Psychology

1. Life Changes and Stress Test
The life changes and stress test allows individuals to measure the level of stress that they are undergoing and therefore decide what steps they can take after. Stress is the sure proof of the connection between the mind and the body, that is the mood picks up the stressor and the body reacts physically to the stressor. The life changes and stress test measures the levels of stressors that an individual perceives in normal life.

After taking the stress, the results indicated that I am experiencing borderline stress. Borderline stress is indicated by a surge of alert hormones when the mind perceives a level of stress. It is characterized by lack of sleep and over heightened awareness that normally means one cannot relax. However since the body after experiencing a stressor cannot remain in the hyper mode for long, the hormone levels finally subside and the individual is brought back down. This is when one may experience moodiness, headaches, aggressive behavior and inability to concentrate.

Management of borderline stress is simple, and sometimes only requires dealing with the stressor. For example in the case of the death of a close relative, to deal with the stressor requires proper grieving and acceptance. Taking up simple exercise and allowing the mind to process the loss will often lead to less stress, (Wolfgang 2005, 40). In the same length taking up something that is positively reassuring or emotionally strengthening reduces the effects of the stressor. Inability to manage borderline stress through the life changes presented by the American Massage Therapy Association (2010) for example exercise and enjoying yourself, may lead to increase in stress levels to over 300, and this will definitely require a professional to develop coping mechanisms.

2. V Axes Diagnosis
The V axes is a global psychological test that is used by professional psychiatrists, clinicians and psychologists to evaluate the patients ability to function in day to day activities. From the results of the test once it is administered the clinician is able to chart a proper treatment and intervention plan for the patient.  The diagnosis is designed to provide clinicians with a methodological and uniform method of diagnosing psychological patients. 

The V axes diagnoses works in a short time, measuring all aspects of a patients symptoms and functioning ability. The diagnoses incorporates all aspects of a patients functioning whether physical, social, emotional and general productivity. The diagnoses therefore provide an opportunity for review of the measures already taken and their effects, and provide an opportunity to set new intervention measures.

An example of the application of the V Axes diagnoses is in the treatment of a schizophrenic patient. Once the patients hospitalization is over, when the clinicians are considering releasing the patient, the V axes is applied. The axes provide a numbered diagnoses sheet to measure the patients functionality. If the patient scores 51-60 then the he is likely to suffer from mild schizophrenic symptoms and difficulty in social situations. The patient may not need to be hospitalized further but may require a case worker to visit and help him adjust to life after hospitalization, (Whiston 2008, 299).

Whitson (2008, 302) The V axes diagnosis is especially helpful in diagnosing the hospitalized patients for release, or in deciding the amount of care that a patient requires. Once the questions in the diagnoses test have been completed, they are applied to a 10 point scale that automatically determines the level of adjustment and functionability of the patient.

3. Anorexia Nervosa An Eating Disorder
Anorexia nervosa is simply referred to as anorexia. This is a type of eating disorder that is psychologically based. The patient often begins by dieting to loose weight and soon becomes obsessed with getting thinner and thinner. This means that the patient begins exploring more and more unhealthy diets. The patient views weight loss as a sign of control. The patient engages in a cycle involving restrictive refusal to eat, exercising all the time, and use of laxatives to loose weight. Weight loss becomes an obsession and an addictive behavior.

Maj (2006, 49) individuals with anorexia unlike popular belief are obsessed with food, but instead of eating it, they desire to become masters at avoiding it. They may suddenly develop an obsession with healthy eating and foods, or start cutting their food to smaller pieces and using smaller plates. Anorexic patients are often depressed and moody and are eager to please everyone lacking self esteem and self definition.

Although the disease in characterized by the need to gain control, anorexics almost always have disorganized lives apart from food and dieting. Anorexics often allow their obsession with food to distort all other aspects of their lives. Other forms of compulsion such as gambling and sex are common in anorexics.

For patients diagnosed with severe malnutrition that has led to organ failure, hospitalization is necessary. This is because the immediate focus is on weight gain through intravenous feeding by passing the mouth. Different forms of therapy both individual, group and family sessions are applied. Clinicians have found it especially advantageous to apply the Maudsley therapy approach in family therapy for anorexic patients. A good intervention plan addresses the patients need to be controlling, the self esteem and personal perceptions, the desire to starve themselves and nutritional education. Although anorexia can be treated without medication sometimes the clinicians may put the patient on prescriptions to moderate moods and other emotional or psychological symptoms, (Maj 2006, 399)

4. Anxiety Disorders- Social Phobias
In America today, social phobia is the 3rd largest psychological disorder affecting the American people. Individuals suffering from social phobia often experience feelings of anxiety when forced to be in a situation that requires them to engage socially. 

Heimberg (1995, 7) there are at least two forms of social phobia, the first being social anxiety which is characterized by extreme emotional discomfort about social interactions and relating with others. The patient is often worried that they are being scrutinized or analyzed by others. This form of anxiety often develops in adolescence and follows to adulthood.

The second form is the specific social phobia where patients may be confident in certain social situations but completely overwhelmed in others. For example patients may suffer from fears of eating in public, using restrooms that are public or attending any gatherings of a social nature, (Heimberg 1995, 8).

The essence of a social phobia arises from an irrational belief and expectation of negative judgment from others. Unlike other forms of disorders, patients suffering from social phobia are aware of the irrationality of their beliefs but are unable to overcome them. Patients often suffer from low self esteem and experts are of the view that social phobias generally develop from childhood.

Social phobias are often very difficult to treat as the patients may experience the emotional distress even in therapy. Despite this, group therapy and combined cognitive therapy have been found to be extremely successful in helping patients deal with social phobias.

5. Gender Identity
For a child to develop gender identity, social and cultural perspectives influence the roles and choices made. Each cultural group uses biological sex to make the distinction in gender, but beyond this each culture posses variations in distinguishing gender identities.

Coon (2000, 451), division of labor is often used to identify with one specific gender. Each culture posses a specific division of labor, identifying the roles to be fulfilled by each gender. Boys are socialized differently to accept more manly roles associated with their gender such as protection of the family, while girls are socialized to be home makers a role suitable for their gender. In fulfilling their particular roles, children begin to identify with a specific gander.

Gender differences In the same way there exist differences in the emotions and reactions of both males and females. For example men tend to be more aggressive than females, and are quicker to express this aggression physically, while aggression does not come easily for females.

Females also tend to be more empathetic than males, generally associating with the plight and abuse of others easily. Additionally women are more able to decode emotional and non verbal cues than men, (Coon 2000, 453).

Another difference arises in the ability and willingness to communicate. Women find it much easier to communicate and reveal much more details than men. Psychologists actually claim that it is easier for women to undergo successful therapy than men.

Finally there have been claims that women have much more long term memory than men.

6. Narcisstic Personality Disorder
This is a personality disorder characterized by an exaggerated form of self importance.  Patients often display an exaggerated need for attention and desire for admiration. Narcissists often demand a lot of praise and admiration from others. Lack of such gestures tend to draw over emotional reactions and may sometimes lead to violence. A narcissist often sees themselves better than others, they feel they posses exceptional talent and live in an unrealistic world where they are powerful and successful, (Livesley 1995, 104).

There are two theories that define narcissism from culture. In the first, psychologists suggest that there are some forms of culture that idolize a child. This is especially so in cultures where a specific talent for example sport seems to be considered exceptional. As the child grows they are unable to develop realistic goals and ideals away from the idealizing parents or community. They therefore emerge to adulthood stuck on the idealized child they were.

A second theory presented suggests the opposite that narcissism develops when the child craving for emotional attachment especially from the mother does not get it. Emotionally stunted, the child withdraws to a part of themselves that the parent seems to value such as talent or looks. They inflate this part of themselves and become exceptionally attached to it, (Livesley 1995, 104).

Narcissists often find it hard or impossible to deal with criticism or failure. Although they may not show it outwardly, or they may react with arrogance, failure haunts them deeply. However their excessive ambition often leads to higher chances of success, though this may sadly be short-lived as they cannot withstand correction and criticism. On the other hand the fear of failure may cripple narcissists both professionally and personally.

7. Depression
A depressive disorder is characterized by a group of symptoms that reflect extreme sadness and irritable behavior that exceeds normal grief.  Depressives often are characterized by sudden moodiness (shift from highs of extreme joy to lows of extreme grief), sleeping and eating disorders and sudden illnesses. Depression is often hard to identify as people may confuse it with sadness and grief, (Alford and Beck 2009, 90)

There are three types of depressive disorders. The first is major depression normally characterized by some symptoms such as irritability, crying bouts that interfere with the patients life. The symptoms always last around 14days. The second type is dysthymia which involves the clients inability to function fully for long periods of time. This is a chronic depression disorder. Finally there is the bipolar disorder also known as manic depression. The patient often exhibits periods of depression where they are irritable or sad followed by periods of mania where the patient is irrational and violent, (Alford and Beck 2009, 90)

Depression and sadness Depression is often confused with sadness but whereas sadness is a symptom of depression it is not depression. The main difference is in the period where sadness is experienced. For example when one has lost a loved one for a period of time they may grieve, and their life maybe disrupted but often this period ends. When the sadness persists through long periods and begins to disrupt normal productive life then it now turns to depression.

