Psychology

Whether they are used for purposes of recreation or medication, drugs have always been a comprehensive part of human life. An infant is administered its first dose of drugs almost at birth. We suffer aches, illnesses and pains through our life and take medication for the same.

What makes a drug illicit Is it the fact that the authorities ban the usage of the same or the fact that one is free to misuse the power of the medical prescription and turn something legal into illegal Introduction to drugs could come through friends, peers, influence of cinema, desire to emulate the lifestyle of a rock star, easy accessibility to prescriptions from a doctor  and any of these could appear more attractive to an individual of personality type  A as compared to an individual of personality type B and so on. This could possibly mean that the kind of drug one opts for is therefore, more often than not, the kind of drug ones mind decides is suitable for one. Experience and studies also show that the social strata that one comes from often ends up dictating what kind of drugs one begins to use as an adult  principally due to the affordability of the same.

This brings us to the question  When taken in excess, what makes prescription drugs licit Does the fact that the drug is prescribed by a doctor for medicinal purposes make it OK to take as and when one pleases

Why some people use illicit drugs
The illicit nature of most things works as an attraction to most human minds  to be doing something thats socially, parentally or otherwise considered wrong and to be able to get away with it, is for many, thrilling. The possibility of making that one phone call to someone with a name as non-descript as Jack, deciding a rendezvous, not stopping in one place too long to be able to pick it up, sometimes far exceeds the thrill of actually using the drug.

As one has noticed around the turn of the century, all things that are retro seem to be coming back into fashion  be it clothes, flashy cars, hairdos, etc. - similarly, it would seem that the concept of and the desire to get high as part of ones lifestyle, seems to have returned. It almost seems like theres an entire lot of new-age hippies surfacing all over the world. The usage of drugs like marijuana, LSD, mescaline, ecstasy and its stronger form MDMA, seem to be on the rise universally.

It has been widely believed that the people most likely to get addicted to illicit drugs are the ones that have low self esteem andor imagined or real problems relating to unemployment, ill-health, depression or other mentally debilitating diseases, a feeling of being not given ones due by family andor society, etc. Would it not seem, however, that it also depends on what kind of drug one can afford to buy and use and what one is exposed to vis--vis the social circle one moves in In India, most of the rag pickers are addicted to base quality heroin available on the streets. That it would seem, given the layering of society that India is made up of, the lowest form of usage of illicit drugs. For example, the rag picker would not be able to afford the one-gram of cocaine and the user of the cocaine would possibly never be exposed to the base quality heroin.

Apart from the fact that the illicit nature of the drug makes one want to use it, the other perceivable reason that cannot be ignored is the feel-good factor that is attached to the usage of drugs. Cocaine is supposed to give you the confidence and lucidity of speech (depending of course on how much one consumes), ecstasy and LSD are supposed to take you beyond yourself and unify you with not only the greater world around you, but creation itself. Ideas that are luminous with intrigue, the desire for the unknown and an opportunity to explore so much more beyond what one considers to be the normal realm of ones existence.

The culture of working endless hours has also been a contributing factor towards the usage of illicit drugs. They seem to give the user a way out  a relief from the stress and mental and physical pressures of a job with no fixed hours. Marijuana is used so as to be calm and in a zone. The adage Work hard and party harder seems to have become more and more popular in the recent past.

And some people dont
In a country like India, where there is such a vast divide between an individual from the lower middle class and the upper class, one of the principal reasons for some people taking drugs and some not, is exposure to the same.

An individual from the lower middle class or even most from the upper middle class would not belong to the peer circles that are typically and socially known to use drugs  one of the main reasons for this being that they are more concerned about their 9-5 jobs, being able to afford the groceries for the month and maybe taking their families on a modest holiday.

Some people are just not interested in accessorizing their lives with superior externally induced experiences or in the simulation of a glamorous lifestyle. And some people have an innate fear of addiction.

Conclusion
We have, over the years, watched films and documentaries showing the lives of Jim Morrison and more recently, Whitney Houston and Amy Whinehouse. Famous people doing drugs, suffering, yet glorified amply by the media. It almost seems a shame that their deterioration is also viewed as being glamorous and does not work as a deterrent to most people using drugs.

Studies from all over the world have signified that social class and socio-economic status vastly influence substance use and related disorders. An article in Medical Care (February 1983, Volume XXI, No. 2) by Richard E. Johnson (Ph.D.) and Clyde R. Rope (Ph.D.) investigates the relationship between a set of people from belonging to different demographics and their social, psychological and health-related reasons for the usage of non-prescription drugs.

Other studies also indicate that, apart from factors like economics, psychology and social influences, another contributing factor is that there are certain personality types that are more addictive and some that are not.

Conclusively, it would appear that the reasons an individual takes to using illicit drugs are as listed and all other sub-related factors  the individuals exposure to the culture  visual or real references to drug usage, the individuals socio-economic and socio-psychological status, the individuals financial ability to access the drugs and the individuals desire to want to use drugs.

Any discussion of intentionally and effectively killing a human being is complicated by the fact that such an act necessarily involves a number of different analytical perspectives with different underlying premises.  Regarding the instant debate, whether doctors should be empowered to aid in a terminally ill patients decision to pursue suicide, there are legal, medical, ethical, psychological, sociological, and interdisciplinary perspectives which make absolute conclusions difficult and perhaps impossible.  This is one of the main flaws with Somervilles arguments and logical premises.  She advocates, in effect, an absolute type of prohibition against physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia pursuant to what she improperly and perhaps a bit disingenuously represents as an ethical perspective.  A close examination of her arguments actually suggests that she is in reality anchoring her conclusions on a continuation of traditional religious dogmas and a vaguely defined type of utilitarianism devoid of any substantial empirical evidence.  This is particularly evident in her references to experiences in the Netherlands, which she attempts to cite as a real-life experiment in which there have been negative social impacts, and she provides absolutely no empirical data.  Hulls argument is more persuasive because it transcends formulaic notions related to religious dogma and utilitarianism in favor of a more concentrated emphasis on human dignity at the moment when end-of-life realities must be confronted and addressed.  The better view would seem to be that state laws allowing for physician-assisted suicide for terminally ill patients ought to be encouraged and allowed so long as the physicians are not compelled to perform acts in violation of their personal moral values, that the intent of the law is to alleviate pain and humility in pursuit of human dignity, and that the patient is of sound mind and has explored all possible alternative courses of action in a comprehensive manner.

As an initial matter, Somerville paints too rigid a picture when she asserts such an approach will discredit the medical profession and lead to more unethical types of societies.  Hull anticipates this type of objection and argues that medical professionals ought to be specially certified in order to perform this type of medical end-of-life function.  This allows for personal ethical values to prevail whereas Somerville would attempt to impose a monolithic ethical value.  Physicians, in short, should be allowed to decide whether to pursue such specialized pain management training and their diversity of opinion would be respected in Hulls paradigm.  Somervilles framework, on the other hand, would treat physicians as criminals if they favored assisted suicide and this is hardly an ethical or a socially beneficial impact.  Hulls approach thus benefits the medical profession and their diverse values most effectively.  Terminally ill patients are also better served by Hulls approach because decision-making is placed in their hands rather than being imposed by religious values they do not share or by an abstract sort of utilitarianism to which they do not subscribe in a pluralistic society.  Somerville and Hull both seem to agree that feelings of hopelessness and depression, separate conditions, must be anticipated and considered.  This should necessitate a carefully designed and rigorously implemented program of education regarding alternative courses of medical treatment.  The decision to allow a physician-assisted suicide should never be taken lightly or with haste nevertheless, Somervilles statements to the effect that terminally ill patients will experience some sort of mystical reawakening is based on no empirical evidence and seems more akin to happy Hollywood endings than actual end-of-life suffering in the real world.

In the final analysis, this is unquestionably a complicated issue the best approach in a pluralistic society that ostensibly favors individual rights and human dignity would be one that respects individual decision-making.  Hulls approach accommodates such individual decision-making for both medical professionals, patients, and family members whereas Somerville seeks to impose compulsory restrictions that completely abrogate individual rights and taint notions related to human dignity.

Is it in the best interest of children to have parents in a committed heterosexual, rather than a homosexual, relationship There is lack of quality evidence that can uphold that it is highly detrimental for children to be reared by gayslesbians rather than heterosexual couples. Individuals disapproving homosexual parentingadoption cite, among others, that same-sex couples tendency to have less stable relationships may have an impact on children. Yet there are also countless cases of heterosexual couples failing to live up to their roles as good parents. While social stigma  and the effects on childrens psyche are things gay  lesbian couples need to be wary of, real-life cases have shown that most homosexual couples can be fit and competent parents.

Time and again, we hear about cases of lesbian and gay couples turning out to be very responsible and successful parents of children.  First-hand accounts of homosexual couples with the best intentions turning out to be capable parents are a clear-cut illustration that good parenting is not hinged on gender alone.

It can be noted that lesbian and gay couples who are very well-adjusted individuals of good character, and who prove to be appropriate parents for children, debunk the notion held by certain quarters that homosexuality can have a bearing on molding normal functioning  thinking kids.  The parents gender is not the only factor shaping childrens emotional growth or unconventional modes of thinking.

