Psychology

Eric Fromm is a psychology theorist who sought to explain human nature in relation to the notion of freedom. Drawing from Freud and Marxs points of view, Fromm analyzed mans personality not only as a biological entity but also as a societal character. This paper seeks to analyze a case study which depicts Fromms personality theory. The paper will describe the present case scenarios in respect to Fromms perspectives on freedom.

1.
According to Fromm, Marla and her mother exhibit a symbiotic family pattern. This sort of pattern is seen in families where individuals are not capable of developing their own personalities and instead are assimilated by others within their families. This results in a dependant relationship which is often a reflection of what the dominant family member wants or desires. In respect to the case study, this pattern can be seen in the relationship between Marla and her mother. Marla has no individual personality and her life revolves around making her mother happy. Initially a favorite child to her mother, Marla has since then made it her lifes purpose to serve her mother and do everything according to her. Another characteristic which can be observed from their relationship is how Marla relies on her mother to make decisions for her and even when she makes them it is only to include her mother in the process. When she is invited for a trip by Andrea, she cannot afford to live her mother behind and suggests that the mother joins them on the trip.  This relationship has led to the isolation of other family members like Marlas sister Andrea.

Fromm attributes this patterns occurrence to the societal characteristics which have often defined the roles and places individuals are meant to have in the society. In traditional societies, young girls grow up attached to their mothers who are representative of an ideal societal figure. These girls want to be associated with their mothers and often go to great lengths to please them. As a result, the young girls grow up in an environment which does not value the people that they are and this bars them from developing individual personalities. Fromm asserts in (Boeree, 2006), that freedom is quite complex and not all people are capable of taking responsibility for this freedom. This explains why symbiotic family patterns may occur. Some individuals unable to deal with their freedom cling on to others whom they trust to take responsibility.

2.
According to Fromms theory, the receptive orientation best describes Marlas personality. This personality manifests mostly in individuals in symbiotic family patterns. The submissive partner in the relationship expects to have their needs fulfilled by elements from outside themselves. Marla is not only submissive to her mother but she also expects the mother to hold all the answers to her questions, to make decisions on her behalf and to satisfy all her needs. At the mercy of her mother, Marla never seeks to fulfill her needs from within her being because she trusts her mother to be the ultimate provider. These sorts of personalities are found especially in low class societies where the people are dependent on the upper class to provide for them.

3.
Fromm outlines various existential needs which must be met for life fulfillment. The existential needs which have been met for Marla are relatedness and rootedness. On the other hand, the unmet needs are those of creativity, need for sense of identity and frame of orientation. Relatedness refers to the human desire to be linked to another person. This union allows individuals to overcome the separateness which naturally exists amongst human beings. Often illustrated as love, the need for relatedness can only be love when the individuals involved do not lose their individuality but instead maintain its integrity. Marlas need for relatedness has been met but in an unhealthy manner. Fromm accounts for such scenarios by explaining that this need for relatedness can exhibit ones desperateness to acquire it. Thus persons are prompted to find easier ways of establishing such relationships. Marla shares a strong bond with her mother. She relies on her mother for her wants and also takes cues from her on the right decisions to make in her life. In the true sense, Marlas need for relatedness has only been met partially as it has not resulted in a healthy relationship.

The existential need for rootedness emanates from the basic human desire to belong. This need is only fulfilled when individuals find a home where they feel that they truly belong. Marlas need for rootedness has been met but has also resulted in an unhealthy development. Fromm claims that the easiest way for human beings to gain rootedness is to maintain their links with their mothers. Marla remains close to her mother and feels safe and protected under the mothers care. However, instead of establishing other roots as an adult Marla still remains tied to her mother. Marlas is thus clinging to the only roots which she feels she has and this can be seen in the way she isolates herself from others and will only relate to her mother.

Marla has not developed a sense of identity mainly because she has sought to escape from her freedom by being dependent on her mother. Her life is not under her control but her mothers and this has led to her deformed personality. Fromm states that peoples need for identity can be quite overwhelming and they may be forced to conform to other peoples status in order to establish their own niche. Marla has a pretend sense of identity as it is not truly hers but it is a reflection of her mothers individuality. Also, Marlas need for creativity is unmet because she has not yet formed her own family and has no children. This is one of the many ways that human beings seek to transcend. Marla has not yet experienced this because she has not adapted to an individual identity which would allow her to seek outside relations which would prompt the desire for children. Her symbiotic relationship with her mother is the greatest barrier to the fulfillment of the need for creativity.

Another unmet need is the existential need for a frame of orientation. This is the need to develop an understanding of the world and life in general. Moreover, this understanding must be rational and one which provides individuals with meaning. Fromm relays that an individuals desperateness to seek meaning in life may lead them to accepting false rationalizations as the truth. Marla does not possess any affiliations which would assist her in understanding life since she is always attached to her mother. In addition, her unhealthy relationship with her mother lives no room for her mother to help her develop an understanding of the world.

4.
Marla has adopted the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from freedom. This mechanism allows individuals to blend with others in a hierarchical authoritarian system. Marla has submitted to her mothers authority by conforming to the mothers way of life. She is dependent on her mother and Marla has identified with her structural providence.  In playing the parental role, Marlas mother establishes rules for her daughter and sees to it that they are followed. On the other hand, Marla has learnt to submit to her mothers wishes and will make sure she follows the rules to the letter. Apart from this passive mechanism, Fromm also notes that there is an extreme side o the authoritarian mechanism. This is the masochistic version where individuals assert their structures to others as a way of escaping their individual identities.

From the above analysis, it is evident that the paper has provided an illustrative evaluation of Fromms personality theory. Marla, the main subject of the case study provides a suitable example in describing Fromms depiction of freedom. Emerging form a symbiotic family, Marla has no individual identity and uses the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from her identity. Fromms existential needs have also been outlined with the conclusion that only the needs for relatedness and rootedness have been satisfied in Marlas case. Furthermore, Marla has been described as having a receptive orientation personality. This has been derived from her characteristic of being dependent on her mother for the fulfillment of her needs and wants.