Additionally it is easy for individuals to deal with sadness and grief and understand why they feel as they do in that particular moment. However for depression people cannot explain their feelings or their behavior.

8. Warning Signs of Suicide in Adolescents
Changes in eating and sleeping habits although teenagers often have changing eating patterns, drastic changes that include either overeating or starving themselves may be a sign of depression and as such a cry for help. Adolescents who suddenly and drastically change their eating for no reason at all, sometimes complaining they are not hungry or are satisfied should be observed closely.

In addition children who suddenly cannot sleep or sleep too much may also be suffering from anxiety or depression which often results in suicide. Guardians and parents noticing such changes should consult professionals to help them diagnose the child correctly and set up an intervention plan.
Withdrawal from social activity perhaps this is the most telling sign of depression in adolescents. Adolescents have a need and crave the attention and company of their peers. A child who suddenly develops the desire to withdraw and spend time alone is probably undergoing a difficult adjustment that could lead to depression and eventually suicide.

Violent actions, rebellious behavior, running away parents and guardians of adolescents who have committed suicide often state that they had not seen the child for hours but they had a tendency to run away. Suicidal Adolescents see suicide as an escape route from a situation they find difficult or impossible to deal with.

Such actions may also be related to the use of drugs. 60 of the suicides recorded are often while the child is under the influence of drugs. The ability of drugs and alcohol to alter the mood and perception of the individual is sighted as a cause for suicide (Spirito and Overholser 2003, 82).

Additionally the adolescents are uncommonly concerned with their personal look believing it defines them. Neglect of what they consider probably most important should be an indicator that they have a problem.

Marked personality change for children who were extremely social, they suddenly become loners. Others were high performers and suddenly they cannot seem to concentrate on anything. This personality changes are indicators of highly complex psychological issues, (Spirito and Overholser 2003, 80).

Adolescents may also develop untreatable diseases and symptoms of illnesses that disrupt their normal schedules and life.

Loss of interest in pleasurable activities adolescents often crave approval a childs inability to withstand praise even when they have done exceptionally well is a sign of emotional distress that may lead to suicide.

Additional signs other indicators that may be slight are verbal indications of suicide (I want to kill myself) periodically or loss of self esteem. Teenagers who also develop bizarre behavior like an obsession with death rituals and preparation for death are at risk for suicide.
                                               
 9. Mood Disorders
Mood disorders are also known as affective disorders and are disorders that distinguish themselves through unusual mood experiences. Mood disorders are characterized by the experience of one mood over a period of time in an unhealthy manner. Most mood disorders are treatable and easily diagnosed. The patients exhibit a number of symptoms such as low pleasure experiences, suicide tendencies, and tiredness, loss of memory, disinterest, poor sleeping and eating patterns. Generally speaking a person may be diagnosed with a mood disorder if two or more of these symptoms persist over a period of two weeks.

Mood disorders generally consist of unipolar disorders such as depression characterized by the persistence of one particular mood, or bipolar disorders characterized by the persistence of two or more symptoms such as in manic depression. The shifts in mood are usually in a defined set of patterns, for example extreme sadness immediately after a period characterized by great happiness and joy, (Barlow and Durand 2008, 228).

In life, human beings are often faced with circumstances that require them to adjust accordingly to adapt some adjustment behaviors. These are known as normal behaviors in adaptation. For example in a situation where one looses a loved one, normal adjustment includes proper grieving and finally acceptance of the loss. Where an individual grieves for an extremely long time, to the point of affecting their productivity, this is known as a maladaptive behavior. This is where the individual is unable to adjust to new circumstances or situation properly.  They may develop coping mechanisms such as alcohol, gambling and drugs which are unhealthy. Maladjustment often leads to mood disorders, (Barlow and Durand 2008, 452)

10. Enabling Behavior
Families and close friends of an addict are often accused of engaging in behaviors that allow the individual to continue without treatment and in addiction. Enablers often believe that they are being helpful when in fact they are destroying opportunities for the addict to acknowledge negative behavior.
From the eGetgoing information (2010), some of the enabling behaviors include making excuses for the addict. Family members may call bosses and previous engagements of the addict to report that they are unwell when in fact they are just hangover or suffering from withdrawal.

Whenever family members take up a persons responsibility either housing them or paying their bills, they give them more freedom to engage in whatever addiction. While paying their bills may seem like a good reason, it gives them a reason to return to their addiction.

Addicts tend to misbehave and cause messes when they are on a high. Sometimes friends take up the responsibility of cleaning up their messes while at the same time making excuses for them. This covers the extent of the addiction from the addict himself.

Family members often find it difficult or embarrassing to discuss chemical dependency with addicts. Refusing to accept that they have a problem only worsens the situation. Where family members find it hard to intervene, it is advisable to consult a professional to help, (eGetgoing, 2010).

The more friends and family rescue an addict, the deeper the addiction becomes. It is advisable that friends and families ignore enabling behaviors forcing the addict to face up to their problems.

11. Cognitive Impairment Disorders
Cognitive impairment occurs in a shift in how the patient thinks and perceives things. It normally deals with the functions of the brain which are affected by pathogens confusing and in extreme cases rendering the brain useless. Sometimes the disorders can arise from birth through birth defects, chemical and substance abuse of the mother or developmental hindrances. (American psychiatric association 1996, 886).

Some of the causes of cognitive impairment include birth defects, trauma injuries to the head and diseases such as Alzheimers. Individuals who have also engaged in drug and substance abuse are more likely to suffer from cognitive disorders. Some medicines also put patients at risk of cognitive disorders.
 
A cognitive disorder often interferes with normal body and brain functions. Changes may not be major sometimes including short term memory loss and mood disorders. However they can also cause the inability to think independently and properly. Cognitive disorders make simple tasks such as reading, basic motor functions and personal care to seem extremely difficult or impossible to perform.
Patients cognitive function can be improved through specialized therapy such as speech and motor therapy. However patients often require being hospitalized either in group homes where they can remain independent while still receiving specialized care. On the other hand severe cases of cognitive impairments often necessitate hospitalization in highly secure and supervised facilities (American psychiatric association, 1996 888).

Although some symptoms of the cognitive disorders can be inhibited by drugs and the individual become normal, most of the symptoms are very difficult to treat and are degenerative in nature. Cognitive disorders can cause absolute memory and motor function loss reducing a mature productive individual into a childlike mess. Often the people closest to the patient suffer most.

Abstract

When it was first discussed, homosexuality was approached as a disease. Doctors, experts and even the homosexuals themselves worked indefinitely to find the cause of homosexuality and stem it from society by discovering a cure. Society at the time held very conservative views on the matter, refusing to discuss it openly. In some other cultures homosexuality was considered taboo to be punished by law. Homosexuals were often banned from participating in social activities and were considered outcasts.

The Changing Views of Homosexuality
Aristotle a famous philosopher was quoted as saying that societies that denied homosexuality were backward and underdeveloped. At the time the practice of homosexuality was widespread in Greece and Rome. During the 16th and 17th century, kings and noble men acquired young boys to serve as their slaves and homosexual partners. Homosexuality was practiced as a family planning method and was widely accepted.

Spencer (1995, 13) In the late 17th century the European countries came under the ruler ship of the church which frowned upon such practices. The pope declared homosexuality not only ungodly and inhumane. He ordered the burning and stoning of homosexuals on a stake.  Rupp (2002, 74) The European countries took to this new belief, they embarked on stumping out sin and establishing chastity and holiness. At the time, the church had a stronghold in each of the countries. Using sermons of destruction and instilling the fear of eternal damnation, the church succeeded in declaring what has previously been considered a matter of personal choice a matter of law.

In the early 18th century, the church had succeeded in banning homosexuals and turning it into an illegal act. Anyone caught in the act of homosexuality was immediately sentenced to a public death without a trial. All the countries and societies ruled upon by the European countries held this strong belief. There were public executions of gays that involved burning in fire and sulphur, a biblical imitation of the fires of hell.

In the late 19th and early 20th century, the issue of homosexuality arose again. This time America was considered the bed rose of the homosexuals. Downturn pubs were formed specializing in entertaining homosexuals only. However the wide held view was still that the acts were immoral and un-human. Mondimore (1996, 35) The homosexuals had to meet in secret and matters concerning homosexuality were not openly discussed. At this time the gay bashing incidents arose and became common.

Homosexuals were openly assaulted and sometimes even killed for their nature. Police harassment of gay members of the society was common. Although some people were of the view that if left alone the homosexuality trend would disappear, others held the view that homosexuality could only be undone forcefully.

