovers the hidden potential in the depressed individual. With the use of the Socratic Method the therapist becomes the questioner or subordinate and the client would be the respondent. By allowing the respondent to open up and speak freely it reveals how different our outlooks can be on beliefs we use every day.

Sometimes, some of the psychological intricacies that affect a person have been well illustrated in the scripture.  In other words, there is a theological interpretation to fundamental psychological theories, not excluding the ones that have just been mentioned in this study. In this regard, it is important to look at some of the theological approaches to both attachment theory and cognitive behavioral theory.

Theology of Attachment Theory
The scripture has broadly talked about the innocence of little children. It has talked about the need to protect their interests at all times and in all ways. Clearly, Jesus was very assertive when he was with the children, and in fact, mentioned that God has revealed to the little ones his glory and concealed it from the adults. Remember the types of attachment mentioned earlier in this study namely secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Remember when the disciples of Jesus prevented the children from getting closer to Christ. Christ was very categorical that they should let the children go to him. In deed, the children had some sort of security attached to Jesus may be from what they knew about him. Jesus was God, and no doubt that he could read the childrens minds. Now, by telling his disciples to let the children go to him, Jesus expressed his desire to be with the children and affirm their spirituality which they consciously or unconsciously attached to Christ. The children felt a sense of belonging and a deep love for Christ and he did not deny them this chance. The following figures show Jesus and the children. (See appendix B).

There are scriptural verses that state that children are a gift from God. For in stance, in Psalms 1273-5, it says that children are a heritage from God. Blessed is the person who fills his quiver with his children. In Genesis 335, Jacob told Esau that the children in her wifes womb were a gift from Yahweh to his servant. In Mathew 182-6, Jesus says that unless one becomes like little children, one will never see the kingdom of heaven. Whoever humbles himself like the little children will be the greatest in the kingdom of heaven. Whoever receives a child, has received Jesus, but whoever cause them to sin, is better to have a great millstone tightened around his neck and to be immersed in the depth of the sea. In Mathew 1810, Jesus says that one should not despise the little ones, for in heaven their angels are in direct contact with the face of his Father. In Mathew 1812-14, Jesus sights the parable of the lost sheep. That the shepherd will go for the one that is lost. In the same way, God does not wish that any of the little children be lost or perish. In Proverbs 226, it says that children should be trained up in the way they should go this will contribute to hisher future life as an adult. In Deuteronomy 67, it says, teach them diligently to the children, and talk of the teachings of the Lord so that they can hear and learn do this always and by all means. In Ephesians 61-4, it says that children should obey their parents and in so doing will live longer in the days of their lives (New American Bible). 

Theology of Cognitive Behavior Theory
Here, the review will explore what the scripture says about self-esteem. Indeed, a case where the behavior of an individual is influenced by the defective or pessimistic mentality is nothing else but low self-esteem. Quickly, it is important to look at the major themes of this theory as mentioned above. They are as follows cognition plays a significant role in the change of behavior. Negative thought and opinions about oneself can create a problem in the behavior of a person. It illustrates that people need to grow out of their backward mind set if they are to achieve a balanced and self-actualized personality.

In the Bible, there are many instances when God Himself, affirmed his servants whenever He entrusted them with a special mission. But, this invitation to grow out of low-opinion and inferiority complex is an invitation of God to all his creation. Remember that, God had to reveal himself to Jesus when he prayed just to affirm his esteem. Jesus went through a lot of suffering and this caused in him deep sorrow. Imagine, he knew what was ahead of him to a point of sweating blood at the Garden of Gethsemane. It is clinically believed that he went through a lot of depression and grief to have sweated blood. No man on earth has ever reached that mark, not even one. God revealed himself to Jesus in person and strengthened him by affirming that he was truly his beloved son. If Jesus let himself be influenced with what was going on in his mind for instance, the whole idea of getting persecuted, being scolded, humiliated, scourged, abused, mocked, name it, he would have been the most depressed person on earth. He was bound to face the greatest injustice ever. However, he never lost sight of the fact that he was the son of God, the Most High. This gave him strength. The fact that he had come to save the world and be worthy to sit at the right hand of his father, gave him adequate muscle to face the challenges of his time. To reiterate, Jesus stayed focused to the greater value of his mission and the inner value of his life.