The essay Defending Against the Indefensible contains several different ideas all of which, I do not think the writer intended. And though I agree with most of the observations made in the essay I would like to discuss two points, which, presumably, were unintended by the author. The fist is setting up education and reform as a type of war where as the second is the (again presumably)unconscious Christian subtext. These two ideas could lead one to believe, that the author sees educational reform as some type of Christian crusade. In the following I will look into these ideas in more detail.

The title Defending against the Indefensible is itself a theme maker. By using words like defense, protection, and countless others, the idea, that war can be used as a metaphor for  educational reform is made most apparent. Additionally, in his seven points, the inclusion of the answer we should send Marines to Nicaragua though, anachronistic, too helps set the back drop that war as a metaphor and educational reform can be confused.
   
As for a Christian bias, this is apparent through out the essay however, it is made most notable in the choice of quotes it is unfit for a Christian ear to endure this, along with gods sake and other allusions such as the joke about the two priests, the Christian bias is most pronounced and obvious. I would think, if this had been written in a culture that was not predominantly Christian, the use of such language would seem odd and out of place, however, I think to the unobservant, the use of these easy anecdotes could easily go by unnoticed.

The previous two ideas do not necessarily reflect my opinion, but, inform by opinion in the sense, that I agree with his general statements and could not find fault with any of them. It is true, that definitions are too often used as the end of authority, rather than the starting point. As a society, we rely on these intellectual short-cuts, as a means of not having to think. For the most part, schools in general, and the United States in particular, are really nothing more than indoctrination centers.  Day in and day out, they produce good little citizens, that understand the top-down modals of life and economics, never questioning, their brothers plight, nor that of their own sad dreary existence. However, to conclude with  a slightly happier note, I found the line metaphors like questions, are organs of perception really quite funny. Here he is using the language of simile, to talk about metaphor, which if anything, further makes his point.

Eric Fromm is a psychology theorist who sought to explain human nature in relation to the notion of freedom. Drawing from Freud and Marxs points of view, Fromm analyzed mans personality not only as a biological entity but also as a societal character. This paper seeks to analyze a case study which depicts Fromms personality theory. The paper will describe the present case scenarios in respect to Fromms perspectives on freedom.

1.
According to Fromm, Marla and her mother exhibit a symbiotic family pattern. This sort of pattern is seen in families where individuals are not capable of developing their own personalities and instead are assimilated by others within their families. This results in a dependant relationship which is often a reflection of what the dominant family member wants or desires. In respect to the case study, this pattern can be seen in the relationship between Marla and her mother. Marla has no individual personality and her life revolves around making her mother happy. Initially a favorite child to her mother, Marla has since then made it her lifes purpose to serve her mother and do everything according to her. Another characteristic which can be observed from their relationship is how Marla relies on her mother to make decisions for her and even when she makes them it is only to include her mother in the process. When she is invited for a trip by Andrea, she cannot afford to live her mother behind and suggests that the mother joins them on the trip.  This relationship has led to the isolation of other family members like Marlas sister Andrea.

Fromm attributes this patterns occurrence to the societal characteristics which have often defined the roles and places individuals are meant to have in the society. In traditional societies, young girls grow up attached to their mothers who are representative of an ideal societal figure. These girls want to be associated with their mothers and often go to great lengths to please them. As a result, the young girls grow up in an environment which does not value the people that they are and this bars them from developing individual personalities. Fromm asserts in (Boeree, 2006), that freedom is quite complex and not all people are capable of taking responsibility for this freedom. This explains why symbiotic family patterns may occur. Some individuals unable to deal with their freedom cling on to others whom they trust to take responsibility.

2.
According to Fromms theory, the receptive orientation best describes Marlas personality. This personality manifests mostly in individuals in symbiotic family patterns. The submissive partner in the relationship expects to have their needs fulfilled by elements from outside themselves. Marla is not only submissive to her mother but she also expects the mother to hold all the answers to her questions, to make decisions on her behalf and to satisfy all her needs. At the mercy of her mother, Marla never seeks to fulfill her needs from within her being because she trusts her mother to be the ultimate provider. These sorts of personalities are found especially in low class societies where the people are dependent on the upper class to provide for them.

3.
Fromm outlines various existential needs which must be met for life fulfillment. The existential needs which have been met for Marla are relatedness and rootedness. On the other hand, the unmet needs are those of creativity, need for sense of identity and frame of orientation. Relatedness refers to the human desire to be linked to another person. This union allows individuals to overcome the separateness which naturally exists amongst human beings. Often illustrated as love, the need for relatedness can only be love when the individuals involved do not lose their individuality but instead maintain its integrity. Marlas need for relatedness has been met but in an unhealthy manner. Fromm accounts for such scenarios by explaining that this need for relatedness can exhibit ones desperateness to acquire it. Thus persons are prompted to find easier ways of establishing such relationships. Marla shares a strong bond with her mother. She relies on her mother for her wants and also takes cues from her on the right decisions to make in her life. In the true sense, Marlas need for relatedness has only been met partially as it has not resulted in a healthy relationship.

The existential need for rootedness emanates from the basic human desire to belong. This need is only fulfilled when individuals find a home where they feel that they truly belong. Marlas need for rootedness has been met but has also resulted in an unhealthy development. Fromm claims that the easiest way for human beings to gain rootedness is to maintain their links with their mothers. Marla remains close to her mother and feels safe and protected under the mothers care. However, instead of establishing other roots as an adult Marla still remains tied to her mother. Marlas is thus clinging to the only roots which she feels she has and this can be seen in the way she isolates herself from others and will only relate to her mother.

Marla has not developed a sense of identity mainly because she has sought to escape from her freedom by being dependent on her mother. Her life is not under her control but her mothers and this has led to her deformed personality. Fromm states that peoples need for identity can be quite overwhelming and they may be forced to conform to other peoples status in order to establish their own niche. Marla has a pretend sense of identity as it is not truly hers but it is a reflection of her mothers individuality. Also, Marlas need for creativity is unmet because she has not yet formed her own family and has no children. This is one of the many ways that human beings seek to transcend. Marla has not yet experienced this because she has not adapted to an individual identity which would allow her to seek outside relations which would prompt the desire for children. Her symbiotic relationship with her mother is the greatest barrier to the fulfillment of the need for creativity.