Timothy J. Dailey exemplifies the view held by some quarters that children may be better off growing up in the traditional two-parent home. Believing that heterosexual parents can provide a more stable home for children, Dailey opined that the fact that several states have legally prohibited gay adoption suggests that public opinion is against the practice this question raises larger issues about the nature of marriage and family allowing homosexual couples to marry and have children will change the committed nature of relationships and thus challenge the norms of healthy parenting (Guest, 2009, p. 328).  This is highly debatable, especially when we consider that highly responsible gay or lesbian couples who are financially, emotionally, and mentally equipped do exist and will do all that they can to ensure that kids under their custody grow up into  healthy and mature individuals able to make sound decisions on their own.

As a lesbian who carried on an intimate relationship with mother of a young baby girl and raised the girl like her own said, We could be good parents as our heterosexual counterparts in terms of preparing for our childrens future and nurturing them to be good people (A. Mayo, personal communication, April 12, 2010).  The child, she narrated, was the center of everything in their lives. Studies have shown that two female parents usually possess and offer children under their custody the advantage of parenting awareness skills and warmer, closer , more communicative relationships (Biblarz and Stacey, 2010, p. 11).

A key point offered by those who view homosexual parents as offering a less than ideal environment for kids than traditional heterosexual parents  is the impact on the children of the breakdown of the relationship in due time. Because most same-sex couples lack access to legal marriage and receive less familial, cultural, and institutional support for their relationships, they generally face fewer barriers to exiting unsatisfying unions (Biblarz and Stacey, 2010, p. 12).  There is also the view held by some people that children of lesbian and gay parents will experience more difficulties in the area of sexual identity than children of heterosexual parents  (Guest, 2009, p. 330).  Yet there are actual cases that disprove this. There are real-life examples of  children who grew up under the care and supervision of lesbian parents whose preference for heterosexual relationships was not  reversed.

Indeed, the fact that most lesbian and gay couples can be competent and effective parents the way responsible heterosexual couples can be cannot be disputed.  The question is more on the impact that short-lived relationships of these gaylesbian couples may have on children.  While staunch protestors of giving custody of children to gaylesbian couples opine that going against the accepted norms may be detrimental to childrens psychological health or expose them to social stigma, there are no conclusive studies affirming this. While there are still people who may discriminate against kids hailing from families run by same-sex couples, the effect on children can be assuaged through the loving presence and open lines of communication maintained by these parents. Gender or homosexuality, per se,  of biological or acting parents do not necessarily lead to abnormal social relationships, as the American Psychological Association maintained. History has shown that children with lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from that of children with heterosexual parents (Guest, 2009, p. 330).

Book topic Reviving Ophelia Saving the Selves of Adoloscent Girls by Mary Pipher, Ph.D.
Astonishingly, more adolescent females are growing up in today s society only to endure many more hardships than in preceding generations. In her book, Reviving Ophelia, Mary Pipher attempts to deliver insights into the reasons why adolescent females endure these struggles. The title, Reviving Ophelia, is based on the story of Ophelia from Shakespeare s Hamlet. As a young girl Ophelia is happy and free-spirited. However, as she goes through adolescence she loses herself. She falls in love with Hamlet and allows her world to revolve around him. She lacks inner direction and struggles to please Hamlet and her father, and because of this she is shattered. When Hamlet rejects her because she is an obedient daughter, she is filled with despair. She dresses herself in clothes heavy enough to weigh her down and drowns herself in a stream. Mary Pipher believes that many confident and strong-willed girls are transformed into sad, angry and confused girls during adolescence just like Shakespeare s Ophelia. In this book, Pipher, a clinical psychologist, takes an in depth look at adolescent girls and their experiences. (COPY-PASTE ONLY)

Things to be included
Women during their adolescence stage
Experiences that women endure during adolescence (negative and positive)
How adolescent women undergo body image transformation and how it affects them psychologically, emotionally, etc...
How women view men during adolescence
Emotional disorders that women usually acquire during adolescence (eating, mood disorders etc...)
Impact of such disorders in a womans life.
How to improve

This is just a draft and still needs to be re-written in a scholarly manner. It is still subjected to change or additions during the progression.

Ethics, as many of us have understood, is a branch of Philosophy that seeks out about morality. The conception of defending good and bad, justice and injustice, and even right and wrong behavior are the major path of this branch (Smith, M. 2009).

Ethical principles and theories are the groundwork of analyzing ethics, which becomes the deciding factor, which aims to provide justice and less harm. There are different Ethical theories but the one the author thought that can relate on the given situation is the theory of Utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism is composed of two types  the Rule Utilitarianism and the Act Utilitarianism (Hardin, R. 2007). The Rule Utilitarianism is all about rules. One should act according to rules created in order to fabricate positive outcomes. On the other hand, the Act Utilitarianism is all about how one should act in order to fabricate positive outcomes for the good of all.

The given situation can very well relate to Act Utilitarianism because Margaret, being the mother, lover, and daughter, is the most affected. Choices or decisions should be made by her in order save her family as well as herself. Interview is the most convenient way to get to know the people involved in the situation. A one-on-one interview will not only allow the interviewer to gather information, but the interviewer will, by some means, encourage the interviewee a feeling that the interviewer can be trusted. This will make the interviewee more open in telling about his or her feelings and thoughts.

The assessment that will be made in the given situation would help Margarets family in analyzing their problems, as well as their thought and feelings about each other. It is important to make them open up in order to assess the core problems, what decisions to make, and who should make big decisions.

The chart below will show the questions to be presented in the interview with the family, to whom the questions will be asked, why that question should be asked, and what information the interviewer will gather.

QUESTIONSPERSON BEING ASKEDWHY THIS QUESTION SHOULD BE ASKEDWHAT INFORMATION WILL BE GATHEREDHow are things going on in the house
How do you feel about your son
How do you feel about your daughter
How do you feel about your mother
How do you feel about your boyfriend
Why do you want to work in a local bar Dont you have any options
How about your time for your children when you start working there
Do you spend more time with your boyfriend How bout time for your children
Do you give money to your boyfriend whenever he asks Do you think it is necessary
Do you think he is good for the familyMARGARETIn order to fully understand the situation inside the house
To understand what she feels about her son
To understand what she feels about her daughter

To understand what she feels about her mother
To understand what she feels about her boyfriend

To know her plans in working and see if it will work out with their situation

To know her plans in terms of spending time with her children

To help her assess the time she spends with her boyfriend against her children

To let her reveal the reasons why she gives money to her boyfriend

To assess how she truly feels for the guy and see if she can give up the guy for her familyIdea on the relationship between the family members

Details about the problems shes having with her son
Details about the problems shes having with her daughter
Details about the problems with her mother
Details about the problems shes having with her boyfriend
Her reasons for working in the local bar and what advantages she see in that plan

Plans in dealing time with her children (arrangements between her mother in taking care of children)
The reasons why she spends time with her boyfriend more (to know if shes being threatened by the guy or the guy demands too much time)

The reasons why she gives money (if the boyfriend demands her to give money and threatens her if she does not give money)

Her plans if ever she thinks she can leave the guy and if not, the reasons why she cannot leave the guyWhat do you think of your daughter Margaret The decisions she made with her life
Do you think her boyfriend adds up to your family problems

Do the children seem to have a behavioral problemMARGARETS MOTHERTo know how her mother feels about their situation as well as the decisions Margaret has made in the past that affects their life now

To know if she still has influence to her daughter. To know the relationship between her and Margarets boyfriend

To assess if she see something unusual with the childrens behavior.Her own side of the story. Her points of views towards Margaret, her boyfriend, her children, and their situation
Her thoughts on the relationship of Margaret with LJ (boyfriend) and see if he is relevant to their situation now.

Her opinions on the childrens behaviors. To see how well she knows her grand childrenDo you get in trouble a lot Why
How are your grades Are you having difficulty at school
Why do you ignore your mom most of the time
What do you think of LJ Does he love your motherJAMESTo know the childs reason why he gets in trouble
To assess if the child needs attention from her mother when it comes to his studies
To assess if the child holds a feeling of resentment with his mother. To know if this is the reason why he gets in trouble
To assess the childs feelings about her mothers boyfriend.Reasons why he gets in trouble, if he causes the trouble or hes being bullied by schoolmates
His opinion about studying. What he can say about his mother being busy and spends less time with them
The childs feeling towards his mother. If hes angry at her or he just wants her attention.

His opinion on her mothers relationship. The child may mention if the guy gets mean at them sometimesWhat can you say about your mommy

Do you want her to spend more time with you and your brother
What can you say about your mommys boyfriendMIRANDATo assess if the child, at an early age, can feel the absences of her mother

To assess if the child is longing for her mother and what things she wants to do with her
To assess if the child can feel something about her mothers boyfriend.Her opinion about her mother, being busy at work, and not being around the house
Her opinion about her mother, being present in the house to guide her and her brother
Her thoughts about her mothers boyfriend. The child may also mention if the boyfriend is being rude to them

After creating series of questions for the interview, the author concludes that the process should be continued in assessing Margarets family. After conducting the interview, there are still questions of points of views that need to be supported by a secondary interview. This is due to the fact that there is so much to analyze with this family because several people are involved. Other people may be interviewed such as neighbors and Margarets sister. These people are the ones who can tell if they see something wrong with the children and their opinions on the present situation of the family can also add clarification on the matter. Through this, decisions can be concluded if the mother should seek professional assistance for her daughter.

