Psychology

Homosexuality is a sexual relationship or attraction between two people of the same sex or gender. Homosexuality has for a long time been a controversial issue in society (Lax and Philips, 2009). Over time people have been changing their views concerning homosexuality. The paper highlights the changes in view of homosexuality and what has contributed to the changes.

Many countries around the world have legalized same sex marriages while others are still debating concerning the issue. In Netherlands, Canada, Belgium, Spain, Sweden, Norway and South Africa homosexual marriages have been made legal (Calzo and Ward, 2009). In fact in most of these countries homosexual marriage has been given the same legal status as the opposite sex marriages. The society is slowly accepting homosexuals as human beings and has learnt to respect their sexual preferences. Another topic of discussion after legalizing the marriages is whether or not the union should be referred to as a marriage and be given equal status as opposite sex marriage. The answers to these questions are rapidly moving to 100 yes with only a small percentage of the global society opposing. It is evident that many people especially the youths have accepted homosexuals and the stigma that went with it is a thing of the past in many communities. From research, majority of people have completely changed their views on gay marriages and are in support for the same (Calzo and Ward, 2009).
 
One of the reasons why these changes are taking place is the argument about rights. Every person has a right to form relations and the government has supported that. The government should have no hand in regulating personal relations. The other reason is that the society has learnt to respect sexual preferences. People are getting enlightened and the rigidity that was present in the past is slowly being washed away. One thing remains a fact, even if these people are not allowed by law to marry, they will still have relationships with their partners. There is no way to force them into opposite sex relationships (Lax  Philips, 2009).

Liberalization has also led to change in the views concerning homosexuality. In the recent past, there has been a great freedom of choice in many issues. There has been availability of sufficient information materials on the subject that have helped in enlightening people on the issue. This has helped in eradicating the conceptions that went hand-in-hand with lack of knowledge on facts about homosexuality. This change has not left homosexuality behind. The former argument that homosexuality corrodes religious morals has been found to have no basis from biblical perspective. The argument is that there is no place in the bible where homosexuality is prohibited. Some Christians view extending legal rights to homosexual couples as a Christ-like effort to fighting inequality and lack of extending dignity to all human beings. Homosexuals have joined hands in defending their rights. Since the 1960s, many homosexuals especially in the west have developed what they call gay culture. This is typified by the pride movement that protests crimes and discrimination against homosexuals Lax, J.  Philips, P. (2009).

I do agree with the change because it has come with openness, eradication of stigmatization and discrimination. It has enabled people to come out in the open without having secret relationships for fear of the public perception. The change has also eradicated psychological and emotional torments that were associated with homosexuality in the past. Recognizing homosexuality has made people open-minded eradicating the stigma and discrimination that went along with it in the past. In the past homosexuals went through a lot of psychological torture by being forced by the society to marry from the opposite sex or being forbidden to be with someone that you love. This has also proven that the society respects peoples rights and interests (Calzo and Ward, 2009).

Donald Olding Hebb was born on the 22nd July 1904. He was the first born in a family that had four children. His father was called Arthur Hebb and the mother was Clara Hebb. Their family lived in Chester, Nova in Canada. He was a good performer during his elementary school period though he used to portray rebellious attitude. Donald had an ambition of becoming a novel writer. He joined Dalhousie with the sole aim of becoming a novelist. He was not an academically outstanding student at the university but performed above average in math and science. He graduated in 1925 with a degree in Arts. He chose to begin a career in teaching as he deemed it as being more practical. He was able to rise to the post of a principle in the field of education but he chose to quit. He ventured into farming in Alberta but was later to work as a laborer in Quebec. This required him to travel a lot and in the process he was able to access the works done by John Watson, William James and Sigmund Freud, all of whom he had greatly fancied. This made him contemplate joining the field of psychology (Sheehy, 2002).

Joining the field of psychology
After his 23rd birthday, Hebb plunged into the field of psychology. The desire was burning and irresistible. He approached William Tait who was at the helm of the department of psychology at Mc Gill University at that time. He was given a list of books to read for one year, a period which he resumed teaching. In 1928, he had joined the graduate school at the university though he did it on a part time basis. He had been appointed as the head teacher of a school in Montreal that had been marred by indiscipline. The interesting part is the manner in which he chose to counter the situation. He made schoolwork more interesting by administering interesting assignments and rude students would be sent out, to make the schoolwork more of a privilege. Hebb was sick and in the course of this period, he managed to read Conditioned Reflexes, a book that had been written by Ivan Pavlov. He was also able to read The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, which had been authored by Charles Sherrington. Later in the course of that year, he wrote his thesis for masters studies. It was named Conditioned and Unconditioned Reflexes and Inhibition. He was trying to demonstrate that cellular learning is what caused skeletal reflexes. While Hebb was not content with his thesis, it was approved by Boris Babkin, who had assisted Ivan Pavlov in his work. The thesis was able to demonstrate how the process of thought started. Boris made an arrangement for Hebb to further his research, specifically on conditioning, this time with Leonid Andreyev who had initially worked in Pavlovs laboratory (Haider, 2008).

By 1934, Hebb had written a book, Scientific Method in Psychology A Theory of Epistemology Based on Objective Psychology. This book was very rich in information but it was never able to reach the stage of publishing. It was to later provide a basis for the works of Hebb. He was not comfortable in Montreal and requested Robert Yerkes for a PhD. Position at Yale, but this was not to be as Boris was quick to convince him to join Karl Lashley in his studies at Chicago University. The title of his thesis was The problem of spatial orientation and place learning. He had to transfer to Harvard University when Karl Lashley did. This forced him to change his thesis to The effects of early visual deprivation upon size and brightness perception in a rat. This entailed rearing rats in conditions of light and darkness and then comparing their brains. He was awarded a PhD. by Harvard University in 1936. He continued to assist Lashley in research and as a teaching assistant at Radcliff College. He was later able to complete the research he had started at Chicago University (Sejnowski, 2003).

He made an application to join Montreal Neurological Institute and join Wilder Penfield in Research. He was biased towards establishing how brain surgery and injuries could affect the manner in which the brain functioned. He was able to conclude that while a childs brain was able to fully recover if a portion of it was removed the case was worse and almost irreversible as far as adult brain damage is the subject. His deduction was that external stimulation played a very pivotal role in the thinking process of an adult. He criticized Wechsler test together with Stanford - Binet test which were in application for determining the intelligence of patients who had undergone brain surgery. He felt that these test were focused on the overall intelligence of the patient while they were supposed to measure the effects that had been brought about by surgery. He teamed up with W. Morton to create Adult Comprehension Test and Picture Anomaly Test (Milner, 2006).

He got a teaching appointment to Queens University in 1939. He joined Kenneth Williams to come up with the Hebb-William maze, a device which was to be used on many occasions to determine animal intelligence. He was able to use this on rats and deduced that an aspect of childhood experience was important in the ability of an adult to solve problems. He went to Orange Park in Florida in 1942 at Yerkes National Primate Research Center. He advanced his studies on primates and was able to come up with a test that could determine the emotional status of chimpanzees. In 1947, he became a professor of psychology at Mc Gill University and the departmental chairman. He remained at the institution upto the period of his retirement (Leahey, 2000).

Conclusion
Hebb was able to come up with different intelligence tests which enabled neuroscientific research to be carried out easily and more specifically than had been the case previously. His tests could be carried out on human and animals. His studies led him to the conclusion that experience played a pivotal role on the intelligence of a person or animal. He postulated that behavior was determined by a combination of hereditary as well as the environmental components. He felt that behavior was difficult to understand because it was not easy to determine all the activities of our nervous system. Most notable conclusions of his work were summarized in the three postulates of his theory. These postulates included Hebbian learning-which is concerned with the neuron connection and synaptic activities, cell assemblies-which talks about groupings of neurons which act together, and the phase sequence-which demonstrates the sequence of thinking.

This paper will bring light on the research question What are the functions of emotions and how does parenting contribute to their development

Emotional development begins from the time a child is conceived in the womb until death. Although physical development may be faster at the onset of ones becoming, a persons mental and emotional development happens at the same time. At such crucial years of becoming, this paper looks into the role of parents in the emotional development of the child.

Parenting trends have taken on different paradigms in the last fifty years of the familys evolution. From the very traditional styles of parenting where strict rules from society set up norms of rearing children to eclectic styles of dealing with a growing offspring. There are single parenting, same sex parenting, surrogate parenting, adopting and community parenting. These organizational styles of rearing children have bred generations of offspring that carry a variety of consequences.

Styles of parenting from strict, traditional, liberal, modern, and post modern have led to an industry where companies jump on the bandwagon with these varied issues to promote their own products and parenting styles.

This paper shall focus on some of these parenting styles as these techniques may contribute to the development or regression of emotions in the offspring. The functions of emotions are the take off point of the discussions. The importance of emotions to an individual will be the rationale in discussing parenting styles contribution in helping an individual cope with daily survival needs.

Body
Wimmers movie, (2002) entitled The Equilibrium delved into the consequences of a futuristic society that takes away emotions from human beings. The plot ends with the protagonist saving the community from a tyrant and restoring normalcy to society that meant taking away the pill that took away emotions. This science fiction visualizes mans issues with emotions, of how important, mind boggling and powerful emotions can be to both individuals and societies.

Most of mans actions are motivated by the need of man to survive. Self-preservation is an instinct that most animals have. Emotions have been a stand out behavior where scientists continue to study its functions so that they may find its real purpose in mans survival. Survival starts when life starts.

The wholistic perspective defends the concept that a fertilized ovum undergoes pre-experiential becoming and therefore the childs emotional development in as much that his physical development is continuous, starts at the onset of conception. The parent, specifically the mother, whether she is surrogate or not, is the person closest to the unborn child. The community around the parent of the unborn child also affects the unborn child through the wellbeing of the mother holding the offspring. The parent therefore is crucial to the development of the childs physical, mental and emotional well being.