This is the way to go for all who succumb to low self-esteem and depression. Why not reflect on the inner beauty of ones being. Jesus looked at the future with great determination and optimism, and indeed, he succeeded. He took everything positively trusting in the Lord. This is a great example to all mankind and an invitation to take cognizance that by focusing on what God has put in everybody in terms of uniqueness, no one should wallow in grief, sorrow, solitude, and depression, just to mention a few.

Consider the case of Moses when God entrusted him with the mission to Egypt. Moses came up with so many excuses like, I stammer am not eloquent am not worth it and many other excuses. God did not change his mind but went ahead to affirm him. God promised Moses that he will keep him company all his days. See the point Moses felt that he truly was not worth it, and he might have been correct. Somehow, he was being true to himself. But, God still sent him to the Pharaoh No doubt that, God saw a big potential in Moses, not because he is God, but because he knew him and more importantly, he created Moses with his own strength. God cannot contradict himself whenever he wants to entrust a mission on every person. All have been called in a special way and for a specific purpose.

In Psalms 13913-14, it says that God formed everyones inward parts knitted them together in their mothers womb. All should praise the Lord, for the wonderful works of the Lord in their being. Indeed, wonderful are His works everyones soul should take cognizance of that fact. In Isaiah 434, it says that all are precious in Gods eyes, and honored. In Romans 123, it says that through the grace of God, everyone should not think of himselfherself more highly than she ought to think. In 1John 31, it says that all should take notice of the kind of love the Father has given to all, that all should be regarded as his children. In Songs of Solomon 47, it says that all are beautiful in the eyes of the lord, his beloved there are no flaws in anyone. In Genesis 127, it says that God created man in his own image. In John 316, it says that God so loved the world that He gave his only son that all might have eternal life. In Mathew, 1128-30, it is an invitation for all who labor and are heavy laden, so that they might get some rest in the Lord. In Mathew 5, at the sermon on the mountain, Jesus talks of the beatitudes, particularly that happy are those who mourn for they shall be comforted. In Mark 1230, is an invitation to love God and neighbor this is the greatest commandment (New American Bible).

Therapeutic Goals
The main objective is to affirm that healthy personality derives from self-motivation and improvement. Self-discovery is possible if the client feels loved and has a sense of belonging. It is therefore imperative to establish a good, close and open relationship with the client. It is worthy to make them experience freedom so that they can be free to share their inmost feelings, but more so, to listen to themselves and discover their potential. In this therapy, the relationship aspect is very fundamental. As mentioned earlier, it will help the client experience freedom that will be useful in the process of self-discovery and self-acceptance.

Techniques and Procedure
Therapy will be conducted as follows
The client formally request for an appointment
He will give a problem statement
He will also give a proposal of how the problem can be solved
He will be provided with a list of questionnaire to respond to
The counselor will use the problem statement, the proposal and the answers to the questionnaire to interview the client
The client will be assigned with a physical task, for instance, arranging a hazy state of affairs like in the case of a puzzle.
He will record what his experience has been in the process
The counselor will use the recorded experience to interview the client
The counselor will start the counseling session by point out the strengths and weaknesses of the client
The general aim of the therapy is to live the client confident of his potential and not only that, to discover it as it is.

Conclusion
It can be seen that seen the main themes in the two theories namely cognitive behavior theory and attachment theory do not bring out the fact of self-discovery. Every person has undergone through some moments of depression or there are moments when every one has experienced low self-esteem. It is part of human nature to feel that way. It is said that even though one is not mad, he has some degree of madness. This also applies in the case of depression in that all persons in one way or another have some degree of depression.