Another unmet need is the existential need for a frame of orientation. This is the need to develop an understanding of the world and life in general. Moreover, this understanding must be rational and one which provides individuals with meaning. Fromm relays that an individuals desperateness to seek meaning in life may lead them to accepting false rationalizations as the truth. Marla does not possess any affiliations which would assist her in understanding life since she is always attached to her mother. In addition, her unhealthy relationship with her mother lives no room for her mother to help her develop an understanding of the world.

4.
Marla has adopted the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from freedom. This mechanism allows individuals to blend with others in a hierarchical authoritarian system. Marla has submitted to her mothers authority by conforming to the mothers way of life. She is dependent on her mother and Marla has identified with her structural providence.  In playing the parental role, Marlas mother establishes rules for her daughter and sees to it that they are followed. On the other hand, Marla has learnt to submit to her mothers wishes and will make sure she follows the rules to the letter. Apart from this passive mechanism, Fromm also notes that there is an extreme side o the authoritarian mechanism. This is the masochistic version where individuals assert their structures to others as a way of escaping their individual identities.

From the above analysis, it is evident that the paper has provided an illustrative evaluation of Fromms personality theory. Marla, the main subject of the case study provides a suitable example in describing Fromms depiction of freedom. Emerging form a symbiotic family, Marla has no individual identity and uses the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from her identity. Fromms existential needs have also been outlined with the conclusion that only the needs for relatedness and rootedness have been satisfied in Marlas case. Furthermore, Marla has been described as having a receptive orientation personality. This has been derived from her characteristic of being dependent on her mother for the fulfillment of her needs and wants.

The creations of journal entries remain an important component shaping individual growth and development. It allows each student to reflect on important ideas and generate inputs on valuable determinants for learning and competence in a particular module. This then provides the necessary leverage to recognize and develop new skills enriching both the capacity to adapt towards challenges and become an effective instrument towards growth. It is through such capacity that people gain the advantage of advancing in the profession ladder.

Reflecting on the creation and development of my personal development plan, it can be seen that I have made considerable efforts to seek and determine what the important parameters are shaping my personal capacity to improve. This will not only generate better inputs on as to familiarization of what is relevant to my practice but also strengthen my background on what I believe could cultivate towards my professional competence.

Seeing this, the main mindset during this time was to achieve and set for small goals. I do believe that this can help me function towards achievement as I aspire for new trends that continuously shape the dimension of practice. Likewise, I deem that by taking action into small and important details, I can fully utilize the necessary elements that are associated with my chosen work and responsibility. This can be an important training ground and stepping stone towards my professional career as it can generate the exposure and experience to become adaptive to whatever I do.

Deriving from this analogy, what I deem relevant and vital involves simple practices related to my further education which includes (1) getting good grades, (2) completing my homework, (3) adapting to school by balancing my time and (4) gathering skills needed to grow and professionally develop.  These together with other relevant actions determine the necessary path towards who I want to become and instigate the necessary ability to infuse new dynamics related to my chosen field and profession.

Likewise, the creations of my personal development plan help me recognize my personal leadership style. It came as a surprise realizing that I was classified to be a dolphin type leader  one who can lead but has the capacity to showcase care and compassion among colleagues. For my part, I see this very supplemental towards my pursuit for betterment. By enriching these goals accordingly, I can become an important catalyst shaping enhanced group dynamics and a workplace that is facilitative of diversity.

At the same time, I can use this leadership style to foster conflict resolution strategies. In the interplay of groups and individuals, it is necessary to seek and find appropriate actions that can sustain and generate new inputs that can help each one recognize their skills and capacities accordingly. This then provides the necessary leverage to remain dynamic amidst the organizational challenges surrounding the workplace today. As a dolphin type leader, I can actively apply these strategies and maintain important relationships in the process.

Reflecting on these ideas further, I have realized that there are three current themes that continue to be evident throughout my learning journal. These patterns I do believe necessitate who I want to become and serve as an instrument for my part to constantly seek for changes and development. One important theme about my learning journals revolves around the capacity to understand myself. This corresponding idea corresponds towards developing the competence towards my personality and what decisions and choices have I made in the past and present that contributes what I am today. Despite the corresponding challenges associated with some, the ability to move past these and become better is the catalyst shaping my individual growth.

Another relevant theme revolves that I had observed corresponds to the idea revolves opening up avenues in improving and generating inputs that updates my daily life and studies. By taking part in writing my learning journal for at least once a week, I begin to discover new things that contribute to my knowledge. I gain new inputs that correspondingly implore on vital aspects that are relatively vital and significant towards finding the necessary avenues for stimulating my capacity and testing my abilities further. Seeing this, I do feel privileged and challenged at the same time because of the ability not only to justify my actions but also understanding that this can lead towards my betterment.

The last theme that I derive from this personal development plan involves creating and responding my goals to become successful at Franklin University. Since I have sought to specialize at a particular field, I do believe that the University through their efforts to induce new motivations by the creation of a development plan, caters not only towards recognition of what matters most in my career but also instigate the necessary avenues to become dynamic to the changing nature of University life. This means that I need to constantly become engaged not only towards myself but also with the community to remain successful in my academic endeavor. It is by mixing both academic skill together with extra-curricular activities and interaction can help generate better inputs on as to what matters the most.

These three themes in general represent something that is vital on my part. I see this as a perfect opportunity to grow in the process. Each one corresponds to my ability to recognize my potential and stimulate the process of recognizing what I prescribe to become and the necessary ways on how I can achieve this. At the same time, the themes present in my development journal also connote the idea that I can become who I want to be without really taking into consideration what others might feel. Such aspect necessitates the firm foundation of exploring and applying theories and applications learned in class with reality.