In addition to this, the childrens answers matter because this could be a deciding factor for Margaret if she must continue having relationships with her boyfriend or she must focus on her family first. Margaret is the one who can decide on what actions should she take because she is the one responsible for her children.

1. Rene Descartespostulated that the self perceives its own body due to the senses. The individual perceives certain characteristics about shape, size, texture, color and smell. He argued that sensory perception is not enough to understand properly the nature of the things instead, the individual must use his mind (Trull  Phares, 2001). He discarded perception and solely focused on deduction as a appropriate method by which we can come to understand the world. In contrast to the nativist, the empiricist tradition of Berkeley believed that knowledge of the world couldonlybe achieved through direct perception, and conscious awareness of those perceptions was necessary for that perception to exist. He also argued that there were no systems of innate knowledge instead, anything could be learned through experiences (Jensen, 2005).

2.  Memory processes contain 3 different stores the sensory information store (SIS), the short-term store (STS), and the long-term store (LTS) and 3 processes such as encoding, maintenance and retrieval. The sensory information(from ears, eyes etc.) enters the Sensory Information Store (SIS) and iseither paid attention to or ignored (Higbee, 2001). The ignored information does not last verylong. The new perceptual quickly writes over the old process sometimes. Once the information is processed in, it is being encoded into the short-term store (STS) with a limited storage capacity. Long-term memory store large quantity of data and canmaintain that information for very long periods of time. It can holds manytypes of information including events, facts, motor and perceptualskills, spatial models of familiar environments and knowledge of physical laws (Botella, 2009).

Memory Process
3. Self-esteem reflects the individuals overall appraisal or evaluation of his or her own worth. It is reflected in their behavior, such as in shyness, assertiveness, confidence or caution. Psychologists agreed that self-esteem changes across life span depending on the persons enduring personality characteristic (Satir, 2001). Abraham Maslow, regarded self-esteem in his theory about hierarchy of needs in two different forms the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect. Without the fulfillment of this need, individuals drive to seek it and unable to obtain self-actualization (Botella, 2009).

4. The key steps are necessary in the process of learning to read involves three processes first phase involves the distinguishing of the different shapes of characters. The individual has to learn to understand from the left to the right side the visual-spatial aspects is very important. The second phase is about sign and sign connections and able to read spelling. The third phase includes building up of knowledge of regularities in the written language the recognition through quick and effective ways. Most school uses reading effective promotion of reading process through early reading or pattern books utilization that take requires a great deal of skill (Biggs  Telfer, 1987).

There is a lot of point of views on how people perceive a person with a mental illness could it be because of his biological background, environment where he or she grew up with There could be a lot of factors that may contribute to mental illness and in this case study, we will attempt to analyze a very interesting character named Karl Childers. Since there are a lot of documented mental disorders throughout history, we will do our best to narrow down those choices, by interpreting Childers actions, attitude and his speech.

We will also discuss the possible origins of his ailment to further understand his whole persona and provide a discussion on how to treat Childers ailment.

Sling Blades Karl Childer
The central character of Sling Blade is a slow-witted loner named Karl Childers (Billy Bob Thorntons character).who, when he was quite young, snapped, flew into a homicidal rage, and murdered his mother and her lover using a garden tool (Sling Blade), when he found his mother having intercourse with a man who tormented him endlessly when he was a kid. During his childhood, Karl was locked in a shed by his parents and at one point was forced by his father to bury the still living body of his newborn brother (Naremore, 1998).  At the beginning of the film, he is pronounced  cured and is released from the mental state hospital into the town where he was born, his only possessions a set of books that he has read over and over the bible, a story by Dickens (Christmas), and some practical repair manuals  (same as  Naremore, 1998).  He returns to his childhood town and although being mentally handicapped, gets a job fixing small motors at a local repair shop. Karl befriends a young boy, Frank, and is soon invited by Franks mother, Linda, to move into the familys garage. As a strong relationship develops between Karl and Frank, a confrontation builds with Lindas abusive and sometimes violent boyfriend Doyle (Bowman, 2010).

What is Karl Childers Affliction
Karl Childer in the movie used the words mentally retarded, probably since during that time, when society especially in the rural area where he grew up labeled one person mentally retarded if he or she is somewhat different. Based on our hypothesis the nearest possible disorder that we can fit to Childers character is Autism. Throughout the movie, the character portrayed by Billy Bob Thornton has shown a lot of signs and symptoms of the said disorder (see signs and symptoms of Autism). A lot can be noticed from the early scene in which he gave access to an interview to a young reporter.

Although there are a lot of other comments from what I have researched for the character and some say that he (Childers) is really just mentally challenged and not suffer from any diagnosed psychological affliction (Fun Trivia Sling Blade, 2006). But the fact that he showed a lot of signs that he was indeed autistic confirms the theory.

Autism
Autism comes from the Greek word autos meaning self. Autism is a disorder that affects all mental development, symptoms usually starts to be noticed in childhood, but it is not a disorder of childhood, instead it is a disorder of development (Frith, 2003). Symptoms will necessary look different at different ages, certain features do not become apparent until later others disappear with time (same as Frith, 2003). Some reference points of classic autism are autistic aloneness, desire for sameness and islets of ability which are still considered to hold in all true cases, despite variation in detail and despite the existence of additional problems (Kanner, 1943).

Signs and Symptoms of Autism
According to Griffith, Moore and Yoder (2006) Autism symptoms affects a lot of body parts of the human being inflicted. It is usually discovered by the time a child is age 2 and a half, but for some cases could be later than that. The signs and symptoms are

Does not talk or may talk using nonsense words. May use a sing-song voice and repeat what they hear, Unable to carry on a conversation.

Is over active. Wants to play alone
Repeats the same movements over and over such as rocking  and flapping or twisting hands
Has special routines and does not like change
Does not want to be touched, such as being cuddled
May injure self by head-banging or biting.
Is bothered by noises
Overly interested in lights or moving objects

Aspect of the Theory
Karl Childers Underlying Themes related to his Disturbance
On the interview scene with the reporter, Karl requested to the administrator that he doesnt want his picture taken. . Jerry Woolridge, the state hospital director, said that Karl wouldnt even let them take his picture for the Easter collage. This is probably because when he was a kid he was teased so much growing up and has such low self-esteem. He also doesnt want anyone to know who he is or what he did (Fun Trivia Sling Blade, 2006).

During the interview scene, Karl explained his situation from the very beginning as he would think, that would help a lot for the reporter to understand him and also to avoid questions from her, in which is a classic symptom also of Autism, avoiding as much as possible lengthy conversations. According to Frith (2003) in describing normal conversation with someone with autism will be extremely limited, although by no means a total failure. It is generally agreed that difficulties in the domain of pragmatics are a universal feature of autism and are similar in many respects to those experienced by patients with right hemisphere brain damage (Frith, 2003).

Also on that scene, we have notice that he does not look straight, and  rubs his hands a lot and repeat such statements like Some people call it a sling blade. I call it a kaiser blade, describing the murder weapon he used to kill his mother and lover.

When Childers was describing the scene before the murder, he said that he was just sitting on the shed when he hears some noise this reflects some sense of hypersensitivity of sound which can lead to unexpected outburst of fear and rage by autistics (Frith, 2003).

A small fraction autistics also have some special kind of talent especially on the technical side of things, Childers shows this by having a great deal of mechanical skill, he could figure out to repair small engines without ever being taught how. In one humorous scene, his coworker cannot figure out why a mower wont start even though nothing appears to be wrong. Karl walks over to the mower, looks in the gas tank, and discovers it is out of gas (same as (Fun Trivia Sling Blade, 2006). And according to Frith (2003) the non social features for a ragbag of observations, in which they are not necessarily associated with behavior problems and may even contribute outstanding skills. After all, autism is compatible with high talent. Among other things, people with autism tend to obsessively go through the same repetitive sounds, gestures, and motions. They also have trouble making eye contact and relating to people - something that we also see in Karl.

Possible Origins and relevant background of Childers Affliction
When Karl was growing up, he used sleep most of the time in a hole in the ground, in a shed behind his parents house His parents were poor and ignorant. They believed that Karl was not normal, therefore not worthy of being a regular member of the family. He was placed in a shed in the back of his house. The only place he had to sleep was in a hole in the ground with a quilt. He was teased in school so much, that instead of going to school he just sat in the shed and tinkered with lawn mowers and small engines, this has caused much of his social ineptness, the loneliness of autism is something different altogether, and it demands a circumspect approach, one approach is to use standardized interviews with parents (Frith, 2003).

He is also regularly being beaten up by his father, which just adds to Karls dilemma. Karl doesnt like social injustices, he hates liars, cheaters, abusers and the only thing he could do is to react violently when he just had enough, which is why he murdered again to protect his young Frank and his mother from Doyles abuse.

What would be the Best Treatment for Karl Childers
Karl Childers has shown the typical characteristics of an autistic, and those signs were already noticeable since he was a kid. The best probable treatment for him is Applied Behavior Analysis. Applied Behavior Analysis is the design, implementation, and evaluation of environmental modifications to produce socially significant improvement in human behavior. ABA includes the use of direct observation, measurement, and functional analysis of the relations between environment and behavior. ABA uses antecedent stimuli and consequences, based on the findings of descriptive and functional analysis, to produce practical change (Wolf  Risley, 1987).