In the 1970s therefore it was common to hear of incidents involving gay men especially, where they were maimed or killed. Being gay at this time was life threatening and endangering. Homosexuals often led double lives some even going as far as to marry and have children in an effort to hide their true identity. Families and communities often took harsh stands, disowning gay members from their midst. At this time being gay meant leading a completely secret life from that people believed one should lead (Mondimore 1996, 40).

The gay bashing and assault incidents led to the activism of the 90s and the attitude changes in the 20th and 21st centuries. Although some people are still against homosexuality, some states have gone as far as to legalize gay marriages. Gay activism has become so common. Harassment and assault have been declared illegal. The rights of homosexuals have become a commonly discussed issue. Homosexuals can now hold their relationships in open. Whereas religious and other institutions may be against homosexuals, the civil rights of gays and lesbians have become widely accepted. The cases of assault and gay bashing have become more and more isolated (Spencer 1996, 125).

People are more and more beginning to accept homosexuality as natural. Homosexuals are now being viewed as equal human beings with rights. The general view is that though homosexuality may not be considered as moral, it is a persons choice which is protected in the legal statutes. Homosexuals are now holding public office and declaring their preferences openly without fear. Discrimination on gay grounds has been declared illegal. All people must be treated equally despite their sexual orientation. The main opposers of homosexuality still remain to be religious institutions, (Rupp 2002 134).

Conclusion
The views on homosexuality have evolved greatly over time. From complete denial of homosexuals, the 21st generation is fast coming to accept homosexuality as a personal choice. The stress on the protection of the right to make personal choices is fast changing the views on homosexuality. Homosexuality is now considered as any other relationship discussed and practiced openly. Homosexuals no longer have to meet in secret or lead double lives.

Families and communities are beginning to view individuals past their sexual orientation and focusing more on their productivity and skills. Gay celebrities and public leaders have played a big role in educating people towards more acceptances of gays and the homosexual culture. The loss of controlling power by the church has led to decreased acceptance of the harsh stands against the homosexual culture. Today people are more concerned with developmental and economic matters, and less concerned with a persons sexual orientation. Many people are of the belief that whoever a person chooses to love and relate with is a personal choice and does not affect them in any way.

Having experienced the most devastating earthquake of the century and loosing close to 250,000 people as  well as properties valued in the tune of billions of dollars, the word hope sounded like a dirge to most of the victims in Haiti (SIC, 2010). However, the astounding positive response from people all over the world has resulted in rejuvenated optimism for the Haitians. Attkisson (2010) approximates 14.9 billion having been donated and the figures escalating with each day. This number has in fact exceeded the 14 billion estimated for rebuilding Haiti. So what really is responsible for this amazing philanthropy from all over the world

Prosocial behavior theorists suggest that human beings are social in nature and mutually affect one another through their natural selection actions (Clarke, 2003). Different people are motivated differently towards their altruistic behaviors. Most of them engage in prosocial behaviors when there is something to be gained from it.  Some do it solely on humanitarian grounds while others are enthused by the hope that the same good they do to other people will be reciprocated some day. 

As witnessed in the Haiti, Prosocial behavior is immensely supported by the church.  Philips (2010) supports this by exemplifying with the prayers, counseling, emotional support, money donations and foodstuffs that have been offered from across the religious divide. From Catholics to Protestant Christians, Muslims to the traditional believers (for instance the voodoo community), many religious groups have moved in to fill the void left by other humanitarian organizations.

Various governments have also been depicted as arduously supporting the prosocial campaigns in Haiti.  Attkisson (2010) observes that over 1 billion has been donated by the US government and more than 1 billion already pledged by the same government towards the Haiti earthquake victims. Other countries and world bodies are also documented to having pledged 8.75 billion towards the same initiative.
It is important to note the generous contribution that social sites like Twitter and Facebook have made towards relief for Haiti. Gray, a consultant from Houston, donated 10 to Red Cross after reading of fellow Twitters having made donations (Rauf, 2010). Bnabou and Tirole (2005), who are proponents of prosocial behavior theory, explain this action by saying, People commonly perform good deeds and refrain from selfish ones because of social pressure and norms that attach honor to the former and shame to the latter.

Changing minds.org (n.d.) however argue their case out differently. They observe that Evidence abounds of people helping others without asking for anything in return. This is the whole principle of charity. Their rationale for helping others is often intrinsic motivation. This can be exemplified with the actions of Stuart Johnson (an architect for the San Antonio Conservation Society). In 2004, he donated money to the relief efforts of the Indian Ocean Tsunami. A year later, he wrote another check to Hurricane Katrinas victims. And now with the Haiti earthquake, he repeated the same behavior only that this time round, he did it through his iPhone where he sent money to both the Yle Haiti foundation and the American Red Cross (Rauf, 2010).

This intrinsic motivation can further be epitomized by activities of the Yle Haiti Foundation. Despite facing multiple allegations of misusing the relief funds, there is surmountable evidence of them genuinely helping victims of the Haiti earthquake. Started in 2005 by producer, musician and social entrepreneur Wyclef Jean, the Yle Haiti foundation has been able to use statutes like education, arts, sports and community development to restore hope in Haiti. This initiative has been endowed with immense support from his wife Claudinette Jean, musicians, celebrities, world leaders, NGOs and even individuals (Yle, 2010). Other non-profit organizations that have been able to champion prosocial behavior by helping Haiti include. World Vision Haiti Earthquake Relief, UNICEF Haiti Earthquake Relief and American Red Cross among many others (STL today.com, 2010).

As a point of caution, prosocial behaviors like making donations should not be overdone. Too much of anything is dangerous. According to a recent report by Attkisson (2010), there has been an excess in donation of foodstuffs to Haitians which has had some negative effects on the economy. Firstly, indigenous farmers are having problems in selling their home-grown crops since there is a lot of free food circulating in Haiti. Secondly, poor residents from other districts in Haiti-not necessarily earthquake victims- are moving into the refugee camps and to get a share of the relief healthcare and food. These issues greatly inhibit the value for hard work and encourage laziness through overdependence on foreign aid.

In conclusion, more effort should be put by governments, religious organizations and even learning institutions towards instigating positive attitudes with regards to prosocial behavior. When people come together to help one another, not just in the time of need but also for other important aspects, so much progress can be realized both locally and globally. No man is an island, and support to others should therefore be a key component of our lives regardless of whether we gain from our acts or not.

Antisocial behaviors should be greatly discouraged and condemned since they destroy the moral fabric that holds us together and thus limiting positive development in any given society. By doing all these, the common phenomena of having to suffer alone in times of difficulties will be replaced with a loving environment where everyone is there for one another and thus making the world a better place

More than anything else in the world, human hold their selves as the most pivotal part of their lives. They are very much concerned as to how other people view them and as to how they present their selves in front of other people. At the center of their lives, everything else has something to do with them. It is for this reason that most people throw away the idea of going beyond the recognized boundaries of social norms and behaviors set by society. If they move away from their status quo, they feel the horror that people may consider them as the inferior part of society as to which their actions are to that of below or above normal, or thus, abnormal.  People who may act likewise are stereotypically seen as people with mental disordersillnessesimbalances. In which whatever word one may put it, such individuals are nonetheless looked down and ostracized by the society.

It is for this reason that this article takes into consideration the usefulness of the argument presented by Thomas Szasz (1960116) that the phenomena now called mental illnesses be removed from the category of illness and that they be regarded as the expressions of mans struggle with the problem of how he should live.  This paper nonetheless looks at the factors by which it can help people who are stereotypically seen as mental illness patients as well as the people around them cope up with the sufferings they are faced with. The paper specifically looks at the advantages and disadvantages experienced by people with eating disorders because of the label of mental illness attached to them.
Mental illnesses are considered a broad spectrum of mental and emotional conditions that impairs an individual from performing everyday activities and thus considered an inefficient functioning individual. Mental disorders are categorized into groups such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders as well as schizophrenia disorders and even eating disorders (Pearson, 2009).

Eating disorder thus comes into the category of mental illness and may either come into action as overeating or almost not eating at all. This may come as anorexia nervosa or becoming too thin for the reason of not eating so much or not eating at all because they think that they are too fat or bulimia nervosa that takes place when one does eat but induces vomiting after. It basically falls under a mental disorder because it concerns ones mental disturbance and preoccupation of thoughts of gaining so much weight and thus, affecting their figure and their social acceptance.

Eating disorders can be traced down to external factors such as depression, alcoholism and drug abuse. Thus, this may also stem from psychological factors known as the spotlight effect and illusion of transparency.

According to Santrock (2003), spotlight effect is   when people seem to be concerned with the impression we make others, we tend to believe that others are paying more attention to us than they are. On the other hand illusion of transparency is when we tend to believe that our emotions are more obvious than they are.

So rather than saying that this kind of situation undertaken by some individuals can be considered as an illness, it is most likely to be considered as a state of how youngsters adopt to their environment and the call of present fads and what the society dictates is the more presentable way of looking physically. How can something that has rooted from physical factors considered an illness when in fact the individual is physically and psychologically conscious of hisher decision to engage in such kind of behavior towards eating.