Every person remembers those moments when he felt close to his parents while still young and can state the kind of attachment he went through. It is unfortunate if one was ambivalently attached or if one went through avoidant attachment. Often times if a child is subject to this type of attachment later in life it has been determined there are effects to their adult relationships. It is a challenge for everyone not to let himself be lowered by those feelings. Sometimes, one has to fight for his own comfort and happiness. However, one will disagree with the belief that if one went through traumatic moments during childhood he will grow in that consciousness. One can raise above any occasion and lead a very healthy life. This is the theory all should believe in. Through psychological engineering one can go beyond that mentality, which makes you feel low about yourself and through extensive research and education, build a new mental system that will influence your behavior positively. This is not easy, but requires determination and self-acceptance.

Research Questions
The research attempted to answer four main questions What kind of information concerning the patients state and treatment do family members and older patients ask nurses and physicians in the emergency department To what extent do older patients and families comprehend the information provided by the emergency department Do older patients and members families get satisfactory information from the staff in emergency department What is the difference between older patients and family members preferences for, understanding of, and satisfaction with, the information supplied to them by the emergency departments staff (239)

Method of Study
The study used explanatory research method and descriptive design to examine the two samples which comprised of 71 older patients and 32 family members using semi structured interviews as the basic research instruments. The two samples were drawn from the emergency department of a suburban teaching hospital which is associated to a school of medicine. The research measured both dependent and independent variables. The independent variable was communication between older patients and their family members with the staff in the emergency department. The independent variables on the hand were type of information provided by the emergency department staff, patients and family members understanding of information provided, the level of satisfaction of information  and the difference between the patients  and family members preferences to, understanding of and satisfaction with the information provided by the emergency department staff (237). In assessing whether the samples understood the information provided by the emergency department, the research used two coders which were rated according to the samples responses to open-ended questions, using defined coding criteria. The system of coding yielded t inter-rater reliability. The following raters were utilized in the coding criteria

Complete understanding For complete understanding, responses were supposed to comprise of two elements coded as being complete. The first element referred to accurate knowledge of diagnosis, treatment or test expressed in technical or lay terms. The second element was the presence of at least one piece of extra information demonstrating an understanding of the information.

Partial understanding Responses were coded as partial understanding when they included names of the tests, treatments or conditionsin technical or lay termswithout explanatory information.

Little understanding The coding system considered a response as little understanding when information provided lacked specific details in relation to the treatment, test, condition or diagnosis

Findings of the research
Most of the family members desired to have more access and information regarding the patients. However, they do not satisfactorily understand the information offered from the emergency department (238). Patients wanted to be actively involved in their medical care and desired to be always informed about their condition while being attended in the emergency department. Despite this fact, most of the older patients chosen for this study indicated very little understanding of their treatment or condition. This was evident because, although majority of the older patients companied about the inadequacy of the information provided by the staff who attended them in the emergency department, they were quite reluctant to give the specific complaints regarding the kind of information they were given (238). It was also found out that even though in most cases the older patients understanding of their medical condition was vague, they believed that they knew and understood what was happening to them (238).

Just like the older patients, family members also were also found to have been unsatisfied with the information they received concerning their patients. However, unlike the older patients, family members were expressed their dissatisfaction more willingly and explain their complaints more specifically (247). The older patients assertiveness could not be attributed to age difference between them and their families because the average age of the interviewed family members was 61 years therefore, there was negligible age difference between the two (247).

After analyzing data, it was found that it was likely that patients in the emergency department actually received adequate information regarding their medical condition unlike the family members due to the physical separation between them. However, other factors such as the older patients mistrust of information received from the nurses rather than directly from the physician, the environment in the emergency department, or patients stressful conditions affected their understanding or reporting of their condition to the interviewers (248)

Internal and external validity of the study
The study concludes that there are explicit communication problems among older patients, their families and the physicians. This research lacks both internal and external validity. First, the sample may not have been exactly representative and adequate for making conclusions because it excluded the non-English speakers as well as patients with dementia (248). These are the groups that were likely to offer the best responses regarding the communication problems they encountered because they encountered more communication problems. Furthermore, there was wrong timing of interviews because the respondents were interviewed after having had waited for at least three hours in the emergency room this affected their concentration while answering the interview questions. Again, interviews alone were not sufficient research instruments. Other instruments such as questionnaires, observations would have improved the internal validity of inferences (249). On external validity, the inferences of this study cannot be relied upon because the study was conducted in a sub- urban region, with only one emergency department. However, different communication issues exist in different geographical locations.