People with autism learn much, much less easily from the environment. Theyhave the potential to learn learn, but it takes a very structured environment, ABA is all about how to set up the environment to enable those inflicted to learn (Saffran, 1998).

Although this training could be very much helpful to Karl when it was applied to him since he was young, it doesnt mean it wont be reliable this time. Add to that another therapy called sensory integration therapy can be helpful in alleviating hypersensitivity to sound and light in which Karl also suffers (Rudy, 2007). To help Karl Childers speak easy a speech therapy would be helpful, this type of involves much more than than simply teaching a person to correctly pronounce words. This includes Non-verbal communication by teaching gestural communication or training with Picture exchange cards and other non verbal tools (same as Rudy, 2007). This therapy also helps on improving Karls conversation skills he will be taught and trained to differentiate making statements and carrying a normal conversation. Speech therapists may work on back-and-forth exchange, sometimes known as joint attention.( Rudy, 2007). Part also of Speech therapy will be teaching Karl some concept skills, to improve his ability to understand abstract concepts.

Conclusion
This essay have provided valuable insights that help us provide a theory on Karl Childers ailment, we have gone through his psychological make-up by understanding his history growing up as a child and undergoing a tough environment. We have identified based on Childers actions, way of speech and other small details that he may be suffering from Autism. And based on that affliction this study provided suggested therapies that could help treat Karl. We started from applied behavior analysis and followed by other important therapies such as sensory integration and speech therapy all needed to alleviate Karl Childers illness.

An Analysis of Carol Gilligans In a Different Voice Psychological Theory and Womens Development

Carol Gilligans In a Different Voice Psychological Theory and Womens Development can be considered a study of contrasts. Not just how women differ from men in thought processes and self expression, but also of contrasts of ethics, developmental theories, of selfishness versus selflessness, separation and attachment, and responsibility to self versus other. Gilligan realized that the way people speak of themselves is of importance and one can find significance by actively listening to, analyzing, and understanding the female voice. She lays out well the broad-ranging effects associated with recognizing the differences between mens thought processes and womens.  While not without some flaws, the book, originally published in 1982, continues to stand as seminal work in the field of psychology as well as philosophy and womens studies.

It is important to understand the context in which the idea of the book was born, as this theme recurs throughout the book. Writing during the era of the Supreme Courts decision Roe vs. Wade, Gilligan says

When the highest court made it legal for a woman to speak for herself and awarded
 women the deciding voice in a complex matter of relationship which involved
responsibility for life and for death, many women became aware of the strength of
an internal voice which was interfering with their ability to speak. (p. ix)

Paraphrasing Gilligan, women were conditioned not to bring their voice in relationships and not to trust their own experiences, lest they risk abandonment or retaliation. They were conditioned to be selfless, to put the needs of others before them. What was critical was not who they were, but who they were in relation to.  Again, quoting Gilligan, Womens discovery that to be selfless means not to be in relationship is revolutionary (p. xiii). So too is the idea that women can and should speak for themselves, in their own voice.

Structurally, In a Different Voice is a work broken up into separate, but overlapping chapters. The Introductory chapter presents the three major studies that formed the groundwork for the book
college student study
abortion decision study and
rights and responsibilities study.

Gilligan does provide the reader some background on the studies. However, because In a Different Voice is not a publication of a research study, detailed descriptions of the studies is forgone and the focus is on the outcome or the feedback from participants.  The six chapters that make up the body of the work continue to reference the studies, bring in relevant theories and theorists, and allow Gilligan a vehicle with which to express her interpretations and findings.

It is difficult to say whether In a Different Voice is primarily a psychological work, a philosophical work, or a work in the ever-expanding field of womens studies.  In analyzing the book it is interesting to note her description of the word voice and what having a voice really means.  She cites the work of Kristin Linklater (pg. xvi) in helping her realize that voice is not just a sound, but a physiological, cultural, and psychological construct.  Indeed, Gilligan writes, To have a voice is to be human. (pg. xvi). Thus the title of the work acknowledges that women are indeed humans with their own physical, psychological, and cultural context, a context that may not follow societys existing norms.

To best understand Gilligans framework for the book, it is helpful to understand the major theoretical frameworks in place at the time.  First and foremost were the theories espoused by Sigmund Freud.  Freud, considered by many the father of modern psychiatry, made many brilliant advances in the field of psychiatry and psychology. However, his research findings on womens development are distinctly misogynistic. Basing psychological development on physical anatomy, he proposed that women were inferior to men as they lacked a penis (thus having penis envy) and therefore they never resolved their Oedipal complex. As quoted by Gilligan, Freud wrote, in his 1925 work Some Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical Differences Between the Sexes that women show less sense of justice than men, that they are less ready to submit to the great exigencies of life, that they are more often influenced in their judgments by feelings of affection or hostility. (p.7) Clearly Freud lay a framework for womens voices not to be heard.  Gilligan found, however, that The elusive mystery of womens development lies in its recognition of the continuing importance of attachment in the human life cycle (p. 23) and not anatomical differences as Freud proposed.

Another theorist whose ideas played a major role in Gilligans work is Erik Erikson. Erikson is noted for his stage theory, dividing human development into stages, each stage having a psychosocial crisis. It is through the resolution (or lack thereof) of the crises that humans develop. Whereas values ascribed to being a man, i.e. being independent, strong, proud, productive generally involve the positive resolution of these crises, what is valued in women, nurturing, helping, and being supportive is contradictory to the positive resolution of the crises. At each stage one can see how the typical female who is not socialized for independence would not resolve the crisis and not develop fully, when seen through the lens of the male dominated society.
 
Writes Gilligan
Since masculinity is defined through separation while femininity is defined through
attachment, male gender identity is threatened by intimacy while female gender
identity is threatened by separation.  Thus males tend to have difficulty with
relationships while females tend to have problems with individuation. (p. 8)

Further she writes of the importance of attachment and its counterpart, separation, Attachment and separation anchor the cycle of human life describing the biology of human reproduction and the psychology of human development. (p. 151)

One of the other major theorists discussed is Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg, too, had stages, and Gilligan specifically notes that his findings are based solely on his study of boys. In addition, Gilligan notes

Kohlberg and Kramer imply that only if women enter the traditional arena of male
activity will they recognize the inadequacy of this moral perspective and progress like
men toward higher stages where relationships are subordinated to rules (stage four) and
rules to universal principles of justice. (p. 18)

As Gilligan notes, Kohlbergs writing and theory tends to devalue where women are strong (i.e. goodness equated with helping and pleasing others). Gilligan discusses, by way of her interviewees in her studies, how women fall short of the male standard and fail to develop using Kohlbergs six stages.


As previously noted, Gilligan based much of her book on findings from the three studies listed earlier.  Methodologically, relied she relied heavily on quotes from her respondents and analysis of the quotes.  One particular data collection technique, use of interpretive stories, was prevalent in the book.  Gilligan used in her studies a vignette developed by Kohlberg, Heinz dilemma. The story is of a man (Heinz) with a dying wife. While there is a drug that will help her, the druggist is selling it at an exorbitant price, one Heinz cannot afford. The dilemma  should Heinz steal the drug

As Gilligan wanted to look at the different ways women think and their moral framework, she asked participants in her research in what they thought Heinz should do. As she analyzed respondents answers, she noticed how men and women differed in how they constructed the problem to be solved. Boys, she found, appeared to frame the problem logically and according to rules. Girls, on the other hand, looked at the problem as one of an interpersonal nature, looking at the nature of the relationship involved not necessarily what the right thing to do was. In citing the vignettes of Jake and Amy, two eleven-year-olds who were asked Heinz dilemma, Gilligan succinctly highlights the difference between the genders, Both children thus recognize the need for agreement but see it as mediated in different ways-he impersonally through systems of logic and law, she personally through communication in relationship. (p. 29).

In A Different Voice, however, is not a work dedicated to the differences between men and women.  It primarily focuses on Gilligans research with women and highlights how they respond in various moral or psychological conditions. For example, Chapter 3, Concepts of Self and Morality, focuses on analyzing womens responses to the questions posed in the abortion decision study.  The chapter does not focus on the outcomes of the pregnancies, though it is mentioned, rather on choice and responsibility, how having a choice brings about concerns of responsibility and the responsibility inherent in choice. Recognizing the timeframe (post Roe vs. Wade) the concept of choice had meaning to women, initially in the context of a pregnancy, but later in making their own decisions and realizing they had a choice in who they were and who they wanted to be.  In a Different Voice brought to light this point through case studies, interviews, and by contrasting existing theories of male and female development and psychology.

As noted on the first page of this analysis, Gilligans work can be viewed from the framework of contrasts.  While she states that the college student study explored identity and moral development, (p.2) in Chapter 2 she analyzed the difference between men and women as they completed stories noting in particular the projected violence in the mens stories as contrasted to the womens. She noted that mens stories consistently had more themes of violence whereas womens prevailed on relationships. She found that, for women, the world of intimacy  which appears so mysterious and dangerous to men  comes instead to appear increasingly coherent and safe. (p. 43) Not only is it safe, but necessary for survival.

Just as beauty is in the eye of the beholder, so too is the interpretation of the female experience. Womens behavior has always been held against the male standard, as the male standard has been the norm since biblical times, adopting the male life as the norm, they have tried to fashion women out of a masculine cloth. (p.6)  The primary theorists cited by Gilligan (Freud, Erikson, Kohlberg as well as Piaget) are all males whose studies were premised upon typical behavior though still male behavior.