Conformed to the medical models claim that eating disorders as categorized under mental illness are just by any way like any other illnessdisease that deserves help and understanding, makes it helpful for people who suffer from this condition as well as their family. It provides them with a means by which the condition can be explained as well as providing their families away to understand their situation. Moreover, resources from health and welfare services as well as treatments from trained professionals become an option for them. They are strengthened by the thought there is hope for one through further research.

For what its worth, we owe the medical society the perspective of how to view the condition undertaken by the people who suffer from mood disorders, anxiety disorders as well as schizophrenia disorders and eating disorders. For the longest time, we have accepted the claims of the medical world that people who act abnormal or with deviance from social norms are said to be experiencing some sort of illness or more specifically a mental illness

However, though medical models offer a way of viewing things, they also create a false image of what is the real situation among people who suffer from the so-called mental illness. It is for this circumstance that Szazs claims become a lot more accepted in a philosophical and social perspective. Thus it becomes a lot more helpful for the people who are experiencing the so-called mental illness as well as for their family.

Even if the medical model gives a name to such conditions there is not a thorough understanding of what mental illnesses are. Since the medical society has given the idea that just like any other diseaseillness and that there cure through the help from medical professionals, they likewise give the possibility of leaving the person cured or untreated. Instead of creating help and sympathy they leave people with fear and misunderstanding.

Being aware of this, there are greater heights of accepting the possibility of the argument presented by Thomas Szasz which claims that mental disorders should be taken into account as a mans own expression for living rather than stereotyping it to an illness.

For many, there is not a thorough understanding of what mental illnesses are. They are conformed to societys claim that such as any physical and physiological disorders, mental illnesses are likewise confined to the possibility of either being cured or being left untreated. People are left with fear and misunderstanding of the situation faced by people with mental disorders.

Because of the mental identity medical models have inflicted on people, they now view people who suffer from mental disorders as an inferior part of society. They are only focused to the label that these people are undergoing a mental disturbance and they not are genuinely concerned about the real problem faced by these individuals. They see a person incapacitated by hisher condition and not a person that needs help, support and understanding. They are seen as damaged individuals and not as people that can still be repaired into a full person once more.

Such branding and stigmatizing increases ones self-pity and consequently decreasing his self-esteem.People who are victimized by judgments and denouncing of their condition as an illness become a lot more isolated with fear and shame. It affects how they view themselves and how they feel towards other people.

Life has never been easy for any one. Even the socially accepted normal individuals have their own share of difficulty. One can only imagine how life is for a person that falls under the category of a mentally incapacitated individual. Not only do they have to give out much effort on managing their condition but they also need to cope with the effects that it causes the different aspects of their lives and most importantly, the effects that it brings to the people around them.

Because of the branding given to individuals who suffer from eating disorders, they develop a further sense of not being accepted in society. Even if the thought that they want to change comes into their mind, it no longer becomes a motivation to mend their ways since they become emotionally tortured by the earlier judgments of others that they are individuals who suffer from some kind of disorder or peculiarity.

People who  suffer from such kind of conditions cope up with everyday stress and the idea that something is wrong with them as dictated by society. They find difficulty in finding support and connecting with others as well as working out their relationship with others.

Not everyone can accept people who are labeled with mental illnesses, even their own family. There are even instances when they would hide their children from the viewing eyes of the public because of their fear that others will make fun of their children or give their family shame. However, as the years pass by, they become more open to the need of being part of the society and avail their rights to full education. This is also where the need and the call for other people for their acceptance begins.

Clearly, a persons worth is not measured by hisher physical or mental capabilities alone. People with disorders or those who deviates from the standard norm set by hisher environment should not and should never be viewed as someone who is less of a person. Heshe may have hisher own set of differences that distinctly sets himher apart from others, but such differences are also the very basis why they are considered unique.

Henceforth, the idea presented by Thomas Szasz becomes a lot more accepted and helpful to people with medical imbalances or people who deviate from the socially accepted norm. This becomes a resort for them to have a better and more accepted explanation for their condition. Rather than decreasing their self-esteem,  Szasz idea actually increases their morale and thus have their selves considered as a  misunderstood individual than a mentally ill person.

Success to an individual is said to be the accomplishment of something or set goals that constitute part of human life. The life of an individual develops through various stages and constitutes of different activities. A human being is driven by motive, ambitions and goals (Lemann Nicholas, 1994). The philosophy of success therefore defines the various steps that an individual undergoes or the driving force of a successful person. A number of individuals fail to achieve their goals in life as a result of missing a fundamental step in human development life cycle. The essay is a discussion on various life concepts that makes an individual to succeed in life but not only in college.

Certain aspects of life such as interdependence, choice, training, blaming, motivation, self esteem, self management, setting goals, revising set goals and passion are subject to successful life. These concepts are discussed as independent topics in the entire paper so as to show how they are related with success in life. The discussion in this paper is a reflection on how an individual is supposed to perceive life after college so as to have a beautiful future.

Interdependence
Being interdependent is one of the most important concepts that make an individual to be successful in life. It is an aspect of self reliance in which a person is able to do things on their own and have the capacity to appreciate special gifts as are provided by God. An individual is a unique being who is free to choose what he or she wants to be in life. Individuals are supposed to interact with others and the surrounding environment to achieve their goals in life. The success of individuals in their activities therefore begins with self responsibility and creation of boundaries that help other people to understand their needs and goals. The freedom of an individual to be self independent gives people the capacity to express themselves and venture in fields of their interests.

Personal interdependence is a very important element in the life of successful person. This is because an individual is provided with the freedom to choose the best out of different life choices. A successful person is the one who learns how to do things his or her own way. It is a concept that is developed from childhood by parents until the child is in a position to do things on his or her own. Teachers are responsible for shaping a bright future through encouraging students to carry on with respective duties independently. Self interdependence results to competence and confidence and this makes an individual to be successful in life.

Motivation
The success of an individual in life is influenced by motivation which is promoted by parents, teachers and the entire society (Gorman Phil, 2003). Motivation is a psychological feature in a human being that arouses him or her to act toward a desired goal. It is a way of creating self esteem and developing courage to face any challenge in life. The success of an individual in life is achievable once such individuals embrace the power of motivation. The power or energy that pushes an individual to perform and achieve goals in life is the most important internal element of a successful man. Success in life is achieved by a person with dreams and vision and it is the power of motivation that strengthens such dreams to achieve life goals.

Personal choice and blame
The daily life of an individual is subject to several choices. The choices made by an individual determine his or her success in life. It is a skill instilled in individuals at early age of development and once it is not cultivated well, people fail in life. A successful person makes the right choice in relation to what he or she sees as good. Once a person has made a particular choice which was proposed by his or her friend and fails, it becomes a blame game. Blaming is not a solution to failures and instead a person is supposed to understand the reason for failing in certain area and seek the right choice. A successful person in life is one who makes right choices and does not blame other people for his or her own mistakes.

Setting goals and revising goals
Success in life does not arise by sitting down and waiting miracles to happen. It is a matter of setting life goals in the prospective area of interest and understanding the purpose of living. Setting of goals helps us to determine direction and provides individuals with the opportunity to celebrate achieved goals. Once we set goals, it is important to review whether we are heading on the right direction or whether it is possible to achieve such goals. Individual goals can be set and revised on daily, weekly or monthly basis depending on the set period of achievement. Setting individual goals makes a person to be visionary and work towards a bright future. Students after college make a mistake of setting goals and then failing to revise them which results to failures.  This shows a sense of irresponsibility and lack of seriousness in exploiting opportunities that lead to securing of good jobs.

Self reliance or management and believe
Self management or reliance and believing in one self are two important principles for successful people in life. Management of time through setting of a strong program is the key to success. Time is a very important resource and once wasted it cannot be   recovered. Self management is a life concept that makes a person to be organized and neat. Success is not achieved by any person who is not ready to face challenges or a person who does things in untidy way.

Self believe is very important especially to create confidence and accuracy in any activity we engage in. A fearful person has no future and cannot express him or her self in public and this is an obstacle to success. Fear is an enemy to success and it is important for individuals to venture in different areas so as to try luck. Doing so lands a person in a safe environment suitable for success and development of self confidence. After college students usually speculate about securing good jobs in reputable companies. Those with confidence sail through and this is an important step towards a bright future.

Passion
Passion is a strong feeling or an emotion of something that is desired intensively (Heal Jane, 2003). It creates an internal composure to engage in activities of interest so as to sail through with ease. Passion is an element of success because once a person has interest in particular field he or she explores the opportunities without fear. Passion enables individuals to have a powerful life and communicate with a lot of enthusiasm. It works well when the body, mind and spirit are well connected. Passion enables us to overcome obstacles in life and conquer impossibilities in life with energy and power. The success of an individual in life therefore is determined by the passion to do something excellently without fear. Passionate people always prosper in life because of their interest towards achievement of set goals. Passion shapes the existence of human life, inspires individuals in their activities and makes the mind to changes around the environment.