Emotions serve functions that continually interrelate and integrate with each other to serve a persons interests. Among the many functions of emotions, five categories are highlighted in this discourse.
First, emotions are used for arousing and eliciting action and movement for oneself or from another. When Person A shows anger, this emotion can either arouse anger or silence from Person B. Person As anger can also arouse action from himself. He may either arouse himself to shout at Person B or to whom he is angry at or he can be aroused to take a gun and kill Person B.

Every baby goes through the stage of standing up. Johnston (1986, p. 106) narrates, that the act of standing is both phylogenetically and ontogenetically a critical achievement for the human organism. It is a bipolar movement, both a lifting up of form and awareness, and a pressing downward of ground and nature. At a young age, the child takes this physical development but it does not happen without the parent or caregivers support. Most of the babys first few steps are recorded in hundreds of ways. Parents applaud and become excited each time they see this seemingly natural phenomenon. The child as it reacts to this parent support of standing up and walking, continuous to try hard and get up the courage to try and try until the baby is successful. One can imagine if this physical development in the child is not accompanied by a parents excitement. Parents reaction to a childs emotion in this example, helps the child understand the feeling of success and what he needs to do to get this emotion from his parents.

Second, emotions are used to motivate actions and control these actions. The intensity of reaction to these emotions depends on the intensity of emotion that motivates these actions to take place. The intensity of anger, for example defines the level of physical, emotional and mental reactions that can take place before, during and after the projection of emotion. Getting carried away, suggests that an adrenalin rush took place and the doer was motivated to act upon an emotion in a level more than the level required.

Science Direct.com (2010 p. 1) elaborates, emotion regulation concerns how people manage emotional experience for personal and social purposes. It is a complex and multifaceted process, and is developmentally important because it is central to social competence, psychological wellbeing, and risk for affective psychopathology. The development of emotion regulation is based on early neurobiological growth, shaped by temperamental individuality, and guided by the young childs conceptual understanding of emotion, strategies of emotion management, and the self. It is also guided by social influences parental coaching, modeling, direct interventions, conversation, the quality of the parentchild relationship, and the unique influences of peers and siblings.

Third, emotions have adaptive functions. Emotional reactions arise when individuals are under stress. In order for individuals to cope with these difficult situations, emotions occur so that internal and external environments can adapt to the situation and eventually protect the individual from harm. Crying, for example can be seen when death occurs in the family. This emotion is a coping up mechanism, adapting to the situation so that the sadness involved does not stress out internal organs of the body like the heart. Fainting of family members are often signs of stress where the body cannot adapt anymore. This type of emotional responding is known as vicarious emotional responding  responses that occur because of exposure to someone elses emotional state as expounded in SocialJrank.org ( 2010 p. 1)

A childs critical period is formed from birth to one year. It is in these months that the child learns what trust and mistrust is. The concept of trust is defined by Boyd (2006 p. 11)  as, there may be specific periods in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence (or absence) of some particular kind of experience. A parent who cares for his child and consciously builds trust with the offspring is able to mold in the child trust as can be seen in how long the child can take his parents absence, and still be happy upon the parents return. A parent who cannot leave the child alone because the child will immediately shout and cry has not yet effected the childs trust that the parent will return.

This phenomenon of the childs level of trust and confidence in their parents can be seen in the first day of a toddlers school day. While other children will not allow their parents to leave and get out of sight, other toddlers will readily venture into the classroom and explore their new school surroundings. Boyd (2006) further explains, for a child, the presence or absence of a parent or caretaker determines whether or not the child develops trust in his or her self.

Fourth, emotions add color to living. Positive emotions are often expressed through visual arts, performances, literature and other art forms. The common advise, Laughter is the best medicine, is founded on science. Releasing endorphins and seratonin enzymes occur when an individual laughs. Both chemicals are found to be mood enhancers. Depressed individuals have low levels of these compounds.

Parents nourish children from day one to the time children can fend for themselves or when they start earning for themselves. Nourishing ones child is a responsibility of the parent or caregiver. Giving the child proper nutrition affect the childs physical development. What the child eats also affects his mental and emotional development. Obesity, for example has been found at alarming rates in America. Nestle (2007, p. 175) notes that, by the early 1990s, for example, 23 of white girls aged 6-11 were overweight, compared to 29 of Mexican-American girls and 31 of black girls. Although community and society is part responsible in what children eat, parents are directly responsible in their nutrition that can affect childrens emotions. Studies show that increase in sugar content in diet can enhance anger as elaborated by Fujii (2006).

Fifth, emotions are used to control social interactions. Society has seen civilizations rise and fall according to how leaders use their emotions to control consensus. This can visually be observed during political elections and other social interactions. Controlling bodily actions, facial expressions, tone of voice and other communicative element that can show emotions are carefully being studied. These studies are used to get the effective response needed in different situations.

At an early age, children begin to memorize their parents bodily actions, emotion signals and other communicative devices. These first social interactions with their parents become the standard for their own emotions and how they react to the emotions in their environment. Both mother and fathers are the first role model children have whether they like it or not. Fathers reacting appropriately to a childs expression of emotion predict positive emotional and social models of behavior in later childhood and adolescence. It is theorised that fathers instill a sense of confidence to explore within relationships (Berk, L., 2006).

When pretending to shop for a social evening, children two to six years old were nearly four times as likely to choose cigarettes if their parents smoked and children who viewed PG-13- or R-rated movies were five times as likely to choose wine or beer, according to a study in the September issue of Archives of Pediatrics  Adolescent Medicine. (2005)

What children see in their parents is most likely to be mimicked. Habits and style of living and emotional controls are just a few of the things that the child will observe at an early age. While there will be other forces and influences in the kind of emotion that the offspring will mimic such as what they see in the television or what they hear with peers at school, parents influence in their perception is the foundation of the child. From this foundation, emotions will gradually develop so that the child can form his own.

Conclusion
The function of emotion is no less as important as the function of other aspects in ones life. Emotions help individuals develop their personalities, talents, and culture. Emotions help individuals cope up stress. Emotions help individuals communicate with other persons that can help them become better persons. Emotions help individuals become productive happy citizens.

Emotions elicit responses that vary from positive to negative outcomes. Controlling emotions is part and parcel in its development. It is during these developing years of a human being that emotions can be a strength or a weakness of an individual. This is where parenting plays a crucial role.

Parenting starts at the onset of conception. The amount of physical care is pivotal in the early tri-mester of the unborn child. This is where cell replication and cell division occurs and a mother and childs nutrition is crucial to the development of the fetus. As the child develops in the womb and specially after giving birth, the bond between mother and child strengthens as nourishing continues. The action of the childs parents leaves an imprint in the child who mimics the parent. These initial signals which the child accumulates, develops into becoming his cognitive skill set. The emotions that he experiences from his parents become a foundation for his affective imprints from where he will create and develop his own set of emotional characteristics. Mothers and Fathers interact with their children in different ways, fathers tend to play more physically and induce more excitement from their children than do mothers as cited in (Berk, L., 2006).

Parenting is a prime component in the emotional development of a child. Lack of awareness of this responsibility leads to insufficient nurturing. Society has moved into complicated definitions of living that requires a citizen to have solid discernment in dealing with his internal and external environments. Increasing in parents awareness of this crucial role is essential for the individual and society in general.
Emotionally stable constituents will bring about normalcy in the environment. Where emotions are as important as physical, psychological and mental health of the growing child, attitudes towards parenting must be taken up more seriously. Further studies towards the correlation of parenting how it affects the emotional development of the child is always well worth it.

The human sexuality is among the most sensitive areas in psychology. It plays a vital role in everyones life. Regardless of whether one is a man or a woman, young or old, Chinese or American, it is an essential part of who we are and what we do. Many scholarly writings as well as researches have been conducted on the human sexuality. This paper also concerns the named matter and aims to study heterosexuality as the human sexual behavior.

Other than eating and sleeping, the human sexuality seems to be another most vital thing that people have to deal with. It really takes up much of the individuals time in both behavior and thought and it seems that every feature of the human life revolves around sexuality to some extent (Abramson and Pinkerton, 1995).

The sexual behavior of humans differs from that of animals, in that, it seems to be controlled by the interplay of a variety of factors, namely, while animals are usually driven to engage themselves in the sexual behavior for the purpose of reproduction, humans are not. Instead, there are many factors that make people practice sexual behavior.

According to Katchadourian (1989), the human sexuality is the manner in which humans express and experience themselves as sexual beings. There are a number of aspects that assist humans to develop their sexuality. It is argued, that the most determinant factor is the gender of a person. Whether one is female or male, they will likely feel a considerable influence of their gender on the development of their individual sexuality. In addition, sexuality is an essential part of different human personalities whether they are aware of it or not.

Problem statement
The purpose of this study on the human sexuality is to study the heterosexual aspect of the human sexual behavior. There are many factors that can make an individual become a heterosexual. One of the major factors is the natural selection. An array of arguments support the idea that the human behavior can be best described through the law of the natural selection. From such a perspective, the dynamic social science between the homosexual and heterosexual desires has changed more as a fitter strategy for the survival of the species as compared to either an exclusively homosexual or heterosexual desire configuration.

Summary of the study
This study is going to give a detailed definition of heterosexuality and take into consideration some historical or background information concerning the matter. Another sector that shall be covered by the paper is the physiological dissimilarities in heterosexual persons and some psychological behavior of heterosexuals. Qualitative methods are to be applied in the course of the research, which will use a semi-structured interview to survey people. These semi-structured interviews can help in obtaining all the necessary information concerning heterosexuality.