In addition, by taking importance to all these themes, I can facilitate new dimensions to remain organized and committed to what I need to become. Such avenues diversifies my role and commitment in the educational sphere and takes important values specifically time management, discipline, and willingness to engage in discussions that can relatively shape my capacity to become dynamic and responsive to my needs and also my peers as well. Overall, I could say that I have developed a good relationship with my journal because of its ability to extract positive inputs and insights on my part.

Assignments and activities also constitute an important parameter towards achieving educational competence. Under this principle, it fosters a unique experience that is derived from the ability of the student to engage towards finding new alternatives to diversify my knowledge and competence over this issue. At the same time, with the increasing developments happening within the realm of technology, it has also brought students the ability to further recognize new communication patterns and transcend towards finding new directives towards change. Such avenues not only necessitate new ways for students to interact but also foster an increased commitment in enhancing the functions and needs of students accordingly.

For my part, I do believe that all the activities within the course supplement the condition in expanding and fostering new areas for learning. Each one not only corresponds to what we need as students but also adhere to the standards that makes us viable to become adaptive to the changing needs of the educational community in the 21st century. Such fundamental aspect necessitates becoming adherent towards ensuring that responsibility and accountability. This then becomes the essential instrument shaping competence and individual growth.

Reacting further, what I like most about the course activities involves the discussion boards. Here, the professor provides a prompt that students can answer. These questions that are relevant to the course supplement the objective in expanding and developing new inputs to each one of us. This then provides an understanding of what we perceive towards reality and how our perceptions remain rooted on a particular theoretical framework or standpoint. Linking these to the nature of our subject, I experienced the capacity to apply familiar tenets learned in the classroom and appreciate how these interpretations apply to what we currently see happening in the community and society in general.

Furthermore, another perspective that is significant with this involves having the capacity to communicate and engage in feedbacks. The main principle surrounding this process corresponds to the nature of finding ways to exchange ideas and information on a related topic of interest. I do believe that this is the most supportive aspect of the whole discussion board process as the educator and students have the capacity to engage in effective and facilitative interaction. This I believe deepens the relationship that the class has over the subject and increases the level of appreciation of key principles surrounding the topic.

Another way that learning can be exhibited is its ability to induce positive responses on the part of student. This involves actively infusing better strategies that can improve not only our cognitive capacity but also the ability to function according to needs of the environment. This means having the right attitudes in handling key challenges surrounding the field and fostering new inputs that can increase competence in a holistic and total manner. These options in turn helps students explore their individual capacities and their ability to respond according to the needs prescribed by the classroomsubject.

For my part, I had sought to reach out and extend my capacity to my peers inside the classroom. Since I am a relatively shy and reserved person, the subject opened up perspectives in both harnessing and recognizing my abilities to the fullest. With the support from my supervisor, I used these traits to hone and cultivate new directives towards self-confidence. Likewise, the support coming from my classmates also played a huge part in extending my capacity to believe in myself. I came to understand through this immersion, that I can achieve success if I became more open and assertive towards my beliefs. This can help guarantee not only better acquisition of skills but also new dimensions towards interaction and positive insights concerning personal outlook.

Related to this involves the capacity to understand the values and goals that is vital for myself and peers as well. These then helps provide the necessary inputs about my set of small goals. It is through such objectives and desires that one perceives a higher aim. It is the fundamental perspectives that shapes my capacity for feedback and interaction accordingly and help justify new course of actions suitable for my part. These then operate towards finding the right alternatives that can supplement adherence to the trends and challenges of society. Likewise, it becomes the instrument towards exploring possible course of actions as each one determines their roles within the workplace and society.

In the end, I plan to use these tools, models and approaches to further develop my capacity to become effective. Here, I can apply these by studying at least 12 hours a week, continue writing my journal, cultivate my strengths and hone my weaknesses. I do believe that this corresponds not only to my ability to become effective as an individual and professional in the future but also instigate the renewed perspective in becoming resilient to my needs as it applies to myself, to the community, and society.

The article, Hypnotic Pseudomemories, Prehypnotic Warnings, and the Malleability of Suggested Memories (Green, Lynn, and Malinoski 1998), is a report of the experiment done to test the reliability of Ornes nocturnal events paradigm.  It seems that a large number of hypnotized patients report pseudomemories, or memories that did not actually happen but appear from suggestion.  To counteract this trend, the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis has suggested rules of neutral questioning and patient informed hypnosis.

This study attempted to try a more proactive means of stopping pseudomemories by informing patients beforehand of the tendency for them.  Prehypnotic expectations have often been shown effective in treated other issues and this should extend to pseudomemories as well, but few studies have proven this to be true.

In the experiment, Green, Lynn, and Malinoski used Ornes nocturnal events paradigm to test if pseudomemories can be reduced by warning.  Participants were asked if they had heard a loud noise during the night to see if the participants believed the suggestion of the hypnotist, even if they were forewarned
Method

Two hundred twenty seven undergraduates took the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility Form A to test their ability to be hypnotized and of these forty-eight were chosen to participate.  Finally, the number was whittled down to two groups of twelve.

Procedure
Before the experiment, each group was presented with three facts about hypnosis.  The experimental group was warned that hypnosis can make people remember things that are not true and people can be influenced into pseudomemories.  The control group was given another fact totally unrelated to pseudomemories.

Participants were then taken to their hypnotist and, after participants reviewed the thirty minutes before they went to bed, they were hypnotized and age regressed through the night.  As they were regressed, the hypnotist asked if they were awakened by a loud noise during the night.  The hypnotist knew this had not happened from interviews before hypnosis.  After awakening, participants were asked if they remembered a loud noise and if they answered yes they were asked if it was real or imagined.  For the pseudomemory to be scored, the participant had to report the noise and confirm it did occur.  Afterwards, the participants completed the Archaic Involvement Measure and were assured their answers would be confidential.

Then the participant was rehypnotized and informed that even if a participant creates a false memory there is a part that remembers the truth, called the hidden observer.  After the hidden observer was contacted, the questions about pseudomemory were reasked.  Then participants were told that they would be reconnected with their hypnotized part and they would not remember the hidden part.  Once this was done, the questions about pseudomemories were asked again.  The amnesia of the hidden part was then removed and the questions asked again.