Conclusion
The success of an individual in life is an issue of proper time management and self composure. Parents, guardians and teachers play a very important role in the life of an individual because every person passes through the hands of such people. Going to school is part of ensuring that every individual builds a strong foundation for exploring given potentials in life. Every individual is supposed to work towards attaining life goals so as to lead a successful life. The life of students at college is usually smooth but after college he or she is exposed to life challenges. This is the period a person is not supposed to give up but should work towards achieving life goals so as to have a successful life.

This essay tackles the nature and effectiveness of subliminal advertising in influencing choice. The paper first discusses the definition, nature and techniques involved in subliminal advertising and its connection with the brain. It also presents three studies that either contradict the hypothesis or remain inconclusive about it. The conclusion focuses on the inconclusiveness of both theoretical and experimental information on subliminal advertising in terms of influencing choice and thereby recommends further research.

Introduction
In September 1957 in New Jersey, some moviegoers invited to drink Coca-Cola and eat popcorn (Moore, 1982) using messages that were presented at 5 second intervals with a 13000 of a second duration (Sandy, n.d.) and superimposed on the movie as it progressed. It is said that exposure times were so short that viewers were unaware of any message (Moore, 1982) and this caused a dramatic increase in coke and popcorn sales that almost immediately followed one of the first documented instances of subliminal advertising. However, no matter what criticisms were received by the marketing firm responsible for such otherwise unforgiveable psychological manipulations (Moore, 1982), it does not discredit the fact that the mind can be altered by subliminal messages. Moore (1982) states that while there is some marginal evidence that stimuli may influence affective reactions, the marketing relevance of the effectiveness of subliminal advertising in altering consumer preferences and attitudes towards products remains to be documented. This paper therefore seeks to prove whether subliminal advertising indeed influences the mind.

Definition of Subliminal Advertising
Subliminal advertising is defined as a set of techniques that focus and defocus the viewers attention and awareness (Subliminal Advertising, 1998). Such a method almost always creates an impact on the conscious memory of the viewer or the listener. He will then be able to remember something that he cannot consciously recall.

As always, the purpose of subliminal advertising is to entice the viewer into purchasing the product. The practice of subliminal advertising is purported to influence consumer behavior by subconsciously altering preferences or attitudes toward consumer products (Moore, 1982). One particular problem of advertisers in magazines is that the typical reader gives a full-page ad only a glance in passingsomething like 3 seconds (Subliminal Advertising, 1998) and so the goal is howthe potential buyers attention can be captured and focused, in the absence of what TV depends on like motion, musicand human voice (Subliminal Advertising, 1998). Therefore in order to do this more efficiently, the advertiser needs to manage various levels of attention within microseconds of each other so that the most conscious level of perception will partially mask, but will not overwhelm one or two of the lower levels (Subliminal Advertising, 1998). Markman (2008) somehow positively states that the purpose of subliminal messages is simply to increase the accessibility of concepts relating to certain product items.

However, perhaps the reason why there is minimal scientific literature on the principles and techniques of subliminal advertising is that as is often the case with government-sponsored researchthe corporate world is a world of trade secrets (Subliminal Advertising, 1998). Knowledge and information therefore is exclusive to the corporation that sponsors the research. Corporate secrecy almost always carries with it the signing of non-disclosure agreements among involved employees. Nevertheless, despite such a lack of scientific openness, there is still a need to know how exactly subliminal messages affect the brain and somehow try to determine from this information the extent to which the brain is influenced.
Techniques used in subliminal advertising include hypnotic suggestions, backmasking or the technique of recording audio messages backwards onto a former tape, and many comedic references such as Beavis and Butt-headand The Simpsons advertisingcigarettes (Sandy, n.d.). Other techniques include point of sale mind control scripts used by car salesmen and clothing store staff, and in-store sensory manipulation involving scents, visual displays and music that maximize impulse spending. Another technique is neuromarketing or devising more seductive advertising directed towards specific biological triggers that are believed to stimulate purchases (Howard, n.d.).

Examples of advertisements with subliminal messages can be found in the Subliminal Images and Hidden Messages website at  HYPERLINK httpwww.artistmike.comTempSubliminalAd.html httpwww.artistmike.comTempSubliminalAd.html and at the Advertising website at  HYPERLINK httpwww.poleshift.orgsublimindex.html httpwww.poleshift.orgsublimindex.html.

The Human Brain and Subliminal Advertising
Subliminal programming is defined as the act of conveying a message directly to the subconscious mind below the threshold of conscious awareness (Subliminal Message, 2005). These subliminal messages are believed to enter the brain at a level high enough for the subconscious mind to see, hear and understand, but low enough so that the conscious mind is not aware and will not block them (Subliminal Message, 2005). Subliminal messages actually include everyday images found almost everywhere  on video boxes, in magazine ads, even in the phone book, in songs and even in computer programs (Subliminal Images, n.d.). Subliminal programming techniques have since the 1980s been used to remove negative thoughts, behaviors and habits and to communicate positive suggestions directly to the subconscious (Subliminal Message, 2005). Thus advertising companies took advantage of such a feature.

It is believed and proven that your brain does log things that you arent even aware of and cant ever become aware of and there is some evidence that there is a brain response in the primary visual cortex to subliminal images that attract our attention (Subliminal Advertising, 2007) but this happens without any conscious impression of having seen anything. Nevertheless, there is a hypothesis that the brain response to subliminal messages is not automatic and depends on attention (Jha, 2007), which means that the brain absorbs the subliminal messages if the person himself is not too busy. It is also believed that there are three factors that determine the degree of effect of subliminal messages the skill of the designer, the motive and the acceptance level of the person or the intended audience. (Subliminal Messages, n.d.)

Effectiveness of Subliminal Advertising
In a study conducted by Vokey  Read (1985) to determine whether subliminal messages in advertisements and popular music affect behavior, results reveal no evidence to support such a claim. The results further suggest that thepresence of backward messages in popular music is actually more a function of active construction on the part of the perceiver than of the existence of the messages themselves (Vokey  Read, 1985). This information contradicts the claims of theoretical science that subliminal messages significantly influence choices.

In a telephone survey conducted by Zanot, Pincus  Lamp (1983), 81 of 209 samples had knowledge of subliminal advertising and believed that it to be unethical and harmful. Although these findings somehow imply that awareness of subliminal advertising is indeed significantly widespread, the results do not necessarily lead to the idea that the choices of the respondents were influenced by it.

In a relatively more recent experimental study conducted by Smith  Rogers (1994) where subjects were made to watch television commercials and whose intentions were rated to respond positively to such commercials, it was found out that commercials containing undetected messages were subsequently less likely to be remembered than commercials with no messages. Thus finally establishing some proof to the hypothesis that subliminal messages do indeed influence the brain. However, the mere fact of individuals remembering such commercials does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that their choices will consequently be altered and influenced by such an act of remembering. It means that to remember is one thing but to act upon what is remembered is another story.

Conclusion
Recent findings about the brain and the results of the study of Smith  Rogers (1994) may suggest that subliminal advertising indeed influences the mind. However, since there is no definite theory yet which states that response to subliminal advertising directly affects choice, then the findings are therefore inconclusive and hence require further research. Other reasons for further research include the negative results of the study of Vokey  Read (1985) and the inconclusive findings of Zanot, Pincus  Lamp (1983). In light of these findings, one may therefore conclude that perhaps the 1957 New Jersey event (Moore, 1982) as well as the overwhelming volume of theoretical information on subliminal advertising may indeed be merely isolated incidents or merely, as what Vokey  Read (1985) found out, more a function of active construction on the part of the perceiver than of the existence of the messages themselves.

It is reported that large population of Filipino people live in America and even well trained professionals from Philippines tend to leave their homeland besides missing their family and friends (American Psychological Association, 2002). The clear reasons behind this personal preference need to be explored in detail with well-tailored research programme. The research exercise proposed require detailed categorization of data types based on which the methodology could be decided. The research would require both the qualitative as well as quantitative type information (Appelbaum et al, 2009). The qualitative factors would help the research to understand the non-quantifiable factors or the responses that are more descriptive in nature like better acceptability of Filipinos in U.S. While any specific measure like the percentage of Filipino population in U.S. across different time is an example of quantitative information (Le, 2010). Thus the main research questions that need to be answered through research are explained below

What is the major reason that attracts Filipino to United States. This question would give a specific information regarding the major reason that attracts the Filipino to U.S. These information could be collected from the records at external affairs departments regarding the various employment opportunities being availed by Filipinos (Le. , 2010).

Is there a gender skewness in the movement of Filipino population to US   This question tries to explore whether any specific gender specific attractions are being offered in U.S. (American Psychological Association, 2002). This could be collected in the questionnaire survey.