Ideologically, she found distinct differences between men and women when looking at fundamental beliefs. In citing a playground study and the differences in game-playing for boys versus girls, she comments that boys more readily resolved disputes whereas girls would end the game over a dispute put another way, girls subordinated the continuation of the game to the continuation of relationships. (p.10).

The importance of relationships to women cannot be understated. As noted by Gilligan, Thus women not only define themselves in a context of human relationship but also judge themselves in terms of their ability to care. (p. 17). It is the concept of self in relation that has come to define women, not just self.  Gilligan cites the early suffragettes in recognizing that self does not have to be in relation to when Elizabeth Cady Stanton told the press,Self development is a higher duty than self sacrifice. (p. 129).  Gilligan refers to the belief at the time that selfishness was the cardinal sin in the ladder of feminine virtue. (p. 129) Continuing with the historical theme, Gilligan often cited authors and their works (i.e. The Mill on the Floss, The Waterfall, A Dolls House) and how they were representative of womens choices as a function of prevailing theory. Understanding the importance of the view of the self, Gilligan details that the rights and responsibilities study focused on different modes of thinking about morality and their relation to different views of self (p.3)

Although she does not focus her work at length on the theoretical difference between self and other, between selflessness and selfishness, and the individual versus individual in relationship, she does reference another author, Jean Miller, who complements her thoughts, She finds in psychology no language to describe the structuring of womens sense of self, organized around being able to make and then maintain affiliations and relationships. (Miller, as cited in Gilligan, p.48). Given the constraints of interpretation, that the perception of rightwrong, goodbad, healthyunhealthy historically has been set by men and their rules, Gilligan aptly writes that understanding of womens experience is mirrored by the problem created for women by the failure to represent their experience or by the distortion in its representation. (p. 49)  She summarizes well the importance of self and other when she writes

To admit the truth of the womens perspective to the conception of moral development
is to recognize for both sexes the importance throughout life of the connection between
self and other, the universality of the need for compassion and care. (p.98)

The theme of selflessness is particularly emphasized in Chapter 5, Womens Rights and Womens Judgment.  Using case examples, Gilligan highlights how selfishness is bad and how conflicts of morality exist in a world that is full of relationships. These moral conflicts are not just about caring for self versus other, they are more global in terms of responsibility equating responsibility with caring rather than with not hurting. (p. 148) or seeing caring for themselves as acceptable caretaking. Also in Chapter 6, Visions of Maturity, the ideas of intimacy, identity, and the meaning of the self are addressed. As Gilligan found, all of the women describe a relationship depicting their identity in the connection of future mother, present wife, adopted child, or past lover (p. 159). Further, in all of the womens descriptions, identity is defined in a context of relationship and judged by a standard of responsibility and care. (p. 160)

Gilligan highlights the how moral differences play out during development.  To summarize

The morality of rights is predicated on equality and centered on the understanding of
fairness, while the ethic of responsibility relies on the concept of equity, the recognition
of differences in need. (p. 164)

She goes on to discuss how this impacts maturity and the belief systems associated with it. She states how both genders come to understand justice and care. Rather than define terms such as justice, care, morality, truth, etc. Gilligan uses her case studies to show how the existing belief structure is different between women and men.

Though well researched and written, the book is not without faults. For one, the sample sizes of the three studies were small (college student study 45 women, abortion decision study 29 women, rights and responsibilities study 144 of both genders). It is difficult to make sweeping generalizations about women with fewer than 200 women.  The study also underrepresented men while Gilligan focuses her energies on theories-to-date, she does not recognize that men, too, are changing in their thought processes. This is not to say that the theories from the past are no longer valid they are but so are other new and more egalitarian theories.  Lastly, the use of case studies, while powerful, limits replication and, without knowing the details of Gilligans methodology, could hinder validity.

Gilligan closes Chapter 2 discussing the paradoxical truths of human experience  that we know ourselves as separate only insofar as we live in connection with others, and that we experience relationship only insofar as we differentiate others from self.(p. 63)  The idea of self and other as it relates to women and how they are heard is a salient point in Gilligans In a Different Voice. Gilligan notes how history and historians has shaped womens view of themselves, and how, given the right to choose, women are now able to speak up for themselves, just in a different voice.

Studies concerning beliefs and attitudes of the members of public towards patients whop are mentally ill have time and again revealed remarkable ignorance and as  well as hostility towards individuals deemed to be insane. Some people believe that mental illness is as a result of sociological and family causes and are thus superstitious about the real causes of mental illness. On the other hand other people believe that this type of illness is caused by biological factors. The view of the article that psychological disorders can be caused by cultural factors is not in order (Shiraev  Levy, 2010).

Article critique
The article suggests that subjective experiences of an individual such as knowledge concerning psychological problems can bring about psychological disorders. These are only perceptions and can only remain as such and cannot be said to have any effect in the normal behavior of an individual. The distress idioms that are based on culture have been explained to have an impact on the manner individuals of such a cultural background express and explain their symptoms of psychological disorder. However, most of the symptoms of mental illnesses and other psychological disorders are observable and the patient expresses such symptoms involuntarily without referring to the distress symptoms associated with his or her culture (Shiraev  Levy, 2010).

The article further suggests that diagnoses that are based on culture for various types of psychological disorders such as non-professional and professional judgments have an impact on these disorders. The non-professionals can diagnose these disorders without any standards and thus apply their cultural experiences concerning such illness, but the same is not applicable for the professionals who apply the set standards while developing their judgments concerning the causes of these disorders. The article argues that treatment based on culture that is, the manner in which people try to conquer the psychopathological symptoms suggests that these disorders are cultural based. To some extent this is true, but it is limited in that similar treatments can be applied across several cultures with different beliefs concerning these disorders. The fact that similar treatment can be applied indicates that these disorders have similar causes and thus treatment based on culture does not hold (Shiraev  Levy, 2010).

Furthermore, the article states that the different views held by people from different cultures concerning the real causes of these illnesses are primarily subjective. Subjectivity indicates significant biasness and does not regard ant scientific research concerning the causes of the disorders. The subjective facts concerning these disorders are therefore not supported by any relevant data and can therefore not be analyzed in order to draw an objective conclusion. Subjectivity ignores any standards apart from the cultural ones which are likely to change depending on the cultural aspects of a society and what they value and the influence of the individuals propagating such beliefs. It is therefore not possible to rely on subjectivity in determining the causes of psychological disorders as has been suggested in the article (Shiraev  Levy, 2010).

Conclusion
The view of the article that psychological disorders are caused by cultural factors is not in order. Even if it is possible for people to believe that mental illnesses are caused by such factors, such believes are not correct. If they were correct then the treatment of such disorders could vary across cultures. However, standards of treating these illnesses exist and people from different cultural backgrounds can be treated using similar methods. This is a good indicator that the psychological disorders are not caused by cultural factors as it is believed by some societies.

Development theories in psychology are known to provide a structure for thinking about the growth, learning and development of human beings. Three well-known development theories in psychology include Freuds Theory of Psychosexual Development, Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development and Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development. Sigmund Freud introduced the theory of psychosexual development which states that the development of personality of a human being is focused or centered on the impacts of the drive of sexual pleasure on the mind or the psyche (Ewen, 2003). He claimed that an individual is specifically perceptive to erotic and sexual stimulation. Meanwhile, Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development is composing of eight stages through which a human being must undergo from infancy to late adulthood. In every stage, the individual is known to confront and eventually masters new challenges (Hutchison, 2003). The challenges faced on every stage by an individual, if not successfully accomplished, could reemerge as a problem in the future.

The theory of cognitive development initiated by Jean Piaget has four stages and was primarily aimed at studying the development of intelligence of human beings. According to this theory, intelligence is considered as the fundamental mechanism of maintaining the balance of relationship between a person and his environment (Kail and Cavanaugh, 2008). The theory has four stages or periods to attain the cognitive development of an individual. Child development is also outlined in these three theories through their stated stages. As such, these theories can be considered to be interrelated since they affect various aspects of development of a child like physical, emotional and cognitive development.

Key Concepts of the Three Developmental Theories
Freuds theory of psychosexual development was presented by means of explaining the stages that outline the psychological requisites in the development of an individuals sexual attitudes and behaviors. The theory was considered a crucial factor in the later theories of Sigmund Freud like the sexual drive theory which stated that from the birth of a human being, he or she have innate sexual appetites or libido which can be unfold through a number  of stages. By strongly believing that sexuality and personality are developed simultaneously, the following stages were created by Freud to represent his theory (1) Self-love  This is the first stage of the theory of psychosexual development introduced by Sigmund Freud which is described as the concentration of an individual to his or her own self that starts from infancy until reaching four to five years. Individual attitudes are formed in this stage of development such as involvement, tenderness and self-concern. This stage of development is also characterized with the constant need of a child to experience love by means of frequent physical contact with people close to him or her that highly contribute to the development of the attitudes mentioned earlier. In this sense, love can be express to a child by means of showing him or her feelings of security and comfort which will develop positive emotional attitudes. These attitudes, will, in the long run, allow the child to express and feel love and show concern for other people (2) Parental Identification  Roles on sexuality were identified in this stage which normally begins between the ages of five and six. Close relationship or contact with an adult of similar sex is vital during this stage of development according to Sigmund Freud. The adult becomes a role model for the child by means of demonstrating the proper sexual role of a man or woman in the society or thinking of a child. A number of theorists believed that the failure to recognize the task associated with this stage of psychosexual development result to homosexuality and (3) Gang  This stage of psychosexual development is easily identified throughout the elementary school years of a child wherein each sex have a tendency to avoid the other. Sigmund Freud coined this stage as the latency period because of his belief that few things occurred in the sexual life of a child at this time but they are increasingly engage in more experiments related to sex. The gang period also supports a child in terms of learning to cooperate and reinforce feminine and masculine roles (Bruess and Greenberg, 2004). These are the key concepts associated with the psychosexual development theory represented by its various stages introduced by Sigmund Freud.