Aims and objectives of the study
The aim of this study is to find out the reasons why heterosexuality has been on the rise in the recent years and find out the main contributions to this.
The studys objectives are
To interview some individuals about their opinions concerning heterosexuality
To identify psychological behaviors that trigger heterosexuality
To identify why many people throughout the globe have fallen victims of heterosexuality

Background of the study
The research on the human sexuality is necessary, especially in the area of heterosexuality. Carrying out this research will enable many people to be aware about some historical background as well as psychological behavior that is associated with heterosexuality. Due to the research, people shall be sensitized concerning various forms of the human sexuality and the importance of the subject as a whole.

The psychotherapists and sexologists might shift from their ambiguous ways of handling heterosexuals to better ways. The main reason behind this research is the alarming increase in the heterosexuality behavior among individuals.

Literature review
Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation that entails a long-term disposition pattern to experience affection, sexual or romantic desirability to individuals of the opposite sex. Alternatively, it may be described as a persons sense of social and personal identity basing on those desires, behaviors describing them and association in a society of others who share them. Initially, heterosexuality only used to apply to human beings, but now it is observable in all mammals (Abramson and Pinkerton, 1995).

The heterosexual terminology was first published in the year 1892 during the translation of Krafft-Ebbings Pschopathia Sexualis by C.G Craddock. The terminology started to be used in the1920s but it was not common until the1960s. The current use of the noun was much used in the 19th century. The pervasiveness of exclusive heterosexuality has differed over the decades as well as from culture to culture. The heterosexuality history constitutes the history of human sexuality. Basing on the complications of human prejudice and politics, combined with the acquiescent nature of human behavior, it will take quite some time before the nature and history of all kinds of human sexual behavior are truly acquainted with.
 
Based on the physiological differences in heterosexual persons, many arguments support the idea that the human behavior can be best explained through the law of the natural selection. From such a standpoint, the self-motivated social science between homosexual and heterosexual desire has transformed more as a fitter strategy for survival of the species as compared on either an absolutely homosexual or heterosexual desire configuration (Katchadourian 1989).

At the start of the 20th century, prior theoretical discussions in the psychoanalysis field speculated original bisexuality in the development of the human psychology. Comprehensive studies conducted by some psychologists in the mid of the 20th century found out distributions that resembled those that were earlier postulated. Many studies of today have revealed that a good percentage of humans have had both homosexual and heterosexual sensations and experiences and that some are bisexual.
The modern-day scientific research views that a larger percentage of the human population is bisexual, preferring a fluid sexual scale more than a category, which is a typical view of sexual nature by the Western society. Nevertheless, people are influenced by the social pressure to prefer labels or categories and not behave in a manner that is almost similar to their nature (Abramson and Pinkerton, 1995).

Some studies in the past persistently found sexual orientation to be an evolving something that takes many directions over a lifetime of an individual, but not inevitably, including forming desires to a new sex. Individuals rarely redirect their sexualities in a rapid manner and they also rarely do so volitionally. But frequently, sexualities shift, expand and absorb new aspects over decades. For instance, sexuality that is socially normative requires a shifting element of attraction.

Methodology
The method of data collection that shall be applied is the interview questions. The qualitative approach will be used in the study and semi-structured interviews shall be used, because they assists the researcher in getting first hand information from those being interviewed and is also time saving when compared to other methods of data collection. Those that will be asked the interview questions will be adults of 18 years and above regardless of their gender and positionstatus in the society. These interviewees shall be approached independently by the interviewers and it shall be a voluntary task.
Those who agree to be interviewed shall be asked about their attitude to heterosexuality, and the information given by them shall be considered quite important. Most questions shall consider the laid down objectives of the study. After the interview is over the data acquired shall be analyzed and the participants informed about the results as soon as possible.

Conclusion
The study on the human sexuality is a very broad topic that is affected by many features including human psychology, physiology, learning and cognition. This paper mainly dealt with a branch of human sexuality referred to as heterosexuality. This being a research paper, it gave full definition of the term heterosexuality, its historical background as well as its physiological and psychological aspect. It was also noted that this behavior has been changing with time and from culture to culture.

I know of someone who has married someone who is not a native of this country. Recently, the two of them decided to go visit the non-English speaking country of the wife. He told me that the people in the house where they stayed avoided him all the time, like they never wanted to talk to him. There were also instances when someone in the house got offended by his jokes and seemed to do not find the joke humorous at all. The situation has been real awkward for him and I think it has been the same for the people he was with at that time.

In this situation, it seems that there is an absence of a UDS perspective. Apparently, despite huge developments in international trades, as well as the remarkable increase in the assimilation of different cultures, there still exists a culturally specific perspective. It seems this happens anywhere in the world a foreign culture is being witnessed or experienced by the natives. In the scenario, it is very hard to think which of the parties got aggravated validly. But I think, it would be the locals. My acquaintance has definitely made remarks like he complained (maybe subtly) but it changes the situation minimally. He could have acknowledged the fact that at some point, their privacy has been invaded by his presence. Thus, they are disposed to act in a manner that they do not usually do and they may feel a little restrained with their actions. He could have expected this and acknowledge the fact that most people do not react well towards changes that could make them uncomfortable. Another is that he and the people experienced a language barrier that made communication very difficult. Knowing that they do not know English like native speaker does, instead of feeling bad that they do not speak, we can try to level our expectations accordingly. The people concerned have differences in cultures but conflicts can be minimized if the differences are acknowledged and expectations are made properly. In this way I think, everyone can prevent themselves from getting offended.

The field of psychology displays a wide array of theoretical frameworks which explain the various complexities involved in the learning process. These perspectives include the behavioral, cognitive, constructive and social cognitive perspectives. Each and every one of these broad perspectives encompasses theories which may differ in magnitude and approach but are all directed at expounding on the ways that the human mind is able to grasp knowledge and retain it in the process of learning. Education has over the years been guided by such theories in its practice especially in the application of classroom instruction.

This paper seeks to analyze three theories based on the last three perspectives mentioned above. In the analysis, the theories will be evaluated in relevance to their practical application to, but not limited to, k-12 learning. The theories under evaluation include Paivios Dual Coding Theory which emanates from the cognitive perspective. This theory establishes the duality which exists between verbal and visual information (Paivio, 2007). It has been used considerably to promote classroom instruction in K-12 learning as it will be reflected in the paper. Moreover, it shows remarkable capacities in the retention and transfers of learning amongst K-12 learners.

Under the constructivist perspective is Vygotskys Theory in Cognition. Developmental psychology has indeed been a crucial part of education today and this has led to the incorporation of this theory in learning. It emphasizes the societal influences of learning. Culture impacts greatly on the learning process, a concept which Vygotsky uses to explain the learning process. Apart from that he also dwells on the relationship between though and language in cognitive development. In the final analysis the paper will focus on a social cognitive perspective of learning represented by Albert Banduras Theory of Cognition. This theory considers the notion of efficacy or the learners confidence in his ability to carry out a certain task.

According to the Dual Coding Theory, cognition involves the separate activity of tow cognitive subsystems (Paivio, 2007). These subsystems include the verbal system which deals with language and the non verbal system which specializes in non linguistic objects which are basically non verbal. From this perspective there emerges a both auditory and visual representation of the human brains capacities. In essence this theory recognizes the existence of particular representational units in the brain which are triggered when an individual identifies, manipulates or even thinks about objects or words. This theory bears its roots from the past use of imagery as an instrument for aiding memory. Research has often exhibited that the human memorys efficiency is elevated when an individual is able to create mental images for the verbal materials in question. It is from this point of view that the emphasis on memory has grown extensively and incorporated vast application of imagery especially in the learning process. The concept of objects is highly emphasized mostly because it is said to hold greater significance than plain verbal language in comprehension. However, both systems are crucial to the overall success of the learning process.

In the education application of this theory stress is put on the development of an individuals non verbal system at an early age signifying the basis for later on cognitive skills. Cognitive growth is highly dependent on how rich the early non verbal encounters are. In addition, it is also highly associated with the language experiences which make the dual coding process complete. Learning instructions which are founded in the dual coding theory principles are used in k-12 learning especially in the learning of reading skills, written skills and mathematical skills. K-12 first grade learners who are beginning readers have been found to read concrete words faster with the inclusion of pictures in the words. This is especially in comparison to when the words are only accompanied by their pronunciations. Reading comprehension and the learning of vocabularies is also enhanced through the use of image instructions. This trend is not only observed in k-12 learners but also throughout the education spectrum. On the other hand, learners are able to write more legibly and memorably through the use of imagery and dual coding.

The No Child Left Behind Act has accelerated the use of imagery in classroom instruction especially due to its emphasis on the use of instructional practices which increase learning. The use of instructional videos has elicited research in this area with the intention of evaluating the effectiveness of imagery in the learning process. Cradler et al, (2010) reflects on the results of such a study. K-12 learners who were exposed to instructional television in classroom learning were seen to outshine those learners who had not been exposed to this form of instruction. Furthermore, they scored high in written composition, used figurative language frequently, applied creative perspectives in problem solving, became highly active in discussions and learned better when more imagery was used.

Visual imagery has been found useful in the learning of new words and definitions. Through the use of mental imagery learners depict vital elements of the content like certain events and settings and are also able to create meaning between these elements. Furthermore, the use of pictures in classroom teaching cues learners and lessens the complexity of tasks and improves memory. In the learning of vocabulary various principles of the dual code theory are applied. Initially when presented with a new word learners are required to personalize the meaning. Then they are expected to gather different sources of information in respect to the word. Finally, they must connect this information to the concepts of the new word. The dual code theory views semantic memory as being distinct from knowledge due to its use of actual events. As such this theory becomes a perfect exemplar of the fact that knowledge is derived from both verbal and non verbal occurrences.

The Dual Coding Theory has also influenced great results in mathematics environments. In the study illustrated in Moyer-Packenham and Suh (2007), it was concluded that dual coded representations are capable of enhancing the potential of learners understanding mathematical concepts. From the understanding of such basic mathematical concepts like numbers, learners are able to grasp the names and meanings of different numerals when there are objects or images associated with them. Furthermore, the use of various representations is responsible for the strategies applied by students in problem solving. On the other hand, in the teaching of fractions learners who are allowed to use both visual images like equivalence mats and symbolic notation systems like computer numeric representations have better problem solving skills than those who only use single codes.