In addition, a set of qualitative information on their objective in traveling to US are also collected.  Is the employment attraction or the pride of being in United states of America a key factor that drives the people to undertake this journey is the vital element in the research (American Psychological Association, 2002). Also, the level of protection of legal cover of a Filipino in United States and the level of service oriented ness in an average Filipino across the Asian population are also explore here giving due importance to the ethical component in the research initiative (Atrino and Brown, 2009).

Forensic psychology has received extensive attention from the public and professional practitioners over the years. Quite distinct from other areas of psychology, forensic psychology is defined by Freedheim, Goldstein and Weiner (2003) as a field which is inclusive of the application of science and law professions in questioning issues which relate to psychology and the legal system. This paper explores the subspecialties of forensic psychology providing a detailed evaluation of their components. The subspecialties included are criminal, juvenile, civil, investigative, police and correctional forensic psychology. This discussion addresses such aspects as roles of forensic psychologists, ethical dilemmas encountered by forensic psychologists, remedies for resolving ethical dilemmas, controversial issues in the field of forensic psychology and other relevant research studies.

Forensic psychology has an extensive history which dates back to the 20th century at the time when psychology was first applied in the legal system.  Miller and Reynolds (2003) highlight the 1921 State vs. Driver case when the first psychologist testified as an expert witness and marked the onset of professional practice of forensic psychology. Since then, forensic psychologists have been involved in numerous cases and their expertise has become more recognized. Forensic psychologists are ideally different from other psychologists especially due to their unique roles. While clinical psychologists are involved in diagnosis forensic psychologists rarely perform any diagnostic procedures. Other distinct differences include their heightened conceptualization of human behavior, their focus on evaluation of involved items and their capacities to derive conclusive proof of occurring events.

In the following discussion, this paper will extensively explore the criminal, civil, investigative, police and correctional subspecialties of forensic psychology. The two major areas of forensic psychology are civil and criminal subspecialties. Criminal law focuses on the acts against society and involves pursuing criminal matters while civil law caters the violations against individuals. In these two areas forensic psychologists have different roles with one of them being expert witnesses in court cases. They also evaluate criminals competencies for trial involving both juvenile and adult offenders. This indicates that other areas such as juvenile forensic psychology are also entwined in criminal forensic psychology (Ribner, 2002).This paper will also highlight the specific roles for different subspecialties and also provide a comprehensive account of the historical components of their origins, issues and controversies as well as the relevant research developed in the specific subspecialty.

Criminal Forensic Psychology
In the subspecialty of criminal forensic psychology the focus is often on legal competency which thus fosters requests for forensic psychological assessments. Furthermore, psychologists are engaged at different levels of criminal law and tend to interact with a wide range of criminals. In this application, forensic psychologists are observed to take on such responsibilities as validating the competencies of witnesses in testifying in court or the capacity of criminals to face trial. Criminal forensic psychology was influenced by the State vs. Driver court case of 1921 and the Jenkins vs. United States case of 1962 (Bartol  Bartol, 2004). In the State vs. Driver case a psychologist was requested to provide expert testimony in court while in the Jenkins vs. United States case forensic psychologists were allowed to provide testimonies on the capacity of the defendant to testify after a thorough psychological evaluation. Hess and Weiner (2006) present other influential cases in the practice of criminal forensic psychology with one of them being the Hidden vs. Mutual life Insurance Co. in 1954. In this case the plaintiff argued that he had a nervous condition which could not allow him to engage in any fruitful occupation. In order to examine whether the insured had a mental illness, a forensic psychologist administered projective tests and testified in favor of the plaintiff. Even though the court later disregarded the psychologists testimony, they also acknowledged the critical role forensic psychologists played as expert witnesses in court cases. The following years saw their recognition as expert witnesses in the legal system.

In their role of determining legal competency amongst criminals, forensic psychologists are meant to evaluate whether offenders understand the proceedings being made against them. After the evaluation of a rational understanding of court systems, they are also expected to evaluate mental health capacities particularly for instances when the sanity of criminals or witnesses is questionable. Using various assessment tools Bartol and Bartol (2004) illustrate that forensic psychologists are able to determine the genuineness of such conditions as insanity and establish whether offenders are malingering or not. This aspect is considered very important in court cases as mentally retarded or insane individuals are accorded differential treatment in court cases. Indeed, these forensic psychologists are allowed to express their opinions on the mental capacities of such defendants or witnesses.  Developments on issues of competency made by a forensic psychology are highly valued and more often than not critically considered by judges and juries.

With regard to eye witnesses in court cases, forensic psychologists have been influential at providing expert opinions on the reliability of certain witness testimonies. The fate of criminals and victims are often dependent on eye witness testimonies which heighten the need for forensic psychologists at determining accurateness. Hess and Weiner (1998) indicate that courts have shown an inclination at allowing psychologists to educate and enlighten judges and jurors on eyewitness testimonies. Apart from this, they are allowed to assess the criminal responsibility of a defendant at the time they committed the crime. While doing this, forensic psychologists must also present what forms of disturbances were present at the behavioral, volitional and cognitive levels and provide a clarification of how they relate to the crime committed. In criminal acts like stalking, Meloy (2006) argues that there are many ways of conceptualizing stalking and identifying whether the very act committed by the defendant meets the description of stalking. Forensic psychologists are employed to determine the various behaviors exhibited by the defendant plus their mental capacities providing substantial information required for sentencing.

Criminal forensic psychologists are also given the responsibility of evaluating the risks posed by criminals to society. These assessments are done at times when the court considers bail provisions for the defendant especially if they are charged with violent crimes and the resulting assessment determines whether to award bail or not. Another important role relegated to forensic psychologists is in sentencing of offenders. As explained by Fabian (2003) in matters regarding such harsh sentences like the death penalty, psychologists are called upon for evaluating the competency and sanity of offenders. These insights may be what mitigates death penalties and instead offer rehabilitative andor correctional alternatives for defendants.

Ethical considerations are highly relevant in the field of forensic psychology. Indeed, the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002) are used as guidelines for ensuring professionalism and ethics in psychology. Among such considerations is the issue of confidentiality where forensic psychologists are mandated to disclose information on their findings and only use it with informed consent. They are also obligated to have an awareness of the legal standards and implications which may limit their relationships with offenders or witnesses to whom they are assigned. Ethical dilemmas for forensic psychologists handling criminal cases arise when they are expected to disclose crucial information to involved third parties. In cases where the relationship between the psychologist and offender has made them privy to information which indicates eminent danger to others, psychologists must seek to protect the third party. Hart, Ogloff and Roesch (1989) assert that the importance of protecting third parties cannot be overemphasized.

In this field of forensic psychology, there are emerging controversies especially with regard to the ethical role of psychologists when dealing with cases where a not guilty by reason of insanity has been delegated. This is also observed when issues of competency are involved and it is in these circumstances that the forensic psychologists ethical role needs to be clarified. Palermo (2003) argues that there are numerous factors which must be put into consideration when defining these ethical roles. Among these factors are the different moral values upheld by society, and the differences in ethic issues of clinical and forensic psychologists. Furthermore, the relationship between forensic psychology experts and the legal systems are crucial in clarifying these ethical issues. Among the relevant research studies carried out in criminal forensic psychology are those by Gudjonsson (2006) and Archer, Buffington-Vollum, Handel and Stredny (2006) who seek to advance the knowledge of forensic psychology instruments often used in determining the competencies and credibility of witnesses and defendants. In these studies the researchers evaluated such instruments like the multiscale inventories, single scale tests, personality tests, and psychopathy instruments among others used in forensic assessments in the legal system.

Juvenile Forensic Psychology
Juveniles are a special population in the society usually considered as minors and whose care is assigned to adult individuals. Over the years, this population has becomes increasingly engaged in crime and the legal justice system, however as a result of the observable differences between juveniles and adults it has been crucial to devise ways of ensuring their genuine culpability. Forensic psychologists are expected to evaluate the competence of juveniles to either stand trial or provide testimonies. At an era when crimes involving juveniles are rampant, forensic psychologists play a critical role in juvenile court systems. Following the creation of Miranda rights in 1966 which are meant to protect constitutional rights of individuals, juveniles capacities to understand these rights have become an integral issue in criminal courts. For evidence provided by a minor to be admissible in court, they are expected to fully comprehend their rights and understand their actions. Forensic psychologists as explained by Ribner (2002) are requested to conduct a complete evaluation of the juvenile by considering the totality of circumstances. The California case of 1967 People vs. Lara (Ribner, 2002) influenced the practice of forensic psychology with its total consideration of circumstances by psychologists as they seek to establish the competency of juveniles to waver their Miranda rights. Furthermore, psychologists are also delegated in establishing a juveniles competency to stand trial as noted by Benedek and Cornell (1989) where the minors rational competence is scientifically evaluated. Ribner (2002) also sights other influential cases like Fare vs. Michael C. in 1979 and West vs. United States in 1968. In these cases, forensic psychologists were allowed to evaluate the circumstances under which the juveniles had been interrogated and also whether they possessed the mental competency to stand trial.