Unconscious motivation is playing a crucial role in the theory of human behavior of Sigmund Freud. According to Sigmund Freud and his avid followers, majority of the behavior of humans are a result of impulses, memories and desires that are known to be repressed in the unconscious circumstances but still influence human actions. Freud highly considered the human mind as consisting of a tiny, conscious part available for direct or human observation including the larger portion of the human mind that is subconscious that is playing a more fundamental role in the determination of human behavior (Greenwood, 2008) The term known as Freudian slip is referred to as the demonstration of these unconscious impulses. For instance, an individual who replies Bad to meet you instead of the normal Glad to meet you could be revealing his or her true feelings. The replacement of the word bad for the word glad is more than a slip of the tongue as it is considered a human expression or unconscious feelings of dislike or fear (Person, Cooper and Gabbard, 2005).  In the same way, a gifted athlete who plays an unexpectedly poor showing on a game could be acting on an unconscious desire to punish inattentive parents. Unknown to the athlete, the inferior performance is actually communicating an imperative message. Freud also argued that desires and memories that are repressed are the sources of majority of mental disorders. Psychoanalysis was developed as a way of giving assistance to patients in addressing their unconscious thoughts to consciousness. The assistance will then be delivered to the patient by way of guiding the patient in altering aspects of his undesired behavior.

Some psychologists argued that a significant part of the behavior of humans is driven and stimulated motives that are unconscious. Abraham Maslow, for instance, stated that psychoanalysis has often disclosed that there should not be any connection between an eventual unconscious aim and a conscious desire. Putting this perspective differently, established motives do not always need to conform to those assumed by expert observers. For example, an individual can probably be prone to accident because of his or her unconscious desire to harm himself and not because of being unaware to safe rules. To be specific, most people who are obese are not really hungry for food but for love and attention. As such, eating is known as a defensive response to the lack of attention. Everything that is happening in the mind of an individual and every action of an individual has an identifiable and specific cause known as psychic determinism (Greenwood, 2008). Psychoanalytic theory provides no room for free will, miracles or accidents. Accordingly, all known contradictions of behavior and mind can be resolved as psychoanalysts believed that nothing is accidental (for instance, it is not accidental when an individual forget the name of someone, drop something, do things and say things). As such, psychoanalysis was introduced to be able to give meanings to the hidden causes of human actions, provide conscious understanding and find resolutions to the cause of these unconscious behaviors.

Freud utilized the method of free associations during the period of 1892 to1898, beginning from a number of criteria. The technique was to change the use of hypnosis in the investigation of neurotic antecedents in his patients.To be specific, this process relied on the idea ofpsychic determinism (Cox, 1988). According to this perspective, psychic activity is not subordinated to free choice instead all our mind generates an root that is unconscious which people can achieve by means of free associations, following the model offered by the saying all roads lead to Rome. The theory ofpsychic determinismis sufficiently debated upon in the works of Sigmund Freud entitled ThePsychopathology of Everyday Life. It is in the same place that people find a number of instances offree associationsassociated to a variety of faulty and symptomatic acts (like Freudianmistakes and slips), proving that unintentional psychic acts are determined by specific causes too. Returning tothe idea of free associations, it can be said that this technique is the main standard of the psychoanalytic therapy.

Key concepts of Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development include the theorys eight developmental stages, that psychosocial development is supported by resolving crises and the view that the development of an individuals identity is significant in his or her overall development. This theory created a structure for the purpose of understanding the usual patterns of psychosocial development. In the like manner, the theory asserted that development is evident throughout the lifespan of people. Erikson clearly established eight developmental stages to effectively describe the theory of psychosocial development that is summarized by the resolution of a crisis in a given stage to be able to move up to the next stage of the theory. During the stage of infancy or the first year of life, Erikson theorized that trust versus mistrust is the main crisis to be resolved by the individual.

Meanwhile, the second year of life or the toddler stage (2 to 3 years of age) was primarily labeled as autonomy versus shame and doubt and the preschool stage (3 to 5 years of age) as initiative versus guilt. The elementary school or childhood stage was known as the battle between competence and inferiority. As the child move to the adolescent stage, he or she face the conflict between identity and role confusion, the senses of intimacy versus isolation in the young adulthood stage, the clash between generativity and despair and finally, the sense of integrity versus despair in the senior age. According to Erik Erikson, individual strengths and virtues emerge when an individual passed the crisis associated with each stage. As a result, the psychologist was also able to offer eight fundamental virtues that he believed will arise out of emerging from the crisis related to each stage of the theory of psychosocial development and they are hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care and wisdom, in that order (Cross, 2005).

Erik Erikson was known as a psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist known for his theory on social development of human beings. He was a follower of Freudian theory but extended his particular emphasis on the ego as the main component on the functioning of an individual. The psychosocial theory pioneered by Erik Erikson had provided a significant impact on the study of the processes of development because his theory was formulated to address development across the entire life span of an individual (Greenwood, 2008). As a result, Erikson is regarded as the first life-span developmental psychologist in his time. He begun by expanding the network of factors behind human development without regressing from the primary assumptions developed by Sigmund Freud. According to him, psychological development is a result of the interaction or relationship between or among biological needs and maturational processes including the demands of the society and the social forces experienced in everyday life (Salkind, 2004).

Cognitive development theory proposed by Jean Piaget specifically stressed the significance of knowledge and how it is transforming an individuals logic, problem solving and reasoning skills. According to the theory, each organism endeavors to be able to achieve equilibrium or the balance among organized frameworks whether sensory, motor or cognitive. Consequently, disequilibrium subsist every time changes in the organism or the environment necessitates the revision of the basic structure. Jean Piaget exerted efforts for the theory of cognitive development by turning its focus on the establishment of schemes (referring to the organization or framework of action in thought) and operations (which are the mental manipulations of concepts and schemes) which are combined to generate logical and systematic structures for the comprehension and analysis of experience and on how equilibrium is realized within the operations and schemes. Achieving equilibrium is appreciated by means of process called adaptation (Newman and Newman, 2008). This process has the power of altering existing operations and schemes with the goal of accounting to changes or differences between what is known and what is being experienced by an individual. In effect, the theory of cognitive development was able to generate four stages where every stage has the distinctive capacity of sorting and interpreting information. The first stage, known as sensorimotor intelligence, begins at the time of birth of an individual and lasts until the 18 months of age. This initial stage is described by the establishment of increasingly complex motor and sensory schemes allowing an infant to exercise and organize control over his or her environment. Preoperational thought is the second stage of the theory of cognitive development stating that the child starts learning a language and ends at approximately the age of five and six (Newman and Newman, 2008). This stage is characterized by the development of the tools needed by children to represent schemes with the use of a language, imagery, imitation, symbolic drawing and symbolic play which evidently suggest that their knowledge is still dependent to the way they view the world or their perceptions. Meanwhile, the concrete operational thought or the third stage begins at around the age of 6 and 7 and ends in the early adolescence stage of a child. This phase of the theory of cognitive development is depicted by the appreciation of children of the coherent necessity of definite causal relationships with their capacity of manipulating classification systems, categories, and hierarchies in teams. Lastly, formal operational thought is the fourth and final stage of the theory stating that the level of thinking of a person allows him or her to conceptualize simultaneous and interacting variables which begin when reaching adolescence and persists through adulthood.

Three Major Points of Similarity
The three theories, psychosexual, cognitive and psychosocial development theories are stage theories that mainly address qualitative and basic changes in social orientation and self-understanding of an individual. In addition, Freud, Erikson and Piaget have similarly provided their theories with several stages to describe the emotional, social and intellectual development of a person. A major point of similarity among the theories presented by these psychologists were there focused on the overall development of an individual. Psychosexual development theory of Freud examines the conflicts that children experiences in meeting or satisfying his or her own needs and impulses. In an expanded view, the psychosocial theory of development developed by Erikson considered wide range of social demands and expectations that affect children on every point of their development including the competencies they need to meet these demands. In a wider horizon, Piaget looked at the significance of intelligence and reasoning in shaping the overall development of an individual.

Three Major Points of Difference
The major differences among the three theories can be traced on the presentation of the various stages, the biological and environmental factors, and the methods of research employed to prove the various stages of the theories. Beginning with the psychosexual development theory of Freud, it was distinguished with the discontinuity between its different stages and continuity between early experiences and later development with a greater emphasis on the significance of family experiences. Later changes in development where highlighted by the psychosocial theory of Erikson which viewed the resolution of crisis on every stage of his theory as significant to overall development. Meanwhile, the theory of cognitive development mainly stressed on adaptation and interaction wherein the environment offers the setting for cognitive frameworks to develop. Another difference among the theories was on the aspect of the importance of cognition. In both psychosocial and psychosexual theories, the significance of cognition is being emphasized but in the form of thought that is unconscious while cognition is the major determinant of behavior in the cognitive development theory of Piaget. In the area of research methods employed, both psychosexual and psychosocial development theories are utilizing clinical interviews, unstructured personality tests, and the psycho-historical analyses of lives while the theory on cognitive development relies on interviews and observations.