Regardless of the strengths that this theory represents in the learning instructions of k-12 learners there are studies which have identified instances when visual imagery is not effective in the enhancement of learning. Gallegos-Butters, and Schneider (2008) asserts that when learners are ware that they will have the accompaniment of visual objects to the sound component they are using, they tend to over rely on the visual images. However, learners who have no access to these visual accompaniments are able to utilize their full potential at working hard and ensuring that they retain the information.

In Vygotskys theory in cognition there is an assertion that culture is the main determinant of an individuals personal and intellectual development. Initially, the theory was developed in retrospect to Piagets theory which greatly emphasized the interaction of a child with the environment. Vygotsky claimed that there are observable changes in childrens abilities to resolve problems. These changes in experiences were necessitated by the presence of cultural factors which allow for higher thinking. Vygotsky saw culture as what teaches learners what to think and the modes of thinking (Daniels, 2001, p.39). Moreover, through the dialectical process learners acquire knowledge from experiences from their social interaction with others. For instance, problem solving skills can be acquired by a childs encounter with a teacher.

Another principle which guides this theory is the aspect of gradual allocation of responsibility from the individual interacting with a child and later to the child. As learning advances the child learns to use their language for intellectual adaptation. Moreover, it is through the same concept of language which makes it possible for the retention of learned concepts. Internalization encompasses the complete grasp of knowledge content as a child learns to use their internal language. One fundamental concept stressed by Vygotsky is that there is an identifiable difference in what children are able to do alone and what they can achieve with help. This is also referred to as zonal proximal development. The further this gap widens the more difficult it becomes for a child to attain intellectual development while the reverse is seen to work positively. With respect to this, teaching instructions are meant to be adjusted in order to fit the childs level of development.

Vygotskys theory of cognition has been identified as a valuable foundation for the improvement of learners intellectual abilities in K-12. In his exploration of the different types of speech, Vygotsky sought to showcase how the society and the individual self interact within the learning process. Both social and private speech allows learners to comprehend various ideals and skills. Instructions given by a teacher in the classroom are social speech which the learner tries to understand through their private speech. They relate to what the teacher is saying and apply what they observe and hear to other similar situations. As such they are able to solve similar problems on their own. Also, internal speech signifies the learners thoughts as they try to grasp the teachers instruction and it is this internalization which allows them to gain the capacity for high intellectuality.

K-12 curriculum which puts emphasis on Vygotskys theory ensures that the instructional design allows for the social interaction of learners with both the cultural environment and the learning tasks. Therefore, emphasis is put on the fact that teachers should help learners carry out tasks which they cannot complete on their own. As a result, the teacher lowers themselves to the leaners level which not only enhances the learning process but it also gives the leaner confidence to exercise their knowledge and apply it to problem solving. In addition, assessment modes are also designed to incorporate both the actual and potential development of learners. In general, this theory calls for modeling and guided practice instructional methods.

Blake and Pope (2008), illustrate the use of think aloud strategies in classroom teaching. Students in lower grades can learn through talking about the teaching instructions they have been given. This strategy will assist the learner to comprehend how to get meaning from basic instructions. As learners listen to their teacher read aloud a particular text, thoughts start forming in their minds and eventually with time they are able to come up with responses to various problems. Apart from this, the technique of thinking aloud allows teachers to identify problematic areas for the different learners. Questioning methods also serve the same purpose and they heighten the social interaction process.

In a K-12 classroom of either third of fourth grade students, Vygotskys theory can be emphasized in the learning of language arts, sciences and mathematics. In doing so, such strategies like discussions, group activities, peer tutoring and guided learning are incorporated into the learning process. For instance mathematics instructions are scheduled in a way which makes it possible for the interaction of both group work and independent work. Independent work is important because it gives learners room to develop their own learning strategies (Gredler  Shields, 2008, p. 121).

One major limitation of this theory especially in relation to classroom learning instruction is its vagueness. There are educators who claim that the theory fails to provide direct and clear guidelines on how it can be used in achieving success in the learning process. While scaffolding may help learners, there are instances when it hinders learners from showcasing their full potential. It is thus evident that when scaffolding is comprehended as a form of direct instructions, it can become quite ineffective and hence counterproductive. Furthermore the over reliance on scaffolding could become an inconvenience for the learner in the learning process. This is because the interaction which exists between the child and the teacher may end being dominated by the adult leaving no room for the learner to gain intellectual fulfillment. In spite of these limitations, vygotskys theory continues to influence todays education system and the various instructional strategies have been incorporated into other school set ups.

Albert Banduras social cognitive theory encompasses both behavior change and modeling concepts. As such the learning outcome which is symbolized by change of behavior is dependent on the environment, individuals and the behavior. Furthermore, this theory also takes into consideration the concept of self regulation. It is through this that knowledge learned is retained. Another fundamental concept is self efficacy which basically refers to an individuals confidence in completing or performing various tasks. This concept has played a major role in the learning process throughout the life span stages. This theory places emphasis on ones cognitions especially in being able to control various behavior outcomes. The mind is reflected as a vital force which not only controls ones reality and regulates behaviors but also allows for selective encoding of information.

The implications for learning instructions in this theory involve teachers being role models for their learners and assisting them to acquire self regulatory and self efficacy behaviors. Through a learners interaction with other people, the environment and behaviors, new and positive knowledge is acquired. Bandura also identifies various processes which are involved in the modeling process. They include attention, motor reproduction, retention and motivation. The teacher as the model directs certain behaviors for learners by giving them various instructions. Through imitation, the learner follow the teachers example and this imparts in them with the basic concepts of the content being taught. In addition, modeling allows for self monitoring of learners and it this which eventually results to self efficacy. After imitation both positive and negative reinforcements are used in order to encourage good behaviors and discourage bad behaviors in learners. The last step paves way for the learner to comprehend what behaviors they can retain which then amounts to increased knowledge.

The social cognitive theory in K-12 learning is implemented through the application of the mentioned concepts. In the teaching of grammar in sixth grade, learners are exposed to various examples of sentence constructions which are provided by the teacher. From the observation of these sentences, learners become aware of the similarities and concepts which seem to emerge in their construction. From henceforth they venture into creating their own sentences. Reinforcement is usually incorporated in form of rewards to learners who are able to create sentences which serves as motivation. In a K-8 classroom, there are other ways to apply this theory. The classroom can be utilized as a learning community where cooperative learning, differentiated learning and support for self efficacy can be accommodated.

In cultivating learners to become more self regulated the teacher encourages learners to take individual responsibility for their learning experience. In emphasizing this, learners self reflect and assess their past learning process and make decisions to change the negative behaviors and reinforce the positive ones. Teachers who apply the social cognitive theory in their teaching strategies emerge with a class of learners who are highly motivated and in charge of their learning (Abromitis, 2010).

Computer usage in most schools has been adapted effectively with direct emphasis on the levels of self efficacy in both leaners and teachers to accommodate new learning strategies. Chao (2003) explains in a research study that the application of self efficacy can reflect attitudes which would play a role in the formulation of future teaching strategies. Learners are able to formulate resolutions for their learning problems by drawing on inner knowledge and power.

The above learning theories have reflected various strengths and weaknesses which are specific both in approach and application to k-12 learning. The dual cognitive theory possesses a firm foundation for the creation of learning strategies for learners in lower grades who are just familiarizing themselves with various concepts. However, its perspective can be applied in other stages of a learners development. Vygotskys cognition theory has been observed to be highly implemented in k-12 learning instructions. Its emphasis on culture, scaffolding and the zone of proximal development provides direct instructions for teachers to follow while effecting learning in their classrooms. Finally, a look at the social cognitive theory by Albert Bandura brings to light the importance of self efficacy, modeling, self regulation and reinforcement in the learning process.

Learning theories have created a conceptual framework for education. Without these theories the education system may have been lacking in respect to its ability to foster learning, growth and development of individuals. An overall study of the above mentioned theories implies the need to incorporate all these theories in k-12 learning. This is possible in creating learning and teaching strategies which draw from the dual code theory, the cognition and self cognitive theories. In essence they all possess valuable lessons which can benefit the learners intellectual capacities.

This paper will discuss the efficacy of three types of personality assessment instruments. The instruments that will be taken up in this paper will be the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, the Rorschach test, and self help books. The three personality instruments will be explored as to validity, comprehensiveness, applicability, and cultural utility. From the discussion, the differences and strengths and weaknesses of each personality assessment instrument will be made known.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is an instrument which was designed to measure psychological preferences to determine how individuals would make decisions based on their perception of their circumstances. There are four pairs of dichotomies in Myers-Briggs and these are extraversion and introversion, sensing and intuition, thinking and feeling, and judgment and perception.

There have been many criticisms of Myers-Briggs validity. It has been observed that the accuracy of the results depend on the honesty of the respondent in giving self-reports. It was observed that a respondent who had cause to fear answering truthfully could easily answer as they felt they were expected to answer. Because of the lack of validity scales to control for exaggerated or socially desirable responses, the results of the Myers-Briggs may not accurately reflect the true personality of the respondent. For example, an applicant who wants to impress an employer may easily fabricate his or her responses in order to achieve a personality assessment which would be more suited to the job opening. Also, an assessment of the Myers-Briggs using factorial analysis has revealed that the test measures six different factors and not the four which are dichotomized in the test.

The test focuses on the behaviors of persons when making decisions. This makes the test more limited in defining an individuals personality. The results of the test are directed towards the four dichotomies that are measured in the instrument. Thus, personality characteristics of the respondent which are outside of the four being measured would not be covered by the test. Also, since the test is directed towards assessing the decision-making of the respondents, then the dichotomies may not accurately represent the personality of the individual in contexts other than decision-making. In other words, the test is not comprehensive and has a very definite and defined applicability.