Forensic psychologists who are involved in juvenile court cases are also assigned the role of determining the juveniles amenability to rehabilitation. There is a growing controversy on how juvenile offenders should be treated. In cases where juveniles are likely to benefit from rehabilitation, forensic psychologists are requested to establish their capacity to do so. This aids the judge and jury in formulating the appropriate sentence. As highlighted by Arrigo and Shipley (2005), there are those who perceive that some juveniles are merely troubled and only need treatment while there are those who perceive them to deserve extreme punishment. In such instances forensic psychologists encounter ethical dilemmas especially when they have formed a bond with the minor in question. If their emotions interfere with their judgment, their ability to make impartial decisions regarding the provision for rehabilitative treatment may become limited. In these situations, forensic psychologists should withdraw from the court case as their findings are compromised and inadmissible in court.

Among the growing controversies in the practice of juvenile forensic psychology is the issue of the utilization of developmental considerations in juvenile cases. Since children are involved in a constant process of change their behaviors and characteristics are rapidly dynamic. Grisso, Miller and Sales (1987) assert that these developmental issues must be critically evaluated and considered in juvenile cases. This is especially important in determining the legal capacities and culpabilities of juveniles at their level of development and that is vital in establishing their levels of rationality and comprehension. Forensic psychologists are urged to develop assessment tools for measuring these developmental perspectives. This issue has led to the emergence of numerous research studies of juvenile offenders and their capacities in legal system providing ample empirical foundations for use in forensic psychology. Propositions have been made for future research on the comparison of rehabilitative and retributive approaches in juvenile sentencing (Arrigo  Shipley, 2005).

Civil Forensic Psychology
This subspecialty of forensic psychology involves civil issues especially in court cases with regards to individually executed proceedings. Such civil proceedings range from child custody cases, discrimination and harassment issues, and injury litigation cases among others. Forensic psychologists as observed in earlier discussed subspecialties are consulted in establishing competency capacities of involved parties. In child custody proceedings, forensic psychologists conduct evaluations on the capabilities of individuals seeking custody in raising the child or children in question. Civil competency is also mandated in civil disagreements involving will contests. Psychologists are expected to perform assessments to establish the mental competency of particular individuals during the time of writing their will. The findings provide guidelines on whether there are grounds for contesting it or not.

Goldstein (2007) highlights landmark cases in the 70s which changed the processes of civil law. Such cases include that of Bastrom vs. Herold in 1966 where a forensic psychologist evaluated the mental capacity of an inmate who was set to be released. The examination established that involuntary civil commitment was warranted as the inmate was not well enough to make rational decisions. The case of Jackson vs. Indiana also established a significant principle in regard to civil commitment when the plaintiff who was retarded and deaf was declared incompetent to stand trial leading to his involuntary commitment in a mental institution. As showcased in these cases involuntary civil commitments are also subject to civil forensic psychology. In circumstances when individuals are not competent to consent to psychiatric treatment forensic psychologists are sought after in order to establish whether involuntary civil commitment is warranted. As established by Petrila (2003) minors are not considered competent enough to consent to treatment and custodians are expected to take this responsibility, however, with this responsibility are other issues which may compromise the wellbeing of the child. It is under such circumstances that forensic psychologists are able to make concrete evaluations of the culpability of custodians in denying minors access to treatment. Mentally ill individuals who are considered incompetent in decision making are admitted to mental institutions through involuntary commitment only after psychologists have established the presence of the mental illness.

Ethical dilemmas are very common in child custody evaluations because they are laden with emotionally vulnerable children and parents. Ethical considerations are very crucial in these cases as the failure to maintain impartiality of judgment in the psychological evaluations may render evidence inadmissible. Forensic psychologists encounter difficulties in providing viable evidence when they conduct evaluations with a preconceived preference on one part as pointed out by Ackerman and Ackerman (1997). If acquainted with one parent, they are biased against the other parent gaining custody. Together with following ethical guidelines for psychologists that are available to forensic psychologists they must find alternative replacements when they establish that their impartiality has been compromised. Petrila (2004) addresses controversies within civil law with regard to forensic mental health psychologists who have been used to practicing their profession within mental institutions. Considering that mental health forensic experts have often worked under institutionalized jurisdictions, emerging civil decisions are shifting their focus and pressuring them to deinstitutionalize. Petrila (2004) observes that even though they have questioned their capacities and responsibilities in offering expert testimonies in civil courts, it is eminent that they need to integrate their expertise cohesively with civil law while doing this.

Since civil forensic psychology involves many personal evaluations, a majority of researches are carried out with the aim of assessing issues involved. Knapp and VandreCreek (2001) address ethical issues involved in conducting personal assessments and further provide information which can guide forensic psychologists in carrying out ethical evaluations consistent with the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002). Another relevant research involves the study of trends and the state of professional practice among psychologists in child custody evaluations (Bow  Quinnell, 2001).

Investigative Forensic Psychology
This subspecialty refers to the application of forensic psychological research and principles to investigations of criminal behaviors. As described by Canter (1995) in Arrigo and Shipley (2005), investigative psychology is deemed to have begun in 1985 when the author was requested to explore the possibilities of integrating investigative techniques and procedures with psychological concepts. Central to investigative forensic psychology is the determination of significant behavioral features of crimes which can aid prosecution of the offenders.  This creates inferences on characteristics of offenders which can lead to their identification and also establish the likelihood of such offenders to have committed other crimes. Forensic psychologists are tasked with the responsibility of profiling during investigations. Profiling is done especially on the psychological and demographic features of involved individuals. Mcgrath (2000) asserts that as a profiler a forensic psychologist is mandated to make inferences on offender characteristics using gathered information of crime scene behavior and form interpretations made from collected crime scene evidence and victimology. A forensic psychologists expertise is also considered very instrumental in investigating serial crimes as they are capable of identifying crimes which were carried out by the same person(s). Douglas and Munn (1992) expound that forensic psychologists may not be considered the best criminal profilers but are better placed to build substantial profiles due to their forensic training. They add that their work is quite extensive and rather difficult. Recently, forensic psychologists have also been involved in conducting psychological autopsies where they attempt to recreate personality profiles of deceased individuals in collaboration with law enforcement officers.

Influential cases in the field of investigative forensic psychology include the investigation of the Boston strangler in 1964 cited by Turvey (2008) where the defendant Albert DeSalvo confessed to being the Boston strangler. In line with the DNA evidence found on the strangled women it was clear that DeSalvo had not committed the crime. A forensic investigation was carried out and while in prison a forensic psychologist evaluated his confession and concluded that there were anomalies. The psychologists claim was validated when DeSalvo recounted his confession and denied being the Boston strangler. Bartol and Bartol (2004) highlight the 1971 case of the mysterious hijacker of the Northwest Airlines Boeing 727 in Portland. In pursuit of the hijacker, forensic psychologists were involved in the investigations as criminal profilers.

In making contributions to criminal profiling forensic psychologists are expected to be aware of the weight of their expertise during investigations. As such they must conduct their investigations accordingly so as to avoid compromising cases. Ethical dilemmas in criminal profiling emerge when forensic psychologists lose their objectivity and professionalism. Kocsis (2006) argues that it is crucial to remain objective and independent throughout criminal profiling proceedings. At times psychologists may have a differing opinion from those they are engaging with during investigations. In order to avoid compromising the investigations it is important that they remain objective and distance themselves from engaging with either side of the investigation.

Controversial debates in investigative forensic psychology have emerged in offender profiling. Alison and Goodwill (2007) expand the debates on the possibilities of inferring offenders features using details from crime scenes. They also set out to ascertain the possibilities of profiling an offenders age from the victims age in cases of stranger rape. Processes and methods used during criminal profiling by forensic psychologists suggest that factors present in crime scenes can indeed have differential moderating effects on the outcomes of predictions. Other relevant research in investigative forensic psychology involves formulating an understanding of the roles of forensic psychologists in offender profiling under different contexts. Annon (1995) describes the concepts and theories behind the practices of offender profiling and the critical roles forensic psychologists play in behavioral analysis of different crime scenes.

Police Forensic Psychology
Policing in the 21st century has shifted from incident driven perspectives to problem solving stances which have further integrated the necessity for forensic psychologists. Police psychology distinguishes roles played by police officers from other law enforcement officers. Forensic psychologists are expected to provide services to policing in areas such as the recruitment of police officers and fitness for duty evaluations, juvenile policing and community policing (Bartol, 1996). Cochrane, Tett and VandreCreek (2003) point out that psychological expertise is required by police departments during procedures for selection. It is the responsibility of the forensic psychologist to conduct tests on the similarity of police personalities with those of aspiring individuals. In fact they are often requested to conduct research and create ideal police profiles which can be used during recruitments. During police interrogations forensic psychologists are often requested in order to offer insight on the capacity of individuals to respond to interrogations. Confessions are only admissible in court when they have been derived accordingly and forensic psychologists play a big role in advising police officers on the credibility of confessions.