After waking up, the participants were asked how deeply they were hypnotized and how realistic the experiences of the age regression were.  Before leaving the participants were asked to answer written questions asking if they believe the noises happened, how confident they were the noises occurred, and what they believed the experiment was about.  It was only after this they were debriefed.

Results and Discussion
Despite testing on many aspects of pseudomemory, there was not a significant difference between the groups in the existence of false memories.  This led the researchers to conclude that warnings about pseudomemories do not in fact stop them.  Participants tended to insist on the pseudomemories despite different testing conditions.  The researchers were unable to reproduce the results of Spanos and McLean that pseudomemories could be reversed, even using Spanos and McLeans hidden observer.

Discussion of Importance
This study has great implications in the use of hypnosis.  If patients can be influenced by suggestion, then the reliability of what they report falls greatly.  Even worse, patients could be made to remember things that could harm or damage them, for they believe the memory is true.  The fact that the participants continue to cling to the pseudomemories means that even once told of the memories truth, they will be unwilling to accept the memory is a false one.

The seriousness of this has been seen in court cases of abuse.  Therapists have retrieved memories of abuse and the patient believed them to be true.  Then the patient swore in court that heshe was abused and the accused abuser was convicted on false evidence.

That does not mean that hypnosis should never be used.  Instead, hypnotists should be aware of the ease of implanting false memories and strict rules enacted that protect the patient.  Even without the intent of the hypnotist to implant memories, once the memories are there they are difficult to erase and great damage could be done accidently.

Defending Against the Indefensible.
The essay Defending Against the Indefensible contains several different ideas all of which, I do not think the writer intended. And though I agree with most of the observations made in the essay I would like to discuss two points, which, presumably, were unintended by the author. The fist is setting up education and reform as a type of war where as the second is the (again presumably)unconscious Christian subtext. These two ideas could lead one to believe, that the author sees educational reform as some type of Christian crusade. In the following I will look into these ideas in more detail.

The title Defending against the Indefensible is itself a theme maker. By using words like defense, protection, and countless others, the idea, that war can be used as a metaphor for  educational reform is made most apparent. Additionally, in his seven points, the inclusion of the answer we should send Marines to Nicaragua though, anachronistic, too helps set the back drop that war as a metaphor and educational reform can be confused.
   
As for a Christian bias, this is apparent through out the essay however, it is made most notable in the choice of quotes it is unfit for a Christian ear to endure this, along with gods sake and other allusions such as the joke about the two priests, the Christian bias is most pronounced and obvious. I would think, if this had been written in a culture that was not predominantly Christian, the use of such language would seem odd and out of place, however, I think to the unobservant, the use of these easy anecdotes could easily go by unnoticed.
The previous two ideas do not necessarily reflect my opinion, but, inform by opinion in the sense, that I agree with his general statements and could not find fault with any of them. It is true, that definitions are too often used as the end of authority, rather than the starting point. As a society, we rely on these intellectual short-cuts, as a means of not having to think. For the most part, schools in general, and the United States in particular, are really nothing more than indoctrination centers.  Day in and day out, they produce good little citizens, that understand the top-down modals of life and economics, never questioning, their brothers plight, nor that of their own sad dreary existence. However, to conclude with  a slightly happier note, I found the line metaphors like questions, are organs of perception really quite funny. Here he is using the language of simile, to talk about metaphor, which if anything, further makes his point.

What are the ultimate goals of parenting
The ultimate goal of parenting is to get to know ones children in the effort of streamlining their character and behaviors towards certain situations with the aim of bringing up a responsible, morally upright individual.  Also, the aim of parenting is to come up with positive individuals who are brought up in a cultured manner. Berk (2001) shows that children who have less interaction with their mother have a tendency of having a negative mood and are less passionate. Equally important is the negative behavior that is manifested by children who stay for long hours in day care they show a lot of defiant behavior (Berk, 2001, 9). Thus, the ultimate goal of parenting is to bring up a morally upright individual who is accommodative and ready to integrate with and be accepted in line with the conventions of the society. These traits can be manifested by positive outcomes expected from well parented children like high self-esteem, better grades in school, and more positive family and peer relations (Berk, 2001)

What are some ways in which you can obtain these goals
The quality and quantity of time that parents spend with their children is very important. These goals can be attained by parents seeking professional advice on child care. Another way these goals can be attained is by adults engaging in more productive practices and thus reflect to their children because they have a likelihood of achieving in school and thus develop productive interests and be more responsible and caring (Berk, 2001, 18). The prerequisite for these goals to be attained requires parents to plan their lives in an effort of investing their time and energy in their children.

According to Berk (2001, 21) some activities are essential to ensure or can enable parents to examine and obtain the goals of parenting. Parents can obtain these goals by taking their time to interact with each child. They ought to also have a sit down meal with their children and try to understand their children in an amicable environment free from the daily interruptions like TV and phones. Getting involved in some activities with the children is a positive move towards attaining parental goals. For instance, parents have to engage their children in day to day chores like gardening, cooking and shopping. They can also engage them in viable play and other recreational activities. This will enable the parents to instill the morals they intend in not only a relaxed environment, but also in a very easy way.

An equally viable way of attaining parental goals is by stipulating predictable routines with clear and consistently enforced laws (Berk, 2001). The oversight that should come with these measures should ensure that the children are within their supervision and the time parents share with them should be enough and spent in a fruitful manner. The quantity of time spent with children is of essence such that parents will be able to know if there is any change in their child and thus respond accordingly.

Parenting starts at a tender age and it is to this effect that parents have to take interest and invest their time in socializing children. When parents are attentive, patient and interested in the babys activities, their social signals sustain the infants attention, essential for shared focus. (Berk, 2001, 44) This shows that the child starts to be socialized at a very tender age and it is by the interest the parent creates in every stage of development that makes them (parents) mould them towards the intended parenting goals.