However, the selected sample was valid in terms of size and the age of the respondents (both family members and the patients). The research design also improved the validity of the research inferences in that the study utilized descriptive design which best aids in explaining given conditions using large many interviews and subjects (249).

Validity and reliability measures
Validity is the degree to which the research instruments, samples and design are able to accurately measure what they were aimed at measuring. Reliability on the other hand, refers to the consistency of the results of a study. This implies that the results obtained from one study would not vary considerably if the study is conducted in another different place or using a different design and sample. The others of this study have specified on the validity of their study in terms of the lack of enough instruments on the study (us of interviews only), the geographical limitations of the study and the lack of proper timing for data collection (248).

Problems with reliability and validity
The problem of validity usually lies in lack of correspondence between the conclusions of the study with the general concept of the researchdo the conclusions flow from data collected or have. In this study it is evident that both external and internal validity have problems of applicability in different environments. Reliability the other hand lies on the accuracy of the coding and statistics used. Accurate coding should give a 100 excellence of the coded information, which is not the case in this research although the raters provided 91 accuracy, there was a likelihood of error on the results due to the 9 difference in accuracy (241).

Consider the role of feedback loops in the biological mechanisms that control at least two different human behaviours. Critically evaluate the evidence and assess whether disruption of the process can account for the corresponding abnormal human

Bodily functions are regulated with the help of central nervous system and endocrine system. Hormones and neurological functions regulate eating and sleeping behavior in humans. Hormones play very important role in well-being of a person. In bad mood or high temper hormones level fluctuates that can affect psychological behavior due to alteration in inner biological mechanisms. It can affect persons mood, ovulation, sexual desire, fertility, and other psychological behaviors. Hence, imbalance of hormones can lead to several psychological disorders and can affect bodily functions negatively. In females estrogens and progesterone are very important in control of various physiological functions. Estrogen and progesterone disbalance can dramatically affect womans health. Another important hormone is gonadotrophin releasing hormone that can affect hypothalamus and pituitary functions. Hormonal functions in body are affected by various factors including diet, lifestyle, stress, work stress, exercise, emotions, sleeping habits, ovulation and age.

The Role Of Feedback Loops In The Biological Mechanisms That Control Eating Behavior
Serotonin (5-HT) is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for controlling the normal patterns of eating. It may enhance food repulsion, and functions by the hypothalamic receptors in the body. If this macronutrient is consumed, a negative feedback loop occurs, which in turn reduces the amount of carbohydrates a person consumes (Leibowitz, 1998). Studies have suggested role of hypothalamic serotonergic receptor mechanisms in regulation of food intake. 5-HT receptors mediate these responses. Derivatives of serotonin reduce weight gain and food intake, hence, drugs that stimulates serotonin release interfere in carbohydrate ingestion. However, fat and protein ingestion is not much affected. With excessive consumption of carbohydrates the negative feedback loop triggers increasing 5-HT receptors. Thus carbohydrates in diet can enhance the synthesis and release of 5-HT receptors in hypothalamus. Hormones and glucose play vital role in this feedback loop. Hormones in this loop are insulin, hormones derived from adipose tissue, corticosterone, and leptin, all of them affect satiety, appetite, natural feeding cycle and serotonergic function (Leibowitz, 1998).

What we eat in our diet also affects the type of hormones stimulated in that feedback loop. Circulating hormones and glucose level in blood affect the feedback loop in eating behavior. Drugs can alter feedback loop and stimulate certain other hormones in the chain (Leibowitz, 1998).

A negative feedback occurs when body is deprived of nutrition. The body will automatically respond and will slow down its metabolic processes. Due to this those who start dieting to loose weight, do loss weight initially but not later as body re-adjusting its metabolic rate to. With physical activity and exercising will change bodys need and set metabolic rate to higher level. Studies have suggested that in clinical studies that eating and other bodily disorders cause disturbances of 5-HT receptors.