Hess and Weiner (2006) claim that the first practice of police forensic psychology was in 1917 when mental tests were used as screening devices in the selection of police officers. After that other psychologists were involved in developing assessment tools for the recruitment of law enforcement personnel such as the Army intelligence examination.  Bartol and Bartol (2004) present a study in 1992 where forensic psychologists administered personality inventories like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), California Psychological Inventory (CPI), 16 Personality Factor (16-PF) and the Inwald Personality Inventory(IPI) in measuring the integrity levels of police officers. It was evident that police officers engaged in corruption possessed common personality characteristics such as immaturity, delinquent histories and signs of maladjustments.

In todays world police officers are highly involved in the lives of juveniles especially with the rise of delinquent youths. Their interactions can be quite demanding as they are expected to develop amiable relations with juveniles. There are emerging controversial issues in this regard as police officers find themselves in situations where they are conflicted on how to implement intervention strategies. In the midst of such interventions are the conflicts of addressing the juveniles best interests and their responsibility of maintaining public safety and security. At this point forensic psychologists offer valuable services of conducting risk assessments in areas where juvenile delinquency is highly prevalent. This helps police officers in identifying high risk areas and therefore considering relevant strategies.

Fulero and Wrightsman (2009) depict that ethical issues are often present when forensic psychologists consult with law enforcement. For instance an ethical dilemma arises when forensic psychologists are obliged by authorities in the police department to disclose information on individual officers who are evaluated for promotion. In such circumstances if they are under threats, forensic psychologists are expected to uphold their code of conduct and honor the confidentiality privilege however they can seek to terminate their services when they encounter such circumstances rather that break their code of ethics and conduct. Moreover, the ethical problem of dual roles is continuously raising controversial debates in policing forensic psychiatry and as explained by Alec and Richard (1998).  There have been various mechanisms which have been invoked as experts attempt to provide a common ground for practice.

Relevant researches in police forensic psychology have included the evaluations of risk assessment techniques and tools such as the Historical, Clinical, Risk Management-20(HCR-20) violence risk assessment technique, the MMPI-2 for adolescents among others used by forensic experts in judging delinquency. Furthermore there are studies carried out which are aimed at conducting surveys on the roles played by forensic psychologists during police recruitments. This has been done in tandem with surveys which provide evidence on the credibility of profiling techniques used in the selection processes of police officers. 

Correctional Forensic Psychology
Corrections in the world today are considered a complex and extensive form of operation which relies heavily on psychological expertise. This field addresses correctional facilities and issues involved in the rehabilitation of individuals. In prison correctional facilities forensic psychologists play a role of conducting evaluations on inmates in the consideration of a variety of factors. In circumstances where inmates are indicative of aggressive behavior and need further restriction, forensic psychologists assess their behaviors and report on their qualifications for prison transfers. Bartol and Bartol (2006) explain that forensic psychologists are expected to observe the inmates behaviors paying close attention to the aggressive responses they elicit. In prison psychological assessments are carried out at the entry level of inmates, when they are about to be released and when there are psychological crises. In addition, when inmates involved are facing death penalties forensic psychologists are very influential in establishing the mental health of such inmates. This can help if the inmate has been wrongly incarcerated and investigations are being carried out on their involvement in particular crimes. Since the constitution prohibits the execution of inmates who are mentally handicapped and who do not comprehend the extent of the punishment forensic psychologists have been vigorously involved in catering for inmates on death row.

Noteworthy developments of the practice of correctional forensic psychology occurred in 1964 as explained by Hess and Weiner (2006) where the introduction of a unit management system was established in federal prisons. These systems involved forensic psychologists dividing prison populations of both staff and prisoners with regard to the prisoners rehabilitation needs and the staffs areas of expertise. Prior to this development forensic psychologists had been more involved in working with offenders and offering them treatment services.

More often than not, psychologists working in correctional facilities encounter ethical dilemmas with regard to the informed consent of inmates. Inmates are often subjected to psychological evaluations without their consent and forensic psychologists may encounter problems especially when inmates believe that they have no choice but to take part in the evaluation. This also capitulates to the problem of dual relationships when forensic psychologists are expected to honor both the correctional facility and the individual they are evaluating. Further controversies arise in cases where forensic psychologists are expected to offer expert opinions with regard to the rehabilitative capacities of juveniles in correctional facilities. In recent times, the majority of juvenile offenders are assigned rehabilitative treatments as opposed to punishments as this has increased the involvement of psychologists in juvenile correctional facilities. As they are charged with the duty of determining the capacity of rehabilitated juveniles to cope in their former home environments they can develop deep bonds with them. This may induce ethical problems of lack of due diligence and objectivity while carrying out evaluations.

Correctional forensic psychology has not been operative for long and there has been limited relevant research assigned to this field of psychology. Linda and Shoba (1994) have researched on the above mentioned ethical and professional conflicts often observed in correctional facilities. Although this has been relevant it has not indicated specific reference to the practice of forensic psychology, however there are future considerations being made for more research on the roles of forensic psychologists in correctional facilities. Also, there is a general need to conduct surveys in correctional facilities on the provisions made for forensic psychologists evaluating aggressive inmates.

Summary
From the above discussion, it is evident that the paper has extensively addressed the field of forensic psychology. With specific attention being paid to the different subspecialties, it is observable that forensic psychologists are tasked with a vast range of roles. Forensic psychologists working with criminal courts are responsible for carrying out evaluations and providing expert opinions on competencies of offenders to stand trial and witnesses in providing testimonies. They also assess the criminal responsibility of offenders and even provide insight on the competencies of offenders during sentencing. Ideally, forensic psychologists are valued in all the subspecialties as their expert opinions are utilized during judging of cases. Other roles discussed include their capacities as criminal profilers during criminal investigations, their involvement in police selection processes and the evaluation of police officers fitness for duty. They are also instrumental in child custody cases filed in civil courts where they are expected to evaluate the credibility of custodians and also in assessing the best provisions available for the childs wellbeing. Furthermore, they are engaged in correctional facilities where they offer services to death row inmates in evaluating their mental rational capacity.

In the practice of forensic psychology, there are emerging ethical issues which have been detailed in the discussion with regard to the various subspecialties, however eminent issues include the aspects of dual agency and a lack of objectivity in handling various circumstances of their work. Regardless of this, the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002) has been showcased as a valuable source of guidance which can aid forensic psychologists in handling any ethical issues that they may experience. From the above study it is also evident that these ethical issues have been subject to controversial debates in the field of psychology. However with the rampant growth of forensic psychology research, these controversies will be solved. Even though the subspecialties are indicative of distinct fields of practicing forensic psychology, there are common roles which can be deduced. Forensic psychologists ultimately play the role of offering their expertise and knowledge and applying it to all these areas. Therefore, their competence takes precedence and should be coupled with continuous search for more relevant knowledge. After the integration of ethical principles in the practice of forensic psychology, the roles of forensic psychologists will be invaluable to society.

There are ethical principles that psychologists engage in that serves as a guide and code in resolving ethical dilemmas where specific definitions of behavior reflect the professions ethical principles and values.  This underlying code of ethics guides the psychologists in their work, with no force of law, and cross-referenced to reflect the four ethical principles that are the following (1) respect for the dignity of persons (2) responsible caring (3) integrity in relationships and (4) responsibility to society. 

The first principle, the respect for the dignity of persons, demonstrates respect to one another, with the valuing of innate worth persons and not using them entirely as means to an end.  It enhances an essential characteristic in the relationship while demonstrating courtesy, understanding, and the sharing of goals and role expectations.  It also addresses professional and interpersonal differences, considering third party consultation, and defining the parameters of confidentiality of personal information. 

The second principle, the responsible caring principle, demonstrates the need for care, especially concerning the wellbeing and interests of other persons.  It requires meeting the expected standards of performance, with self-awareness and self-exploration being the center of the principle.  There is also knowledge regarding as well as sharing in terms of their respective roles in the performance in psychology.  Current levels of competence are the basis in defining supervision goals, procedures, and conditions.

The third principle, integrity in relationships, demonstrates the need for openness, objectivity, honesty, straightforwardness, and avoidance of conflict of interest in keeping with respect and caring for others (Canadian Psychological Association, 2009, p.7).  It explores personal values and respects each ones substantive contributions, while giving credit as earned, and avoiding the distortion of results due to personal, public, or political reasons.  It avoids exploitation and strives for the highest level of competence applicable to the state of environment, and avoids multiple relationships, which could be harmful.     

The final principle, the responsibility to society, demonstrates the need to promote collective wellbeing of the society.  This relates to the foundation of teaching, research, practice, and administration that supervisors and supervisees can contribute to the welfare of society (Canadian Psychological Association, 2009, p.8).  It also addresses discipline, contributing to the greater good of the society, and promoting social justice for the welfare of the many.  It also ensures the issues of ethics and standards, while striving to achieve highest quality of learning in which the combined competence would serve the public exceedingly.

These four principles provide an effective and mutually respectful working alliance in the working environment, with cooperation and positive relationship that enhances learning and a higher standard of performance and alliance.