The goals of parenting therefore can be accomplished by parents trying to support their childrens interests and their strengths without forcing things (Gralinski, 1993). In the endeavor to do this, parents can attain parenting goals by ensuring that children have enough room to explore. The act of forcing children to do activities that they are not interested in may turn out to be counterproductive and thus be a panacea for failure to attaining parental goals.  It is to this effect that parents have to be honest to their weaknesses and strengths (Hudley, 2003) for them to build a trustworthy relationship. Another way the parenting goals can be attained is by respecting the childrens thoughts and opinions objectively. This is a controversial idea, especially when the parent does not agree with the children. Such kind of a difference can be addressed in a respectful and amicable way so that the children should be let to know why their parents do not agree with their ideas. Let different point-of -view coexist for a while they will allow your child to think more about an issue. (Stattin, 2000)

Other way of attaining parental goals is by the parents knowing the company their children hang around, what they watch, read and listen to. This should be done with a lot of caution though, because the children might hide what they are doing from the parents, especially when they know that someone is watching every move they are making. This should be followed with parents giving directions without being rigid (Stattin, 2000). There is the need to involve the teachers so that the parents can have a whole rounded character of their children.

This section presents a review of previous studies that have examined relationship satisfaction and its predictors in an attempt to construct the foundation for an investigation of how age gap or age difference impacts the level of relationship satisfaction. There is a paucity in research that explores the impact of age gap or age difference in relationship satisfaction among intimate partners. Extant literature, however, suggests that age is an influential factor on how couples explain and conceptualise love and measure satisfaction in close relationships. This literature review intends to examine the theoretical background of the concept of relationship satisfaction, studies examining love as predictor of satisfaction, and previous studies that explored the role of age on love attitudes and relationship satisfaction.

Satisfaction defined
To people who are engaged in a close relationship  marital, cohabiting, or serious dating - the issue of satisfaction is significant. Satisfaction is tied directly to whether or not a couple ultimately stays together or breaks up (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1988).  Determining how satisfaction can be measured in order to find ways for couples to stay together has led to various researches on the subject.

By definition, satisfaction is one of many terms used to evaluate a close relationship and is viewed by some social scientists from either the relational or individual perspective (Glenn, cited in Hernberg and Hojjat 1997 43).  Satisfaction refers to a partners subjective, affective experiencing of their contentment and happiness over their intimate relationship (Hernberg and Hojjat 199758). The individual perspective treats satisfaction as a judgment that is reflective of couples subjective feelings about their relationship while the relational perspective treats satisfaction as an evaluation of actual relationship behaviours.

One of the major determinants of relationship satisfaction is love (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1991, and Hendrick 1995). A widely-used approach to studying love is the multidimensional theory developed by Lee (1973) which presents six major loving styles Eros or passionate love Storge or friendship-based love Ludus or game-playing love Pragma or practical love Mania or possessive love and Agape or altruistic love. This framework has been the basis for the construction of several measures on beliefs and attitudes about love, among them the Love Attitudes Scale (Hendrick and Hendrick 1986, 1990), the Relationship Assessment Scale (Hendrick 1988), the Sexual Attitudes Scale (Hendrick et al. 1985), and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier 1976).

Hendrick et al. (1984) pioneered one of the most significant researches on relationship satisfaction using Lees theoretical model on love. A study was conducted involving over 800 students from the University of Miami where participants were asked to complete a 54-item Love Attitudes Scale (LAS). Gender differences were concluded on responses of the participants on the scale. Males were inclined to report erotic and ludic attitudes towards love whereas females were manic, pragmatic, and storgic in terms of love attitudes. Subsequent studies have confirmed gender differences in love styles and beliefs regarding satisfaction.

Age as predictor of love attitudes and relationship satisfaction
Studies have aimed to determine predictors of relationship satisfaction by evaluating attitudes and perceptions toward love. The relation of age vis-a-vis love attitudes or relationship satisfaction has not been explored as thoroughly as other individual traits such as sex or relationship experience (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1988, Hendrick et al. 1994, and Hendrick and Hendrick 1995). These studies have pointed to significant gender differences in love attitudes and beliefs about relationships (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1988, and Worobey 2000). Moreover, majority of the studies aimed at examining love attitudes or sexual attitudes have focused on the very young (Grote and Frieze 1994 and Gall et al. 2002). Social scientists have also generally drawn answers about love using samples of college students, but there have been studies that sought to examine interpersonal relationships and relationship satisfaction across the life span.

Age could be a significant factor on how partners measure relationship satisfaction and on characterising relationship behaviours that lead toward it. The general assumption is that Eros or passionate love declines with age, although this assertion has been challenged (Hendrick 1995). Some studies suggest that intergenerational attitudes toward love are similar. Inman-Amos, Hendrick, and Hendrick (1994) used the Love Attitudes Scale to determine where significant differences can be observed on the attitudes of parents and their adult children toward love. The study reported that younger and older generations do not differ significantly in describing relationship satisfaction in terms of passionate love (Eros) and friendship-oriented (Storge) love. In a similar fashion, Contreras et al. (1996) wanted to examine love attitudes in a cross-cultural sample of participants who were 30 to 60 years old. All age groups indicated that passionate love (Eros) is strongly predictive of satisfaction in close relationships (Contreras et al. 1996412).

On the other hand, Reedy, Birren, and Schaie (1981) concluded that older and younger partners in a marriage differ in perceptions of satisfaction. The study concluded that older partners in a relationship generally equate satisfaction in love and relationships with traits such as mutual dependability, commitment, and loyalty. Younger generations, on the other hand, value long-term commitment and loyalty less and emphasise on honest communication.

Grote and Frieze (1994) examined love as a predictor in marital satisfaction across the middle-aged married population. Comparing it with the perceptions of younger couples, the study concluded that age leads to differences on how couples attributed marital satisfaction on love styles. Younger couples were more endorsing of game-playing styles than middle-aged couples. Younger couples considered game-playing love as a positive predictor in relationship satisfaction whereas middle-aged couples viewed game-playing love as a negative predictor. The older couples attributed friendship-based love and passionate love as positive predictors of relationship satisfaction. Game-playing styles are considered negatively correlated to the length of a close relationship, meaning couples are less likely to endorse game playing as the years go by (Frazier and Esterly 1990343). The propensity to endorse game-playing styles are suggested to be found among persons inclined to form only brief relationships with a certain a person until another person convinces them otherwise.