Interaction of the Development Theories
The three theories of development presented in this paper are similarly affecting the overall development of a child. To be specific, children are known to develop cognitively by progressing through the several developmental stages presented by Jean Piaget through the theory of cognitive development while a childs social development is intimately tied with his emotional development which is the main theme of both psychosexual and psychosocial theories of development of Freud and Erikson, respectively. In other words, the three theories interact on every stages of life of a person in a simultaneous or in a separate manner that determines his or her overall development. The interactions of these theories provide a positive environment for the child as they learn the importance of trusting their family members. Since every theory has several stages, the cognitive, emotional and physical aspects of a child are expected to develop in the long run when considering the factor of following the process of development of each phase of life of a typical human being. In particular, the theory of cognitive development itself could affect the performance of a child in school with the improvement of his or her intelligence. Likewise, the theory of psychosexual development affects the emotional and physical development of a child which can be achieve in the long term lifespan of an individual since physical improvements are expected to be generated. Finally, the psychosocial development theory provides the needed emotional maturity of an individual throughout life periods wherein the experiences faced by a person shaped overall development. These set of interactions of the mentioned theories highly influence the cognitive, physical, and emotional development of a child.

On Reaching the Full Potential of Children
Understanding normal child and adolescent development is significant in supporting children to reach their full potential. This is because of the fact that the building block of development relies on the manner of treating children at their early phase of life. As such, it is significant to assist children in their physiological, emotional and educational needs. Child and adolescent development is known to cover roughly the first eighteen years of life of a child. Throughout these years, a child is expected to grow and develop in a number of ways. As suggested by the theories involved in this paper, the development of children is in similar pattern but they also highlighted the different aspects of development that are of major importance. Two separate processes are known to give way to the successful emotional and cognitive development of a child. Emotional and cognitive behaviors and developments are related and collide with each other to process information and ideas. Therefore, the full development of children relies on the consideration of both processes which means that emotional delay could cause detrimental effects on cognitive and emotional development.

In this sense, children must be provided with an environment wherein they feel protected and safe with their ability of exploring their own actions and feelings. This environment should also be physically and cognitively inspiring that could offer unique concepts for children while maintaining their good relationships with their peers or family members. In the like manner, the environment should also allow children to let them feel an aspect of the society by means of experiencing the norms or customs. Without this key factor in their environment, they will not be able to harness their full potential and contribute to the society in the long run. As such, the expectations of the society and its standards play a huge role in a childs development that is highly related to the concepts presented by the theories of development in this paper.

Alzheimers disease is a disease named after Alois Alzheimer who first described it in 1906. It is also known as Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type or Alzheimers and is the most common form of Dementia. It is an incurable, degenerative and terminal disease and is commonly diagnosed in people of over 65 years of age, however, there are traces of its onset in much earlier ages (Wegesin  Stern, 2004, p.646).The 2006 statistics indicated that 26.6 million people suffered from this disease world. The common symptoms for this disease are thought to be age related concerns or stress manifestations. The disease is characterized by memory loss, such as difficulty in remembering recently learned facts in earlier stages and confusion, mood swings, language breakdown, irritability and aggression and general withdrawal in the advanced stages.

The causal effects for this disease are still unknown with fingers pointing to plaques and tangles in the brain. Most treatments available for this disease offer symptomatic benefit but fail to address the delay or progression of the disease. Since its incurable and degenerative, the management of patients is essential. The disease is known to place a great burden on caregivers who experience psychological, economic, social and physical pressures while taking care of sufferers of this disease. This disease is one of the most costly diseases in the developed world.

GuideAge Study Trial of EGb 761 for prevention of Alzheimers disease among the elderly with memory complaints.

The primary objective of the study was to determine the effect of EGb761 in treatment on the rate of conversion from memory complaints to Alzheimers disease using survival analysis. The main targets for this study were ambulatory patients aged 70 years who exhibited memory complaints during a GP or memory centre consultation. Those with objective memory impairment or clinically relevant symptoms of anxiety and depression were however excluded. Participants were then required to make annual visits to a memory center where a series of neuropsychological tests were conducted to assess the cognitive function and cognitive status. The functional status was evaluated with the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire (Andrieu et. al., 2008, p.406).

The study recognized that primary and secondary prevention strategies are urgently needed for Alzheimers disease as its prevalence continues to rise in industrialized countries, with statistics showing that it has currently affected over 24 million people worldwide. There is also a high burden associate with this disease. The strategies have initially proved to be effective in reducing mortality, morbidity, and health care costs. Available treatments improve cognitive symptoms and estrogen or satin related treatments are secondary prevention strategies for Alzheimers disease (Wegesin  Stern, 2004, pp.647-648).

The basic science and clinical data indicate that estrogen therapy permeates healthy neurons with a survival advantage when challenged with a neuro-toxic agent. Greater benefit would therefore be predicted if estrogen therapy is begun while neurons are still healthy and not biologically compromised (p.650). The estrogen advantage to healthy neurons provides plausible explanation for why estrogen can be beneficial in preventing neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimers (Brinton, 2004, p.419).

In addition, in the treatment of AD, randomized placebo-controlled studies have provided evidence of efficacy. The study was spread out in a five year plan, and the primary objective was to determine the effect of treatment with EGb 761 on the rate of conversion from memory complaints to dementia of Alzheimer type using survival analysis. The study design incorporated a network of physicians to recruit subjects the eligibility criteria was validated in one of 25 reference memory centers. Coordination was by the hospital reference center located in Toulouse France (Andrieu et. al., 2008, p.407).

Age, residential location of patients, average socio-cultural and education levels, and spontaneous reporting of memory complaints were the main considerations for patient eligibility. Visual acuity and presence of drusen, abnormal pigmentary epithelium and vascularisation were considered in the diagnostic criteria for age related muscular degeneration. Apolipoprotein E, a genotypic determinant for treatment response was taken from blood samples while urine samples were taken to determine isoprostan, a potential biochemical surrogate marker of outcome. Spontaneously reported adverse effects were recorded for safety evaluation purposes (p.407).

In the treatment process, subjects were randomized at the validation visit by receiving EGb 761 or a matching placebo. Blinding was ensured by identical appearance of placebo and active drug while color marking was ensured by using a brown pigment. Behavioral assessment was through the administration of neuropsychological tests for assessment of cognitive function the cognitive status was also evaluated fusing MMS and CDR Functional status was evaluated using the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire. Other assessments involved balance disturbances, assessed by determining ones ability to stand on one leg, posturography and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenia (pp.407-409).

Outcome measures entailed independent adjudication by four clinicians not connected to the study to ascertain uniform case results. Changes in CDR dementia scores and changes in performance on neuropsychological tests were considered in the secondary outcome measures.

The report described the cognitive function and disability in a population composed of 2854 patients who complained of memory problems. These patients were younger and better educated with high MMSE scores and longer durations of memory complaints. Primary care was the main context of the study. Patients who exhibited dementia, anxiety and depression symptoms were also excluded from the study so as to enrich the study sample in patients whose memory complaints were related to underlying cognitive difficulties other than emotional influences. From the screened population, over sixty percent scored 0.5 or more on the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale thus a relative degree of cognitive impairment was recognized. This therefore supported previous findings where majority of patients reported complaints in the general population thus evidence of overlap between elderly patients with subjective memory complaints and those with objective measures of cognitive impairment (p.410).

The results therefore imply that many elderly persons with cognitive impairment are undiagnosed within the community and that a pro active attitude from practitioners would help identify such people and pave way for provision of appropriate care. CDR would also be concluded as a sensitive means of detecting cognitive impairment amongst the elderly.

TheGuideAge is an important and innovative tool for prevention of AD in Europe. A recent study provided evidence of Gingko biloba extract effectiveness in preventing cognitive decline in elderly persons. To further determine the efficacy of Gingko biloba, the GuideAge study provided the required data from a large number of subjects. It would also be effective examining the evolution of cognitive function and consider risk factors as predictors of conversion from memory complaints to AD in the population.

From this analysis therefore, it can be concluded that preventive measures for AD are feasible owing to the ability to obtain data as well as initiate drug use in a large sample of the population.

Preventing Alzheimers disease fact or fiction
The prevalence is Alzheimers disease is significantly increasing in the United States. Currently, the population of those with this disease stands at 4.5 million with an estimated increase of between 11 and 16 million in the next fifty years. In addition, explosive changes in technology would result in a great challenge in reflecting the mildest forms of cognitive deficit. The amyloid plaque in the brain remains the hallmark pathology of Alzheimers disease and the amyloid cascade, provides targets for interventions. The main aim of the interventions is to reduce damage resulting from amyloid plaque burden (Grossman  Dyk., 2008, p.887).