Because of the precise area of personality to which the test is directed, there have been specific practices which have adopted the test. Myers-Briggs has often been used in career planning, manager assessments, employee screening, team building, pedagogy, marriage counseling and the like. The test is useful in determining the capability of leaders and employees because of the decision-making responsibilities which these individuals will be entrusted with. Their outlook in this regard is therefore key to their attainment of positions and the Myers-Briggs assesses whether or not their personality type is suitable for a given position. In the same regard, marriage counseling benefits from Myers-Briggs because spouses must face numerous problems and decisions together and it is essential that their personalities are compatible to ensure good relations between them despite the problems to be faced.

Myers-Briggs has a high level of cultural utility because of the numerous functions and areas in life which require decisions to be made. The manner in which a person faces and makes a decision is therefore crucial in determining whether the person should be placed in the position where decisions of such nature will have to be made. However, given the lack of falsifiability of the instrument and given its low level of reliability, Myers-Briggs still has to be applied with caution. Numerous agencies and offices utilize Myers-Briggs because of the applicability of the test to their need. The test should be statistically improved so that it would be more effective in addressing the concerns of those utilizing the instrument.

Rorschach Test
The Rorschach test is an inkblot test which has become quite popular because of the attention given it by mass media. The test presents a set of inkblot pictures to respondents. The respondents perceptions of the inkblots are recorded and later analyzed using psychological interpretation andor scientifically derived algorithms. It is the one of the top ten most widely used psychological tests available to the public.

The test is projective in nature.  Its accuracy relies on a respondents projection of his or her feelings into the inkblots being presented and on the psychologists interpretation of the respondents projections. Because of the lack of an adequate scoring system, there have been arguments that the test lacks any validity whatsoever. Rorschach enthusiasts have responded by releasing scoring systems which would justify the interpretation of respondent projections. The Exner system of scoring is said to be the most rigorous and most comprehensive. It takes into consideration factors such as shading, color, and outline of the inkblots which lead to comments from the respondent. It also considers the number of responses given by a respondent. These factors are scored so as to determine the personality of the respondent. Despite the scoring system however the fact remains that a wide leeway is given to clinicians in the noting down and interpretation of a respondents comments, making test validity poor and highly untested.

The test is comprehensive in the sense that it has been said to determine not only personality structure but also factors which led to the development of such personality structure. However, the depth of revelation that a clinician attains through the Rorschach is dependent mainly on the comments given by a respondent. Some clinicians refer to respondent case profiles in order to create a fuller picture of the respondents background and the reason for his or her projections. In such cases, it is no longer the test which paints the personality of the respondent. Despite the reliance on respondent comment, the test may be said to be more comprehensive than the Myers-Briggs. The projective nature of the test allows the respondent to reflect numerous areas of his or her personality and not just those that would be tackled by fixed questions.

The test is widely applied to court-ordered psychological examinations. In most of these cases the test is used alongside other psychological tests. But with the observed increase in the use of Rorscach by courts there has also been an observed decrease in its use by forensic psychologists.  Despite this, the test was ranked among the top ten psychological tests used by outpatient mental health facilities and it ranked second among the tests used by the Society for Personality Assessment. Moreover, the Rorschach has seen application in determining DSM-IV diagnoses of respondents. While it has received heavy criticism for its validity and reliability, there have been few instances when the results were questioned or dismissed.

The test finds cultural utility in that it allows respondents to freely communicate with a clinician regarding latent thoughts and emotions. Scaled questionnaires and tests may confuse or intimidate some respondents but projective tests allow free reign for them to express themselves. This creates a comfortable atmosphere between the respondent and the clinician making the results more acceptable for the respondent. In cases of reluctant and uncooperative litigants in a court case or of aloof mental facility outpatients, the Rorschach would have significant utility.

Self Help Books
Self help books are books which are intended to instruct the readers on various personal problems. These books often take on psychological problems and inform the reader not just about the nuances of the situation but even about the attitude and personality of the reader, depending on the actions that such reader would engage in, given the situation.

This type of personality assessment has very low validity because of the lack of measurable standards. Most authors provide generalized descriptions in order to distinguish classifications which readers may use to categorize their individual personality types. There is no accounting for the individual differences amongst people. The variations in personal traits are also not accounted for and thus the possibility that an individual may belong to a novel classification is not entertained. Finally, there is no controlling for the possibility that readers choose classifications on the basis of desirability and not on actual practice in their lives.

Self-help books are seldom comprehensive as they focus on particular aspects of a persons life (i.e. finances, relationships, occupation) and only on specific problems encountered therein. Self-help books may be comprehensive in the specific topic taken on but they say little about the range of other personality traits which a person may possess. More often than not, the personality assessments in self-help books are also not applicable in areas other than the particular topic of the book.

Despite the low level of validity, self-help books have found application in private circles because of their accessibility and easy-to-understand language. Organizations, family circles, friendship groups, church fellowships, and the like have found self-help books to be useful when relating with one another and understanding individual differences.

The books are highly useful in day-to-day dealings because they do not attract the cost or the stigma that is involved in taking personality examinations. Some people find it difficult to approach psychologists for examinations because of the misconception that only psychologically disturbed individuals approach psychologists. With self-help books however, there is no such stigma. These books can be enjoyed in privacy. Also, professional assessments have an air of finality which may be dreaded by respondents because they may not like the results. With self-help books the results are dependent on the choice of the reader and the reader may simply discard unwanted portions. The popularity of the books is tempered with small reliance on their accuracy as compared with findings of professional personality assessment tools

Conclusion
The above sections have discussed the qualifications of the Myers-Briggs test, Rorschach test and self-help books. It has been shown that the Myers-Briggs offers the greatest measurable outcome. However, the presence of measurable output doesnt deter the questioning on the validity of the measurements. All three tests have been criticized for having low levels of validity. The Myers-Briggs and the self-help books are largely self-report instruments which require truthfulness on the part of the respondent to ensure that the accurate personality is reflected. The Rorschach is dependent on the ability of the clinician to accurately interpret the self-projections of the respondent.

Despite the problems in validity, all three personality assessment instruments are still widely used. This is because of their ability to cater to specific areas of concern in the lives of respondents and test administrators. The Myers-Briggs focuses on decision-making personalities, the Rorschach sheds light on latent issues and the underlying causes for the development of the same, and self-help books focus on particular areas investigated by the authors. This specification has encouraged the proliferation of the tests and has fostered reliance on test results.

Effective application of Organization Citizenship Behavior remains the most effective method of maintaining intrinsic employees commitment to their work, relation with others, cooperation with the management and contribution towards organizations missions achievements for higher profitability and sustainability.  Sociologists indicate that over the years, many organizations have shifted their management styles towards greater cooperation and inclusion of employees at all levels of an organization operations.  According to Mary Jo Hatch organization model of cultural dynamics, Hoffman et al (2007) argue that employees occupy the most important level in an organization because they determine the efficacy of its policies and principles application.  It is from this consideration that this paper uses the theories and principles of management and leadership in evaluating the intent and variables that influence organization citizenship human behavior.  

Is environmental status based upon the employees it carries or those who pro or lack in emotional intelligence
According to LePine, Erez and Johnson (2002), the environmental status in an organization acts as a major platform upon which both the management and employees delve their outlines towards achieving the established short term and ultimate long term goals.  It is perhaps from this consideration that Kurt Lewin in his theory of organization change emphasized on freezing as the most critical concept in setting new targets and objectives.  The employees carried by the environment are therefore core in the following consideration.

Setting out the organization subcultures
As Byrne (2005) explains, organizations in the modern globalized setup should be able to align their operations with the extended market orientation.  However, analysts indicate that this consideration can only be achievable if the organization subcultures are harmonic to the overall welfare of employees.  As a result, the employees operate in small organization subcultures that are very strong in guiding the key relationship between an organization, its employees and the expected objectivities achievements.  They further link the employees personal contribution in facilitating better understanding of the particular policies at the lower levels of operations.

Jacqueline and Coyle-Shapiro (2007) in their research found out that employees and organization relationship is indeed well rooted in their outsets based on each entitys consideration of the other.  While introducing the notion of reciprocity, the organization and its management are required to seek greater understanding of their employees as the most crucial aspect towards addressing their problems.  Under this consideration therefore, though the organization is considered to be the supreme entity, the employees are in a reciprocal outset more supreme and therefore the main determining factor towards achievement of the key objectives.  While supporting this consideration, Joyce and Huang (2007) argued that most employees are able to create a central identity that aligns and realigns them with their organizations missions.  Emergence of values and beliefs that seek higher levels of sustainability at the lower levels of management as Jacqueline and Coyle-Shapiro (2007) continue to say, become extended management units where the internal and external cultures effectively rhyme together.

Driving the change machinery
Organization citizenship behavior as Martha and Anne (2000) explain is based on the commitment depicted by the employees at their work places and that aligns with the organization orientation.  In their view, John et al (2010) likened an organization with a sailing ship towards a certain destination.  As a result, the ship is expected to encounter variant obstacles in its path.  Change is therefore not considered optional if the objectives of the organization are going to be met.  As indicated earlier, organization change specialists indicate that the management can only be able to articulate this change if it has the support and goodwill of the employees.  At all levels, employees must be considered be used to link the visionary ideology as they further act as the platform for change itself.

Gillian (2000) brings out the concept of change agents in facilitating the ability of the organization to meet its objectives with ease.  Notably, organization citizenship behavior as change management analysts indicate requires inculcation and harmonization of entities in an organization.  However, this consideration as Gillian (2000) noted, has escaped the attention of many and therefore anchored their major down fall.  Employees are required to play a key role in facilitating the change itself and therefore generating the new demand ideals to be central subsets of their cultural basements.  Under this consideration, employees are empowered to view, analyze and propose possible areas of improvement.
Therefore, the management is expected to further harmonize and support the employees views but in tandem with the organization objectivity.  Consequently, employees easily identify with improvement initiatives and reduce the overall resistance in their implementation.  Gillian (2000) found out that there is a tendency by different employees to move beyond the expectations of their organizations when they act as the drivers of the change process.  However, Hoffman et al (2007) call for great caution when applying this model to avoid deviation from the main organizations mission.