Frazier and Esterly (1990) also determined the influence of age along with several factors such as gender, personality, and relationship experience in evaluating relationship attitudes.  Using a sample of 337 subjects aged 19 to 47 years old, the study utilised a combination of instruments, including the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) to assess relationship beliefs, relationship experience, gender-specific personality attributes, and relationship satisfaction. Sex and relationship experience were highly predictive of relationship beliefs.  The study found that men engaged in more game-playing in their relationships than women because they emphasise on sex more than women and place less importance on the emotional aspect of their intimate relationships.

Montgomery and Sorell (1997) conducted an assessment of love styles using the Love Attitudes Scale across four age groups a) single college-age adults b) married participants below 30 years old who are childless c) married persons aged 20 to 40 years old and d) older married adults aged more than 50 years old. Significant differences in love styles were observed among different age groups. Major differences were concluded on explanations of love across young participants and other participants. Younger persons tended to report higher manic love (Mania) and higher game-playing love (Ludus) than all the other age groups. Younger persons also reported less altruistic love (Agape) than the rest of the participants.

Butler et al. (1999) explored the relationship between age and love attitudes. Using the Love Attitudes Scale (LAS) as primary measure, the researchers used a sample of college-aged and middle-aged subjects and wanted to address two issues 1) the age generalisability of responses produced by the LAS and 2) the relation of age and scores of subjects on the subscales of the LAS. Butler et al. (1999) concluded that responses on the especially on the Mania and Agape subscales among college-aged and middle-aged subjects were generalisable, specifically on the female subgroup. Although there were significant relations between certain love styles and age, the study indicated that based on the data, general perceptions of love among people remain constant until the middle age.

Age can also be considered as a predictor of sexual attitudes, which forms a significant component in relationship studies. Gall et al. (2002) conducted an exploratory study on the relationship of sexual attitudes with variables such as age and religiosity. The researchers used a sample of 800 adult participants with ages ranging from 18 to 87 years old. The sample was grouped into four young adults (mean22.2) adults (mean37.24) middle-age adults (mean56.27) and older adults (mean70.84). The study utilised the 43-item Sexual Attitudes Scale (Hendrick and Hendrick 1987) which divided sexual attitudes into four subscales, namely Permissiveness, Instrumentality, Sexual Practices, and Communion. Gall et al. (2002) concluded that age is a significant predictor of sexual attitudes, particularly in terms of Permissiveness and Instrumentality attitudes. Younger participants reported higher permissiveness than older participants. Younger men appeared more instrumental in sexual attitudes than older men. This finding supports the results of studies which conclude that sexual activity declines with old age (Brubaker and Roberto 1987 cited in Johnson and Booth 1998220 and Levine 199879).

The impact of age in relation to the dyadic environment has also been studied. Johnson and Booth (1998) utilised the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) and found that dyadic interactions are highly determinant of marital stability but does not discount the influence of individual qualities such as age, sex, and mental health that could affect the quality of marriage (Johnson and Booth 1998 219).
 
Schmitt, Kliegel, and Shapiro (2007) endeavoured to investigate the impact of dyadic interactions in long-term marriages involving couples belonging to middle- and old-age groups. The study focused on how stable and dispositional factors in marital interaction predict satisfaction in long-term marriages.  Using measures that include the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, data from 588 married men and women in the middle- and old- age levels were gathered and the differences in age and gender were examined across several determinants of marital satisfaction, including personality, socio-economic status, and marital interaction. The study found that personality and socio-economic variables such as age play a minimal role in predicting satisfaction. Dyadic interactions were found to be significant in determining satisfaction. Women valued high quality marital interactions to be positive determinants of marital satisfaction. However, negligible age differences were noted among the responses of participants (Schmitt, Kliegel, and Shapiro 2007 290).

At present, there is little research that focuses on so-called age gap relationships or relationships wherein the difference in ages between partners in a close relationship is substantially high. However, there have been several studies on relationship satisfaction that have suggested how age influences love attitudes and measurements of satisfaction among couples. Findings have however produced contradictory results. Some studies assert that love styles and sexual attitudes could be generalised within age groups. Specifically, they purport that younger partners are more likely to view game-playing and possessive love positively while older partners view game playing negatively. Older persons were also found to emphasise more on altruistic love and passionate love, commitment, and loyalty, while younger persons place a lesser value on these relationship variables. Some studies also suggest that age is not a significant factor in satisfaction. Findings from the literature reviewed will assist in outlining and setting the framework for examining whether or not age gap or age difference impacts level of relationship satisfaction among couples.

The Jewish American population consists of the citizens of the United States with either Jewish ethnicity or Jewish faith. This population came to the United States from their native countries, namely from Eastern and Central Europe. The Jewish community consists of people with the Jewish background and those born to the descendants of the Jewish immigrants in the United States. This population includes Ashkenazi, who emigrated from their native countries to the United States. Other Jews in the United States include Mizrahis and Sephardics. These are the minor Jewish ethnic groups. The Jewish Americans also include the Native Americans converted to take up the Jewish faith or ethnicity (Seth, 1997). The latter turned to the Jewish faith as well as adjusted to the Jewish cultural practices.

The United States population consists of a high percentage of the Jewish communities. The United States has been ranked the second in terms of the Jewish population. Israel has the highest number of the Jewish communities. According to the statistics done in 2007, America had a total of about 5.1 million Jews, which equaled to 2 of the total American population.  The Israeli Jewish population reached about 5.5 million in the same year. The State is normally considered as the homeland of Jews (Stephen  Eunice, 2007). Apart from this, most Jews do not consider Israel to be their original home. Many Jews consider America as the de facto home of Jews, since they are viewed as part of America. The United States and Israel are two states in the world, which have the highest number of the Jewish communities. Despite the fact that the Jewish population is very small compared to the entire America, it contributes a lot to the American economy. Jews participate in business, education, American government amongst other activities in the United States. American Jews had many set backs, such as anti-Semitism. Despite their cultural practices, American Jews have been accepted in America as a part of the population. They have been included in the American politics and culture.