Significant positive approaches have been made, pivotal to the identification of symptomatic treatment of Alzheimers disease and the identification of conditions associated with increased treatment risks. The success of true prevention is however considered as fictitious as there is less data to support the claim that the aforementioned risks reduce the incidences of AD. Several advantages can be drawn from focusing on the prevention of the disease first, it would expand the period of high quality of life in aging populations, a delay of onset of the disease by one year would significantly reduce its prevalence rate, and costs associated with the disease would be minimized (Grossman  Dyk, 2008, p.888).

Despite progress in the reduction of the disease, prevention strategies are still in the pipeline. Medical interventions for this disease are characterized as primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary focus on disease prevention secondary on reduction in morbidity in presymptomatic individuals and tertiary, on cure, palliation and rehabilitation. Grossman  Dyk (2008) recognize that current therapies for Alzheimers disease do exist. Tacrine was approved in 1993 by the US FDA as the first treatment for AD. The agency also introduced donepezil, rivastigime and galantamine as other treatment drugs. They further discuss that primary prevention refers to the prevention of disease in an unselected population trials to this need to enroll a large number of subjects with few exclusion criteria and infuse simple inexpensive evaluations of outcomes, with long observation and monitoring periods. The length of time for prevention trials and subjects enrolment, result into high expenses thus a permutation of the prevention trial, the add on protocol permits the evaluations of multiple domains in a single clinical trial cohort (p.900).

Both primary and secondary prevention trials require careful attention to safety. The agents selected for prevention studies are frequently referred to as neuroprotective. A term used to differentiate agents expected to reduce cognitive decline rather than relief of symptoms. Preventive mechanisms aim at reducing amyloid plaque by altering metabolisms or protecting cells from amyloid toxicity. These mechanisms are mostly proposed based on laboratory and animal studies as few markers of biological mechanisms available in humans exist. Several classes of agents with encouraging results have been tested. These are clearly discussed below.

First of all, statins, the HMG-CoA reductase are known to impact greatly on cognition, dementia and Alzheimers disease by reducing cholesterol levels in the body of humans (Sparks et. al., 2008, p.418). Secondly, tramiprosate, a 3-amino-1-propanasulfonic acid initially developed as a pharmaceutical treatment was examined in a two phased study of 58 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimers disease over three months. Patients receiving tramiprosate experienced a reduction in Alzheimers. Neurochem later reported that tramiprosate would be used as a nutraceutical. Thirdly, immunotherapy initiated by using fibrils for the development of Alzheimers vaccine was addressed in Schenks 1999 report as an option for regressing amyloid plaque. There was evidence of a patient demonstrating clearance of A trace deposits from their cortex, and a substantial microglial response. It was further concluded that displacement of A, even when embedded in plaques, is possible in humans when immunotherapeutic techniques are used.

Thirdly, is the use of enzyme inhibitors. Amyloid plaque remains a hallmark pathology for Alzheimers with the amyloid cascade providing targets for interventions to attack underlying mechanisms. Thus, interventions to reduce the amyloid plaque burden are widely proposed. Furthermore, the control of hypertension is evidence associated with reduced risk of cognitive impairment and dementia, characteristics of Alzheimers. Some studies have shown that effective control of hypertension is associated with cognitive benefit.

Hormone replacement strategies are also seen as beneficial mechanisms for the prevention of Alzheimers. There is an impression that estrogen may be beneficial in maintaining cognitive function and delaying dementia. The benefit of estrogen accrues from the fact that the hormone acts as a neurotrophin in the pyramidical cells of the CAI region which is known to degenerate in Alzheimers.Astrogen protects the hippocampal neurons thus reduces neural A generation.

Antioxidative strategies on the other hand employ the fact that oxidative stress plays a significant role in aging and Alzheimer s disease. The use of antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E is associated with the reduction of risk of dementia. Nutritional supplementation, considers that dietary and nutritional supplements have an effect on the risk of Alzheimers. From several studies conducted, the use of Ginkgo biloba, a herbal supplement indicated an improvement in cognition. Another clinical trial on Salvia officinalis was studied for its potential benefit on cognition in patients diagnosed with Alzheimers. Significant benefits were observable between the endpoint and baseline scores on cognitive measures of the treatment group compared with the placebo group (Doraiswamy, 2002, p.816).

Lastly, nonpharmacological interventions such as physical exercise are observed as options to protect the elderly from cognitive decline. A Meta analysis conducted reported benefits from physical exercise on functional performance, behavior and cognition measures in patients with cognitive impairment and dementia. The implementation of Cognitive Motor Interventions on 38 patients in one year which involved cognitive exercise, social and psychomotor activities indicated an improvement in mood and subsequent scores against a control group (Kreil et. al., 2010, p.17).

Alzheimers disease is a common health concern amongst the aged. While effective treatment is available, the prevention mechanisms are not yet well understood. Cholesterol lowering, other cardiovascular risk reduction, amyloid metabolism and antioxidant mechanisms as well as environmental enhancements have proved as plausible prevention alternatives (Doraiswamy, 2002, p.818).

Evidence-based Approaches to Preventing Alzheimers disease
Non modifiable risk factors for Alzheimers include Age this remains as the strongest risk factor for dementia, particularly for Alzheimers. The risk doubles every five years in individuals above 65 years. The risk however increases by close to 50after 85 years. Family history traces of Alzheimers in families accounts for 5 or less of cases. Hereditary or environmental factors related to families are major influences of this disease. Genetic factors early Alzheimer occurring before 65 years accounts for 6-7 of all Alzheimers.13 of these clearly exhibit autosomal dominant transmission over more than one generation.30-70 of mutations are in presenilin-1 gene, 10-15 are in the amyloid precursor protein gene, and less than 5 are in the presenilin-2 gene (Bassil  Grossberg, 2009, p.30).

Modifiable risk factors on the other hand include cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, alcohol, depression, metabolic syndrome, smoking among others (Bassil  Grossberg, 2009, p.31). From studies conducted, the intake of statins indicated a reduction in dementia (Sparks, 2008, p.419). Other possible helpful agents to prevent Alzheimers include Antioxidant vitamins, the brains of Alzheimers patients contain lesions typically associated with free radical exposure as well as elevated levels of endogenous antioxidants. Antioxidants reduce the toxicity of A in brain studies of Alzheimer patients. This therefore laid a basis for the assessment of the role of antioxidants such as vitamins E and C and curcumin for the prevention of Alzheimer s. Curcumin has anti-inflammatory, anti- amyloid and antioxidant properties and is equally a promising agent in the prevention of Alzheimers from the ascertained data (Bassil  Grossberg, 2009, p.32).

Fish and Omega-3 fatty acids. Studies have shown that intake of saturated fat, total fat and total cholesterol increase the risk of dementia. Reduced level of Omega 3 fatty acids has been linked to increased risk of dementia thus high fish consumption would reverse the trend in risks related to dementia and cognitive decline (p.33).

Results form a community based study involving nondementaited individuals indicated that adherence to a traditional Mediterranean diet was associated with significant reduction in the risk of incidents related to Alzheimers disease. Fruits and vegetables are also associated with improved cognitive performance in elderly persons. Fruits are especially linked to reduction in dementia. Some studies have however associated high consumption of vegetables with reduction in cognitive decline (p.34).

Data on alcohol use and cognitive function in the elderly draws mixed results.
The complexity in these results is brought about by the dosage and type of alcohol taken. The moderate consumption of wine is associated with reduced risk of dementia and Alzheimers disease. On the other hand, high consumption of alcohol which results in alcoholism may lead to cognitive decline (p.34). A randomized controlled trial recently showed that moderate amounts of alcohol may delay age- associated cognitive decline. Others include caffeine intake, hormone therapy, NonSteroid Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) therapy and homocysteine (Ho et. al., 2008, pp.86-88).

From this information it can be concluded that, dementia is the result of a set of underlying pathological processes, some which are preventable. Genetic factors, age and family history are disclosed as the major non-modified risk factors while modified risk factors range from alcoholism, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus to depression. All this contribute to the development of Alzheimers and plausible preventive solutions are therefore obtained from these problems. In addition, genetic vulnerability is seen to modify most of the risks associated with Alzheimers. Although there is insufficient evidence to cement primary prevention recommendations on dementia, physicians may advocate taking actions such as lowering cholesterol, blood pressure and homocysteine levels and controlling diabetes.

Three components of lifestyle, that is, social, mental and physical are associated with a magnificent reduction in the risk of dementia, and Alzheimers disease. Population based longitudinal studies have supported the hypothesis that social, cognitive and physical activity are inversely associated with the risk of dementia, Alzheimers disease and cognitive impairment. Physical exercise has been thought to enhance brain neurtotrophic factors and modify apoptosis. Dementia is lowered by preserving muscles mass as well as preventing falls and consequent head trauma (Kreil et. al., 2010,pp.18-19).
Evidence further shows that exercise can preserve optimal cardiovascular function, improve regional cerebral blood flow and deter stroke and micro vascular disease. NSAID therapy involves the treatment of Alzheimers with anti-inflammatory agents which slow the progression of dementia and inhibit its onset. NSAIDs portray increased possibilities of lowering levels of amyloidogenic A42 protein (Bassil  Grossberg, 2009, p.35).

From the above information, it is worth noting that Alzheimer s disease can be prevented using both pharmacological and non-pharmacological alternatives. The integration of dietary options and physical exercise may also be efficient in achieving the preventive goal of Alzheimers disease.