Facilitating teams and cohesion
Modern organizations management s as Jacqueline and Coyle-Shapiro (2007) explain, have turned out to be critical units where both the organization leadership and the lower level employees are factored as crucial elements that must cohere if objectives are to be achieved.  Under this consideration therefore, the environment is set on the need to meet holistic demands for all units through cooperation.
Daniel et al (2006) found out that performance of modern organizations is largely based on team work that cut across various levels.  As indicated earlier, use of teams has been factored as part of the overall organization culture to facilitate inherent contribution by all.  While appreciating the complexity presented by management at different levels in an organization, Daniel et al (2006) explain that employees are able to feel part of the organization and therefore create the sense and need for improvement.  Through teams therefore, a new operating environment is set out for consultation to harmonize ideologies of running and managing the key operations.  As behavioral theories indicate, through teams and team operations, employees are able to effectively learn faster from their colleagues and employ key concepts to promote their positions at the group as well as the organization level (Byrne, 2005).  While taking a diverse consideration from the human resources propagated outline, the self-driving team orientation creates a strong self supporting and sustainable force for all.

Daniel et al (2006) further argue that teams operations create an inherent outline for the organizations running environment and therefore aligning employees with organization citizenship behavior.  While aligning an organizations teams operations, competition and rewards at the individual and team level have been credited in curving out the needed niche towards ethical operations.  Michael, Duane and Hoskisson (2007) attribute the success of Southwest Airways after September 11th terrorist attach at World Trade Center in New York to teams and team operations.  The management indicates that while it was considering downsizing the organization as a major remedy for cutting down the fast rising costs amidst the lowering returns, employees at the team levels proposed reduction of their salaries and cutting down some of their benefits.  However, it was their emphasis to increase their quality of services to the consumers that was moving.  The management indicated that even as other companies continued to close down and merge some of their flights mainly from incurring large losses, Southwest operations remained highly profitable.  Under this consideration, teams operated in a reverse model not to compete with the management, but to create an inherent niche that would facilitate sustainability of the company, establish a route for improvement and most importantly emphasize on the individual commitment towards creating a competitive advantage for the company in the volatile period (Jacqueline and Coyle-Shapiro, 2007).  

How to form interest in unmotivated groups
One of the currently most accepted facts in organization management is that motivation creates the inherent desire by the employees to meet variant target, set new records and therefore facilitate easier realization of an organizations mission.  Notably, the following motivational considerations have been cited to delve critical standpoints in facilitating easier assimilation of organization citizenship behavior.

Establishment of achievable goals
According to LePine et al (2002), organizations are always guided by their established goals that should reflect demands in their fiscal sessions or management plans.  Joyce and Huang (2007) argued that organizations must facilitate clear assessment of their goals to create the needed impetus for improvement.  Joyce and Huang further explained that setting of achievable goals has the following importance at the group and management level.  To begin with, it creates the sense that they would be achieved and therefore invokes the desire to move on.  Then they further argued that group members with easily achievable goals view their organization to be mutual to their existence.  As the mew management theory seeks to shift focus from the old mechanistic models, Joyce and Huang (2007) further point out that employees are involved in setting the goals both at the top and group level to generate identity with their immediate management units.  

As Maslows hierarchy of needs theory postulates, the demands by the employees must rhyme with those of the organization and therefore grow together.  The theory further indicates that as people continue shifting up the social economic ladder their demands equally shift towards self actualization (Byrne, 2005).  Setting achievable goals therefore creates a room for motivation which serves as a major driver in moving up the hierarchy of need provided by Maslow.  As indicated earlier, Maslows theory of human needs creates the insatiable force and desire to move up the pyramid. Joyce and Huang (2007) however outline the need to correlate the resources required and the long term objectivity in setting the goals and objectives for their organization units. Organizations should particularly be emphatic on the assessing their resources use especially where teams and their operations are independent.    

Providing the effective leadership
Joyce and Huang (2007) argue that unmotivated groups in an organization form the surest way of killing it.  The unmotivated groups create a vacuum that holistically threatens the ability to maintain the needed sustainability.  However, the main source of poor motivation has been unclear to many scholars.  Joyce and Huang (2007) consider one of the main factors contributing to poor motivation as leadership either at the group or top management level.  In their argument, Joyce and Huang consider effective leadership to provide the needed role modeling for members to assimilate in their groups.  Though this concept is voluntary, it has strong effects especially at the team level.  Hoffman et al (2007) argue that through use of effective role models at different levels of an organization, effective leadership is easily assimilated as part of the organization culture and further used in setting high standards in the organization. Effective leadership is seen by employees to generate a sustainable outline towards their operations through higher production and higher profitability.

In their view, Gillian (2000) pointed out that effective leaders facilitate reestablishment and review of groups visions toward the holistic organizations mission.  While cautioning on the mechanisms of establishing the group leaders in an organization, group management analysts concur that leaders must be able to link their groups visions with expected benefits that derives the desire to achieve them.  As contingency theory of leadership indicates, the leader must be able to operate from a much higher platform compared to the members.  As Jacqueline and Coyle-Shapiro (2007) adds it is this consideration that Mc Gregors theory of X and Y appreciates the inherent defiant nature of the people to work and the need for critical understanding in making them employ more efforts to their own advantage.  Leaders must therefore provide the needed effective guidelines that keep the group members united and focused on the benefits they are to achieve from commitment to their work.

Enhancing competition and establishment of a reward system
Vrooms valence expectation theory provides critical insights towards creating or establishing motivation to unmotivated groups.  According to this theory, most groups fail to attain the required motivation due to poor linkage of methods employed and the expected benefits.  Organizations management and group leaders should therefore establish competition as one of the basis for rewarding their employees.  By articulating competition, organization easily becomes self propelling as the desire to get the end price increases.  However, Martha and Anne (2000) caution the model of employing the rewards without creating negative implications.   Thoma (2004) argues that organizations should seek to assimilate reward systems that create a sense of success for all the members of a given group as opposed to individuals only.
 
Following their study on group dynamics and their operations applicability in an organization setting, Joyce and Huang (2007) explain that leaders should seek to break core goals and objectives into small units that members can easily figure our.  Small win win situations are critical in that they not only act as check for the whole long term objective, but create a sense of progress to the group thereby boosting the morale for advancement.  Similar to the reward system, all members of the group must be made to feel the sense of achievement while the management uses them to establish mechanisms for improving areas that performed poorly.    

Creating autonomy at the local level
According to Thomas (2004), poor autonomy in an organization has remained a key de-motivating factor and therefore a major force against the holistic objectives.  Whether poor motivation resulted from lack of autonomy in a given group or from other considerations, providing groups with effective autonomy creates a sense of trust by the management to its employees and therefore generates a stronger sense of identity not only with the ideologies they propose, but also the management delineations towards the organizations mission. While the level of autonomy that should be guaranteed to a given group has remained a major center of controversy, it is critical that effective assessment is done to facilitate only the level that can be effectively articulated. In addition, Yukika (2006) calls for constant assessments and review of use and implication of the established autonomy for different groups.  In her model of cultural dynamics, Mary Jo Hatch indicated that composition of a group should factor internal regulatory mechanisms that further propagate and propose the need to trim or add their independence of operations.

Impact of employees contribution and satisfaction on their retention in a company
Over the years, the demand to create sustainability in an organization has led to the search for possible linkages between long term demands with employees behaviors.  Though this method has equally elicited key debate with its opponents holding that it have major loopholes that are inherent to unclear definition of the employees behaviors and their identification, its preference by managers is moving.  As analysts indicate, the following factors indicate why employees retention should indeed be based on their citizenship behavior.

Links long term objectivity with immediate short term objectives
From the definition of organization citizenship behavior, employees possess a holistic drive towards achieving the best for their organization s.  Through clear guidance by ethical principles, their work is considered to be mutual in that they stand to equally benefit from their organizations progress.  In their study, Rachel, Andy and Edwin (2010) argued that employees form the most critical element in an organization as they dictate its ability to create the needed impact both internally and externally.  Rachel et al (2010) continue to say that most organizations in the 21st century have shifted their employees assessment methods from short term orientation towards long term objectivity.  As a result, committed employees are therefore considered as important assets and in maintaining sustainability.  Employees contribution should therefore be used as a key measure in determining their retention in any company.

Though Hoffman et al (2007) call for additional assessment to be articulated in an organization to determine the commitment of employees toward long term objectivity he strongly supports the consideration to retain employees who make stronger contribution.  To support this assertion, Hoffman et al (2007) further explained that contribution in an organization creates a platform for further harmony and establishes the needed outline for certainty of various goals.  Its relation with consumer satisfaction however makes it even more important by cutting out the position of the company at the external outsets.  Therefore, employees contribution and job satisfaction should be used as key pointers towards the correct choice of employees to be retained.

Reduces the overall running costs of an organization
Though management styles in various organizations differs, the roles played by employees and its implications should ultimately be gauged on the ability to rhyme with employed strategies.  With one of the key strategies employed by companies being to reduce the overall running costs, LePine et al (2002 argue that employees retention should factor their orientation to it.  In an organization, employees and middle level managers should understand the companys policies in reducing the overall costs of production.  Contribution by employees should therefore rhyme with such strategies.  Using the example of the Coca Cola Company, Ricky (2007) explains that the strategy to reduce costs through minimization of water and electricity consumption could only be achieved through the employees commitment and contribution.  Special orientation towards such strategies not only facilitates the company to align itself with the new demands of management in the market, but establishes it as a leader in such areas of specialization. It is from such considerations that employees should be retained as key role models in an organization for other employees to emulate.