The Role Of Feedback Loops In The Biological Mechanism That Control Sleeping Behavior
In certain brain regions sleep response is actively stimulated. Studies have identified specific sites in brain that are basal forebrain including hypothalamus and pons that are actively involved in NREM sleep control and REM sleep control and initiation respectively. Signals are generated from pons and conveyed to thalamus and cerebral cortex and even to spinal cord causing temporary paralysis. Sleep patterns change from person to person depending upon lifestyle and age of a person (Sleep and the brain).

Biological clocks have genetically been designated for physiological mechanisms that enable living beings to live in harmonious state with in accordance with nature, like day and night cycles and the seasonal changes. The significant role of a biological clock is to control open biological rhythms such as the cycles of sleep and wake. The biological clock also has a role in managing reproductive cycles in different seasons in many animals as it has a capability to sense the altering lengths of daylight and darkness throughout a year. The generation of melatonin, a hormonal signals coming out from the pineal gland of the endocrine system, is managed by the circadian clock in the SCN. Its intensity increases when night and decreases at day. This has been observed in both nocturnal and diurnal kinds of living beings. Melatonin is also named as the hormone of darkness due to the pattern it displays. The SCN determines the time of occurrence and duration of melatonin release melatonin further feeds back on the SCN to control its process (Biological Clock).

4) Critically evaluate the evidence and assess whether disruption of the process can account for the corresponding abnormal human behaviours.

Abnormal behavior for eating

Eating i.e. food intake is a normal human behavior which is consciously controlled. However, individuals with obesity and weight-gain problems report that they cannot control habit of eating. There are several biological, behavioral and environmental factors controlling food intake

Despite the action of eating being one that is wholly under ones control, many obese people claim that they are unable to have power over what they eat (Blundell  Gillett, 2001). The liberty of choosing ones own diet is present, but studies have shown that biological and environmental factors also lay an effect on a persons dietary intake. If the environmental factors are such that food consumption is encouraged, there is then no way in which the individual can make corrective behavior to maintain body weight. The energy that is used in obese individuals is lesser as compared to the intake, which results in misbalanced weight.

In a study by Turek et al (2005) The CLOCK transcription factor is a key component of the molecularcircadian clock within pacemaker neurons of the hypothalamicsuprachiasmatic nucleus. We found that homozygousClockmutantmice have a greatly attenuated diurnal feeding rhythm, are hyperphagicand obese, and develop a metabolic syndrome of hyperleptinemia,hyperlipidemia, hepatic steatosis, hyperglycemia, and hypoinsulinemia.Expression of transcripts encoding selected hypothalamic peptidesassociated with energy balance was attenuated in theClockmutantmice. These results suggest that the circadian clock gene networkplays an important role in mammalian energy balance (Turek et al., 2005).

Anorexia due to disruption of feedback loop and hormonal Imbalance

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which an individual wishes to eat lesser than the normal body requirement, for fear of weight gain. It is an illness, and mostly females are affected by it. Anorexia may lead to life threatening conditions due to malnutrition and other health complications. Anorexic individuals are seen to be very thin, and face severe weight loss.

Hormonal changes play an imperative role in causing this disorder. If there is an imbalance of hormones in the body, it may result in anorexia, for example, low reproductive hormones such as estrogen and dehydroepiandrosterone, low thyroid hormones, high stress hormones, and low growth hormones. Some other consequences of anorexia may be loss of bones, infertility, and in women, amenorrhea.  Blood pressure is dropped, and anorexics may die of heart failure. Apart from that, anemia is prevalent in anorexics, bloating and constipation is present, and all the vital organs gradually fail.