Jewish Americans came to the United States as early as in the seventh century, although they were little in numbers and included Sephardic Jews, who had migrated form Portugal and Spain. There was a rapid growth of the American Jewish population in 1830. Charleston, which is in North America, had the largest Jewish population. The nineteenth century recorded the highest Jews migration to the United States. Ashkenazi Jews, who originally were from Germany, moved to the United States and worked there as business owners and merchants. By 1880, the number of Jews in America rose to around 250000. This population consisted of secular and educated German Jews. Sephardic Jews were still influential at this time (Annelise, Elizabeth, Ronald, 1999). The persecution of Jews, which took place in the Eastern part, saw many Jews migrate to the United States, thus giving birth to the American Jews communities. Before the Immigration Act passed in 1924, the number of Jewish immigrants amounted to around 2 million. They concentrated in New York City making up the most highly Jewish populated area in the world.

The wake of the twentieth century introduced much networking amongst the Jewish communities. Synagogues and Landsmannschaften were put up. Assimilation and integration in to the American lifestyle was the main concern for the American Jews. This made them incorporated into the American life. American Jews were fully involved in the Second World War, after which they adopted Suburbanization, prevailing at that time. Intermarriages prospered in the increased population of the Jewish communities. The trend of secularization also contributed to the increase of the American Jews numbers (Pellegrini, 2004). The Jewish communities became stronger with establishing synagogues and Jewish educational centers. Continual immigration has contributed to the increased American Jews population. The economic and political changes that occurred in the Soviet Union made many Soviet Jews migrate to Israel and the United States. This immigration forms the largest immigration of Soviet Jews. Jewish American population has been reduced, due to various aspects, such as limited birth rates amongst the Jews and limitation of immigration. The Immigration Act of 1924 reduced the population.

Jews settled in different parts of the United States. Most Jews were concentrated in New York City and its environment, for example, Charleston. They occupied the cities, which had already had synagogues by that time. Sephardic Jews, who were based in Amsterdam and London, offered support to the Jewish businessmen, who had moved to the United States. Westward expansion of the Jewish community was prospered by the immigration of German Jews, due to the massacres perfected in Germany (Seth, 1997). Most cities took up Jewish cultures that had their cultural traditions and religious beliefs. The Jewish centers were comprised of synagogues, Jewish business and cultural traditions. Jews contributed to the economic growth by taking part in the establishment of gold and cotton production (Annelise, Elizabeth, Ronald, 1999). Most Jews migrated from Germany due to several factors, such as the restrictive legislation towards marriage and the poor economic conditions. Most Jews from the Eastern Europe developed their cultural heritage, thus keeping their identity opposed to the German Jews, who adopted the American culture.

Assimilation into the American life was mandatory for the Jews, who had migrated from their native countries due to unfavorable social and economic conditions.  The Jews were very willing to develop themselves in a developing society. Jews tried to combat the negative stereotypes concerning them and anti-Semitism. Jewish merchants produced goods and services, which were widely accepted by the American society (Pellegrini, 2004). Jews were widely accepted in the United States due to the religious freedom provided by the United States constitution.

Anti-Semitism came forth with the arrival of Jews from the Eastern Europe. Jews were excluded from public places, such as clubs and resorts. Americans adopted the negative stereotypes with the European anti-Semitism. Jews were taken to be parasitic, clannish, and vulgar amongst other negative stereotypes. To enable European Jews adapt to American society, the Americanized Jews provided support in terms of aids and jobs. Restrictive legislation was one of the factors highly fought out by the Jewish communities. Discrimination against Jews continued to take place in the twentieth century even with the anti-societies, which were introduced by Americanized Jews to fight stereotypes and ethnic hatred. Covenants were practiced against the Jewish society. Restrictions, such as housing ones, were put forth for the Jews. Discrimination also was to be seen concerning the access to higher educational establishments. There were restrictive quotas against Jews (Annelise, Elizabeth, Ronald, 1999). The enrollment of Jews dropped rapidly with the introduction of the restrictive quotas. The passing of the Immigration Act portrayed the negative painted to most of the Jews migrating from Russia. Russian Jews were considered to acquire low living standards equal to animal living. Jewish were associated with the Russian Revolution, thus making them acquire a negative image. The negative stereotypes were emphasized in most American literature.

The values and the norms of the American society have been sandwiched to the Jewish family. The acculturation and accommodation to these values and norms has been witnessed in the Jewish family over the past century. The Jewish family was viewed as bound to reading the Bible, was home oriented and patriarchal. The Jewish community has distinguished socioeconomic characteristics. Most of the Jews in the United States are ranked as either middle class or upper middle class (Seth, 1997). The Jewish community has been widely accepted in the United States due to the freedom of religion, democracy in the United States, openness and other favorable opportunities. The American Jewish population has been absorbed by the American life, since the changes they have made towards their self segregation and cultural traditions. This affected their career choices as well as their marriage.

There are various characteristics, which dominated in the American Jewish in the late 20th century. These include the following the increased intermarriage, aging population, reduced fertility leading to decreased family size and shifting from one area to another. They were also highly educated. The cultural heritage of the Jews has been widely affected. The cultural norms relate to community and family relations. Keeping the Sabbath is amongst the ways, in which the Jews have maintained their cultural heritage. The significance of synagogue and the Sabbath has been sidelined by the American Jews (Pellegrini, 2004). This cultural heritage has declined in the recent past. Marriage has been considered as a holy thing within the Jewish community. Intermarriages within the Jewish community have been viewed with different dimensions. It is forbidden for a Jew to marry Gentiles. This has been sidelined, since much intermarriage has taken place between Jews and non-Jews. These are some of the social stressors of the Jewish community.