Employees who easily focus towards satisfying the consumers and set standards in the organizations reduce the overall demand of maintaining the supervisors and their associated costs.  From this consideration therefore, the employees are highly autonomous and the hierarchical structures greatly reduced.  Such employees should be retained and motivated to improve their loyalty and establish a similar culture in the organization.

Provides a roadmap for change and constant improvement in an organization
While acknowledging the role played by employees in their organizations, John et al (2010) explained that that it is critical to dig deeper and assess their orientation towards further development of the company.  Through further analysis, John et al (2010) found out that most of the committed employees easily rhyme with the demands for change in their organizations.  Retaining such employees therefore provides the company with a platform for continued improvement and therefore maintaining a competitive advantage at the market.  Though reduced resistance to change is considered to be a great step towards improvement, Gillian (2000) argues that employees should always be critical in their approach to support various sustainability demands.

Democratic and open management policy in human resources management
Unlike the traditional mechanistic style where the employees were viewed purely as factors of production, 21st century managers consider them to be crucial units both at the production and management level.  Democratic and open management policies are critical in establishment of a level playing ground upon which key talents are easily identified and nurtured

Maintaining openness and positive contribution
According to Martha and Anne (2000), employees form a highly sensitive entity that requires great care to effectively manage.  As a result, their operations must be objectively driven if their full potential is to be realized.  Maintaining openness in key areas of operations such as promotion labor divisions and in rewards provision among other areas create the sense of commitment and the need to excel in order to reach such status.  As Martha and Anne (2000) continues to say, maintaining effective open management gives the employees an important role of checking the immediate middle level implementing agencies and their efficacies.  Most organizations establish clear reporting systems where malpractices are reported and addressed with speed.  Byrne (2005) concurs with the views of Martha and Ann by indicating that openness derives the need for ethical orientation in decision making and their implementation.  Using the case of Enron Scandal to drive the need for openness, Byrne (2005) further indicates that such incidences would be easy to check.  In the case of Enron, the management failed to provide the employees with an effective reporting system and therefore could not identify the accounting problems. Lack of openness indeed has the capacity to invoke unethical demands even from the well behaved employees.

Robbins, Crino and Fredendall (2002) indicate that openness creates room for positive improvement at the management and lower levels of operations in the organization.  When the employees are empowered to view an organization not just as an employer, but as an important entity of which they are part, unethical acts are easily reduced.  Their reference and viewpoint becomes possessive and therefore develops internal consideration to improve it as the best methods of reaping maximally form it.  As Grant (2005) explains, the restructuring of the Royal Dutch Shell Company at the onset of the 21st century sought to create openness as the main platform for positive improvement.  Though the giant company had remained a major icon at the international market, lack of openness had reduced its flexibility and therefore gave the immediate competitors a chance to improve and outdo it at the global market.

Positive criticism for the management
The ability to effectively grow and develop in an organization as Thomas (2008) explains is partially dependent on the criticism provided by the employees towards the management options.  Thomas (2008) continues to say that positive criticism provides the management with a chance to view the possible implications and viewpoints of the employees for their application.  It is crucial to note that employees indeed possess effective skills mainly derived from their experience in dealing with similar cases for along time.  Thomas (2008) argues that organizations that shun positive criticism for their operations from the employees, risk recording poor results and therefore failing to achieve their ultimate objectives.  Organization citizenship behavior is held hostage by lack of positive criticism as employees in such situations view it to be out of their normal operations outline.

Discipline at all levels
It is worth noting that democratic and openness policies are effective tools that can be used by an organization to check and enhance discipline and accountability.   Thomas (2004) argues that through democratic ideals in an organization, reporting cases of indiscipline is taken as the most ethical consideration towards improvement.  Under this consideration, Thomas (2004) continues to say that employees do not fear victimization as they are considered to be critical forces towards articulating long term internal effectiveness and sustainability in the production or management.  However, Hoffman et al (2007) argue that it is crucial for organizations to ensure that they have similar policies that protect extreme cases of indiscipline reporting such as whistle blowers.  Such personalities create the sense of holistic responsibilities by all towards maintaining not just a more responsive system, but further invokes inherent responsibilities at all levels.

Implications of technology on behavior and profitability
While technological advancements as evidenced by the 21st century managements continue to intensify, analysts argue that it has key implications to the employees behavior and the overall profitability of a company.  However, as Tseng (2008) concurs with emergent researchers, technology is presented to have major positive and negative implementations.  

Positive implications
Application of technology in the modern organization management as Lawrence (2008) indicates has assimilated a highly differentiated outlook that guides all the key processes. Lawrence (2008) further indicates that through improved communication the employees are able to effectively communicate amongst themselves as well as with their immediate management.  At this point, the management can easily facilitate the expected behavior from the employees through constant coordination with immediate managers and supervisors.  As a result, the employees could easily cooperate with their managers as instructions and changes considerations are communicated well in time (Gillian, 2000).

To the employees, Yunka (2006) explains that they equally communicate within their teams and with other employees to create the needed culture of communication and coordination at all levels.  Of critical importance is the enhanced capacity to address emergent problems in the organization.  Tseng (2008) adds that when technology is employed in the management, the overall efficiency is enhanced through greater precision.  In production units, use of technology has reduced the need for manual labor and therefore raised the production while reducing the overall costs.  It is from this consideration that economies of scale have easily become the center stage in globalization outlook.

Negative implications
Though technology has increasingly resulted to massive benefits, it has also been a major factor in facilitating unethical actions (Byrne, 2005).  Due to the secrecy posted by use of information technology in the management, malicious employees could easily collude without being noted and therefore causing great danger.  Due to availability of technology in the market, information sharing in the organization becomes much easier and therefore leaking the secrets of an organization to its competitors.  At Hewlett-Packard, the impacts of information  leak through advanced technology by one of the board members is still haunting the company as competitors easily employed similar techniques to their advantage as the board members were thrown into a long term period of turmoil.  

Conclusion
It is from the above consideration that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement, effective application of Organization Citizenship Behavior remains the most effective method of maintaining intrinsic employees commitment to their work, relation with others, cooperation with the management and contribution towards organizations missions achievements for higher profitability and sustainability. Organization citizenship behavior was brought out as a critical facet towards facilitating effective contribution at all levels of management.  It was particularly emphasized at the employees level where their input is seen to be crucial as the main policies implementing units.  Citizenship behavior was further brought out to be equally dependent on the management and its strategies application.  It from this analysis that organizations managements should seek to create a highly conducive environment that supports organization citizenship behavior at all times for greater returns.  

There are many problems that college students, particularly the freshmen and transfer students, have to face as they try to adjust themselves to the new college environment. Some of these problems may become so severe that they may affect the academic performance of a student, so that heshe may even consider the option of dropping out of school. Such cases have prompted researchers to examine whether the use of college couselling can be important in improving the students academic performance and retention. This study is aimed at meeting the same goals. The research prospectus begins with the introduction section that has the problem statement and the rationale of conducting the research. It indicates that conducting such a study will be very important as it will equip the counselors, the students and the college administrators with the information that may be helpful in setting up strong couselling centers in the college that will benefit both the students and eventually the college at large. It also contains the research questions that are aimed at being answered at the end of research. This section also contains the literature review that contains what other authors and researchers have said or found out regarding the topic and the methodologies that were utilized to arrive at the conclusion. From the literature review, it is clear that studies that have been conducted have conclusions that relate couselling with college students retention and academic performance. However, the degree of relationship differs. The prospectus also contains the research methodology that includes the population, the sample, the data collection procedure, the instruments to be utilized, and the data analysis method.

Introduction
Several researches have been conducted to determine whether there is a relationship between college counseling services on one hand and the students retention and academic performance on the other. From these researches, different results have been gotten. When the parents and guardians invest their financial and time resources in taking their children to school, their main aim is to see them prosper both academically and in character so that they can have successful lives. However, there have been great concerns on the number of college students who perform poorly in their academics with some even end up dropping from college before they complete their academics.

With the college administrators being aware of the problem of the students retention, they have set up college counseling centers to assist students manage and solve their problems with the aim of improving their academic performance in addition to assisting them complete their studies amicably. However, there are different hypotheses on whether college counseling services on students assist them perform better academically in addition to enabling them to complete their studies or not. This is the reason why this study is very significant as it will reveal which of these claims is the correct one and which one is not. If the research reveals that counseling services at the college are important to the academic performance and the students retention, then this would urge the college administrators to invest more in college counseling departments.
Research Questions
For the study to be termed as complete the following questions must be answered.
Does college counseling have any effect on the students retention
Does college counseling have any effect on the students performance
Does the number of counseling sessions enhance the students retention and academic performance

Literature Review
There are various problems that are common to the majority of the college students. These are worse to the freshmen and transfer students. One of the main challenges that they have to deal with is the increase of credits (units) that they have to study compared to the number they took while in high school. The other major problem has to do with financial difficulties as the college tuition costs continue to increase. Due to the high cost of education, many students are forced to look for part time or even full time jobs, a task that they may not be able to handle at the same time.  Homesickness is another major problem that affects freshmen and particularly those that have always resided at their homes (Smith, 1994).

There is also the problem of depression that often increases the students stress levels. Coming to unfamiliar environments and increased lack of sleep may make a student become vulnerable to sicknesses. Another major problem that is experienced by college students is their unfriendly and disturbing roommates. Other problems experienced include broken relationships, decision making in choosing a major and consequences of partying (Smith 1994). With all these problems facing a college student, it is likely that his or her academic performance will deteriorate and may even contemplate of dropping out of college. This is why there has been increased desire to undertake researches to examine whether college couselling services have effects on students retention and academic performance.