Abnormal behavior for sleeping

The disturbances in sleep and wake schedules are considered to be a major reason behind number of health issues, like greater risk for obesity, type II diabetes, and high blood pressure. Its role for increasing risk of malignancy and premature aging is not much obvious. We will discuss here some of the epidemiological and experimental proofs that give evidence that changes in sleep and wake schedules have links with health problems like malignancy and aging before time. Epidemiological evidence indicates that changes in sleep and wake practices, for example when a person is engaged in doing night time shifts or rotating shifts job, can cause increasing risk of breast, prostate, in leukemia, endometrial, and colorectal cancers. Excessiveness in both ways is not good extra long or extra short sleeps cause and increase mortality.

These facts are then affirmed by experimenting on animal systems where it is found that depriving from sleep results in dying in Drosophila cycle01mutants. The actions of light-dark pattern in rodents or mutations that destroy many DNA segments inthe circadian nerve fibers boost up aging and development of neoplastic. Melatonin , hormone of darkness secreted by the pineal gland seems to have developed inpart to render shield from mutagenesis. It coordinates and adjusts cellular growth, differentiation, and caspase-mediated cell death to the circadian peaks and troughs of genotoxic depression. A model that is based on circadian-controlling of sleep and wake periods connects the circadian nerve fibers to the mutational concepts of aging and neoplasia (Shadan, 2008).

Insomnia due disruption of normal feedback loop and imbalance of hormones

Numerous families face sleep problems. It is only that the intensity of the sleeplessness varies. The condition of sleeplessness, also known as insomnia may be due to genetic factors, or other factors such as emotional instability and the like. Many people have to take sleeping pills in order to get sufficient sleep through the night, to wake up fresh the next morning. Lack of sleep not only causes distress, but in the long term may also be associated with lung diseases, heart conditions, digestive disorders, and even AIDS (Blaivas, 2007).

Insomnia may be short-term, due to some prevailing conditions, or chronic. Chronic insomnia may be a result of hormonal imbalance in the body. A shortage of melatonin, a hormone secreted by the pineal gland, may result in chronic insomnia. The excessive release of cortisol, a stress hormone, may contribute to chronic insomnia, especially in people with psychiatric disorders. The release of growth hormones may also impair sleep, because they are released at night time. Sleep mediators are present to change the feedback loops. An example is adenosine, which balances between metabolism and sleep control.

CONSLUSION
It is apparent that if we go against the rules of nature, nature will automatically take its course against us. Any disruptions in the natural hormonal regulations may result in impaired sleep, causing insomnia, short-term or chronic, as well as anorexia nervosa, a severe and serious eating ailment, which could result in death. Feedback loops are essential to keep the human body healthy, but attention needs to be rendered when there is a malfunction in the body, or when something is not normal. Therefore it is necessary to pay medical attention if the normal biological mechanisms of the body seem to be in trouble. God has made the natural behaviours of mankind for some good reason or the other. In this paper, we intend to discuss the natural behaviours of sleeping and eating, and how a disruption in both of these necessary acts may cause negative effects to the body, leading to abnormal actions at times.
Sleeping is a behavioural state that is necessary for the body to function normally. It is not just keeping the eyes closed for a number of hours, but is essential to rest the body and mind both, and to build up energy levels for the activities to be performed after waking. Similarly, normal eating patterns are crucial for an individuals body to meet needs for carrying out the regular functions. The body is like a machine, and food is the fuel to keep it working. It is not just food that is required for proper functioning, but a balance of all the activities undertaken by the body, that make it run best. If anything goes out of balance, the machine will begin creating problems. Sleeping and eating disorders play a pivotal role in the disturbance of the system and behavior of the individual. We will now take an insight into how this occurs.

A normal functioning body needs to meet specific requirements for it to continue with its processes. There are some processes that are controllable, and others that are not in our control, but are still carried out within the body. We can alter our lifestyles or make amendments according to our health status.

The internal elements that are not in our control in our bodies, usually involve hormones, which are chemicals that are released by tissues, and transported through the blood stream, to carry out necessary functions. There are hormones associated with every activity that we perform, and affect specific body organs according to need. A persons eating disorder is related with the extremes to which he or she may reach. It is either in excessive eating, or in insufficient food consumption. These actions are normally practiced.