Brunt (n.d) has stated that students who have psychological issues and personal problems will always struggle academically and may often get themselves dropping out of school. He continues to state that counseling in college address such issues and have positive effects on students retention.  He also says that students who have gotten counseling services will stay in school for a longer period than those who have not received. Brunt makes a conclusion that students with emotional and social problems have the highest risk of dropping out of college (Brunt, n.d). The assessment that was conducted by Turner and Berry (2000) concludes that two out ten students that sought counseling services had considered dropping out of as one of the options. They also reported that seventy percent of those students who were offered counseling services admitted that somehow the problems were negatively affecting their academic performance. The same research showed that students that had been counseled were likely to remain in college longer than those that had not been counseled. Eighty five percent of the students that had been counseled had remained in school as compared to seventy four percent of the entire student population (Brunt, n.d).

The third conclusion that Brunt has made is that counseling assists the students in addressing the difficulties and the result is that they remain in school. A research by Bishop and Brenneman (1986) studied college students who had considered leaving school permanently because of poor grades but from whom eighty six percent were able to stay for one more semester after counseling services. Brunt mentions Mason (1999) who reported that college students participating in couselling were seen to have positive changes in their lives. On the other hand, Campbell (1965) got a direct correlation between counseling participation and academic success. Brunt (n.d) states that Retention for retention sakes cannot be a couselling center prime directive. He states that students who have an agenda of being destructive in school or were not for the choice of going to college should be allowed to leave school. He adds that sometimes when a particular student leaves school, this serves as a positive step for the general retention objectives of the college. He suggests that every university or college should come up with retention goals which will take into account students who are at high risk and who needs additional services as well as students who will bring a positive impact on the community by being removed from school. He states that a hundred percent retention goal is undesirable and unachievable (Brunt, n.d).

The students negative behavior often has a great impact on the university. Rummel, Acton, Costello and Gillan (1999), stated that A University does not want to retain students who are not academically suited for their environment. Though the evidence gotten from research does support the positive role that counseling plays in retention, the data gotten ought not to be utilized in measuring the effectiveness of couselling services. Instead, retention should be seen as an affirmative outcome of the counseling services. Numerous couselling centers have often addressed this area. For example, the director of UNLV couselling and psychological services, Dr Jamie Davidson placed these questions on the intake form. Are you considering dropping out of school and If yes, to what degree are the issues that brought you to counseling contributing to your thoughts of dropping out (Brunt, n.d).

Bishop (1990) as stated in the Journal of College Counseling has stated that though couselling as means of increasing retention of students is very important, the research on the relationship has been very limited. Studies that have been conducted earlier have shown that there is a strong connection between academic success and counseling as well as between higher graduation rate and counseling. However it has been noted that researches that were done earlier could not differentiate between vocational or academic counseling from psychological couselling (Cengage Learning, 2008).

In his study, Illovsky (1997) as indicated by Cengage Learning (2008) examined the impact of counseling (for emotional psychological concerns) on student retention. The researcher compared the rate of retention for students who had received counseling with those in the general population. The results were that seventy percent of those that had counseling offered to them returned to school. On the other hand, it is only sixty eight percent of those in the population who went back to school. Though many of the cases in this study were based on psychological counseling, career and academic cases were involved in the analyses (Illovsky, 1997).

Wilson et all (1997) also conducted a research that studied the relationship between retention and counseling based on quantity of counseling that was received. The results indicated that students who were offered counseling had a higher rate of retention when compared to those who had booked an appointment for counseling but ended up not being counseled. Of those who were offered counseling sessions between one to seven times, seventy nine percent remained in college for two more years when compared with sixty five percent of those who had not received counseling at all. It was noted that an addition session after the sixth did not have any (or much) impact on academic persistence (Cengage Learning, 2008).

Lee et all (2009) in their research work entitled Effects of college counseling services on academic performance and retention as published in the Journals of College Student Development, studied the connection between counseling service and academic performance and retention of the student in a college. They studied a sample constituting ten thousand and nine college freshmen as well as transfer students. The research results indicate that students who receive counseling services while in the college have a higher likelihood of staying in school when compared to those who do not receive counseling. This according to the study would mean that there is a significant relationship between counseling experience and student retention. However, the research did not show any connection between counseling experience and academic performance when pre-college academic performance was used as control (Lee ET all 2009). This study also showed that those students who had sought both group and individual counseling achieved better academically that those that were offered other types of services.

The study was aimed at a sample of transfer students and freshmen. To find out the relationship between the variables, two levels of analysis were performed with the first analysis exploring the connection between academic performance and retention rate and counseling experience in the entire sample. The second analysis was aimed at examining the exceptional effect of counseling on academic performance and retention rate in two groups, non counseling group. The academic performance of the students before college was statistically controlled (Lee ET all 2009).

The study was conducted on a sample of college transfer students and freshmen who had been admitted between 0405 and 0506 academic years at a public university in the United States. The total number of the students who fell in these two categories was 10,009 and was drawn from different ethnic backgrounds. The variables that were utilized include the counseling experience that was divided into the non counseling and counseling groups. The second variable was the pre-college academic performance drawn from high school GPA, Math SAT score and verbal SAT score. Other samples includes the service types, service sessions number, college academic performance and students retention (Lee ET all 2009).

The researchers used the data collection methodology by obtaining data from the counseling centers and registrar of the university. However, this method may be described as biased reason being it did not allow the participation of the students. In addition, the method may easily be described as unethical because the researchers were allowed the access of the students records without them being notified (Lee ET all, 2009). It would have been better if addition questionnaires were administered to them. To get the results, the correlations between standard deviations and variables were created.
This study is limited by the fact that the conclusion gotten may only be applicable to the university where this study was conducted. This is however important since future researchers may see the need of extending the research scope to many colleges in a single research. The other limitation is that the counseling centers of other universities might be different when compared to that in this research in terms of how they offer their counseling services, a fact that may have different impact on the connection between retention and counseling. In addition, the characteristics of the sample students may be dissimilar from those of students from other colleges. Finally there is no clear manner of identifying how counseling services reduce the attrition rate of the students (Lee ET all 2009).
 
Methodology
The research will include college freshmen as well as transfer students, newly admitted from three small universities in different parts of the United States of America. The population will be about 118,705 students of three small different universities with two being public and one being public. The sample will be derived from 12, 516 transfer students and freshmen from three universities. The sample must represent students from different nationalities, backgrounds, gender, religious background, sexual orientation, race among other important differences. The three universities have been chosen because in addition to being small, their enrolment requirements are almost similar and thus the pre-college grades of the students will not differ much.

Variables
The study is aimed at examining whether there is any relationship between college counseling on one side and students academic performance and retention on the other hand. The following will be the variables.

Student Retention The student will seek to establish whether the students who received counseling stayed for a longer period in college to complete the first year than those who had not received any counseling.

Counseling experience the student will be divided in two major categories those who would have gotten the counseling in their first semester and those who would not have gotten counseling services, counseling group and non counseling group respectively.

Number of Counseling sessions attended The counseling groups will further be divided into sub groups based on the number of sessions that each has received from the time they joined college.

College academic performance Two indicators will be utilized in measuring academic performance, difference between the grade achieved at the end of the semester and the grade of enrollment as well as the GPA. The credit discrepancy and the GPA will be measured two semesters after enrollment. The cumulative score calculated when the second semester is ending is referred to as the GPA. On the other hand, credit discrepancy will be obtained by subtracting the grade achieved at the end of the semester and grade that had been gotten in the commencement of the second semester.

Student retention The study will aim to determine whether students that had undergone counseling would stay in college for a longer period than those that had not received any.

Type of the counseling service received the study will seek to establish the type of counseling is offered to the students

Data collection Procedure
The first important part of the procedure was to seek the approval from the Institute of Review Board. Two data collection methods will be utilized in this research. The first one will be data collection methodology where the researcher will get the data from the register and counseling offices at the university. The information that will be sought from the registrar office include the students age, ID, gender, race, high school GPA, admission type, verbal SAT and math score. Other information that would be important will include registration status, cumulative GPA and, credits completed etc. The other set of data will be collected from the counseling center and will include information such as the number of the freshmen and transfer students who will have received counseling services, the type of services that they will have received as well as the number of services that they will have received.

The next methodology that will be utilized is the survey method and specifically the issuing of the questionnaires to the freshmen and transfer students who will have received counseling services. This would mean that their particulars that must be gotten from the registrars office include their telephone numbers, the room numbers or their emails. The data that will be gotten from them include the nature of the problems that took them to counseling, whether the problem had made them contemplate on dropping out of school and whether the problems were affecting their academic performance. It will also be important for them to state whether they decided to stay in school after the counseling session and whether their academic performance improved after the counseling. The data that is to be collected will be both qualitative and quantitative. This is significant as it will allow reliable information (statistically) to be gotten from numerical measurement that is supported by information about the explanations gotten from the participants (Smith, 2010).

Limitations
The study may have some limitations that ought to be considered in future studies. First it may not be easy to control for variables that may have an impact on students academic performance and retention apart from pre-college academic performance. There are several psychological elements that have mentioned by Bean and Eaton (2002) and that include coping strategies, personality, and motivation as well as environmental factors such as social interactions, academic interactions and bureaucratic interactions all of these have a significant role in students retention rate. The second limitation is that it will not be possible to include the quality of the counseling services offered. Also it may not be possible to get all the students that have undergone couselling to fill in the questionnaires. Data analysis will be conducted by creating correlations between standard deviations and variable means.

Conclusion
Conducting this research will be very significant, especially, for the education sector. If the hypothesis that college counseling has a positive impact on both students academic performance and retention, then this study will be of very great importance to the students, counselors, and college administrators. The colleges will set up couselling services centers in the universities and colleges and encourage all students to seek couselling services in their first days in the university. College administrators will have overcome the problem of losing so many students who drop out of school because of many reasons such as poor academic performance among others. This will also be of great assistance to parents and guardians who invest so much in educating their children.