Psychology

Social bias has been with us for many years now and the vice seems far from over. Even with legislations entrenched in our constitution criminalizing the negative aspects of social bias, the discrimination has persisted. The subtle biases have prevailed in spite of criminalizing negative social biases. The most fascinating aspect of the issue is that subtle biases appear to be unconscious and involuntary. Nevertheless, we have to work extra hard to remove the vice in our society whether in its subtle or blatant form.

Social bias is not a new concept. Human societies have historically been characterized with indifferent treatment of others. The projected hatred towards other people is what is referred to as social bias. In some instances, the hatred can be overwhelming that it may culminate into violence towards the victims of the social bias. Social bias result in a divided society since the society becomes differentiated based on particular criteria that may include race, economic status, religion, ethnic background, and gender among other criteria. Social, bias may stem from prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination of any kind. This paper will offer a critical analysis of the concept of social bias and how it affects the society in general.

Definition of terms
Social bias involves several concepts that include prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination and for a comprehensive understanding of the issue there is need for a clear definition of these terms. Though the three concepts appear to go hand in hand, each can be explained independent from one another. Prejudice can be defined as those negative or hostile attitudes that an individual may be having towards a particular group on the basis of generalized derivatives from a partial source of information. Prejudice thus leads to a negative prejudgment regarding a particular group or its members. Thus prejudice not only incorporates opinions and beliefs, but also consists of attitudes including the feelings of detest, disrespect and hatred (Grobman, 1990).

Stereotypes are the generalizations made in regard to the typical characteristics of a particular group or its members. Stereotypes are usually contained in the minds as they are described as mental products of reality which results in generalizations in regard to a particular group andor its members.

The stereotypical generalizations can be positive or negative but in most cases they are found to be negative. The human society is known to develop stereotypes especially when they are either reluctant or not able to access all the information needed for making a fair judgment about given situations or individuals. Due to the lack of comprehensive information, stereotypes usually aids in filling the blanks. The society more often than not is engaged in the creation and perpetuation of stereotypes without knowing the repercussions and these stereotypes later leads us into biased discrimination and persecution especially the negative stereotypes (Grobman, 1990).

Discrimination on the other hand involves the aspect of placing a particular group and its members at a disadvantaged position and exposing the members of the group to unfair treatment due to their identity. Discrimination occurs when we provide judgments based on our prejudices and stereotypes hence subjecting the victims to different treatment. Discrimination can be split in two categories including personal and institutional discrimination. Personal discrimination is the type of discrimination that refers to discriminatory actions that are committed by at individual levels whereas the institutional discrimination involves those discriminatory activities that are carried out by particular different institutions and organizations. Institutional discrimination may take the form of discriminatory policies or practices (Plous, 2010).

Categories of Biases
Biases can generally be categorized into two main classes of subtle and blatant biases. The subtle bias has been described as a new concept in bias and involves self enhancing techniques. It is oftenly referred to as cool and indirect biases. In these kinds of biases, individuals do not openly declare their biasness. Subtle biases usually underlie the contemporary discrimination where by individuals are more tolerant and comfortable with ones own group as opposed to the out-group. To the out-group, individuals of the inner group are usually exclusive and avoid mixing with the other group. These biases are said to originate from the prevailing internal conflicts between the cultural ideals and biasness. Subtle biases are usually considered as automatic, unconscious, and often unintentional. They are usually underground and may lead to exclusions (Fiske, 2002).

On the other hand the blatant biases are usually the most pronounced overt discriminatory activities which are more often than not conscious, direct and unambiguous. They are usually associated with extremists and originate from the perception that there is an inter-group conflict in regard to economics and values in a hierarchical and dangerous world. Blatant biases are usually associated with violence and the extremists may pose a great danger to those they hate. The extremists usually perceive their in-group to be under eminent threat as opposed to the moderates with the differences exemplified in the nature and measure of the perceived threat (Fiske, 2002).

Impact of bias on the lives of individuals
The impacts of social bias are tremendous since the concept denies the individual a fair opportunity to actualize and enjoy the full resources as provided by the society. Incidences of discrimination are known to negatively impact on the self esteem of the individual. This has emotional repercussions and the individual will have low self esteem and would be emotionally dumb. Institutional bias may result in denial of essential services including insurance policy covers, access to quality education, and the general access to the social amenities provided by the society. At the work place, social biases may result in unnecessary harassments of the victims for instance most gay and lesbian employees are usually harassed based on their sexual orientation as depicted by Raymond Zhou in reporting to China Daily. In his report, Zhou presented a case of Gu Du who was a victim of extortion and harassment after revealing that he was a homosexual (Zhou, 2005). The victims of social bias are usually exposed to unfair treatment and this could go as far as eliciting violence towards the victims. This was the case with slaves in the United States and the Nazi concentration camps during the World War where the Jews were persecuted as the Nazis thought of themselves as a super race. Genocide is regarded as the ultimate expression of hatred against a particular group. This is usually the case with the blatant kind of bias where the extremists can turn violent towards their victims (Grobman, 1990).

Overcoming social biases
There are several strategies that can be employed in overcoming social biases which include but not limited to education and legislation. Education seems to be the most effective way of handling social biases. Direct confrontation may not help and therefore there is need for the public to be educated on the effects of social bias and the importance of social integration. Since social biases as a concept has to do with beliefs and perceptions of a particular group towards another, education is destined to succeed albeit at a slow pace considering that a shift in someones values and beliefs usually takes time. Nevertheless, with time the public will have to change the previously held negative attitudes towards the other group and integration will be inevitable (Fiske, 2002).

The other way of dealing with social biases is by implementing legislations that would criminalize discriminatory acts in what is seen as a more direct confrontational approach. In this regard, all the negative prejudices, stereotypes, and discriminatory activities should be criminalized and thus subject to being punished by law. This serves better to address the problem of blatant biases where the extremists may take advantage of lack of legislation to advance their violent and discriminatory actions. Legislation will also ensure that there are fair opportunities for all people irrespective of their racial, religious, ethnic, economic, and political background. With legislation, the need to be fair and not biased in itself to serve the interests of a particular group as the case of the infamous Jim Crow laws in the South during the 1960s (Plous, 2010).

Conclusion
Social bias has traversed our society in such a manner that children grow up with the socialization that the society is structured. The young children then grow up feeling that they are different and unique as opposed to others. These stereotypes and prejudices are then nurtured to old age and may be regarded as involuntary. Social bias has persistently posed a great challenge to the modern day human society. The vice that reached its peak in the 20th century has followed us into the 21st century. As human beings and having witnessed and learnt about how devastating the effects of social bias can be there is need to tackle the problem with all the seriousness that it deserves. Social biasness has led to great loss of human life and inhuman treatment of fellow human beings and has been responsible for the discrimination that has continued to characterize human civilization.

Many research studies explore the role of motivation in the management substance abuse - a worldwide social problem, and prove that motivation for treatment is a core variable for a drug addicted persons engagement in the treatment programs.

Motivation is a predictor of participation in the treatment, responsiveness to treatment, treatment completion as well as positive outcomes among treated individuals and needs to be the primary focus during treatment interventions (Conner, Longshore,  Anglin, 2009 Davey-Rothwell, Frydl,  Latkin, 2009 DiClemente, Bellino,  Neavins, 1999 Joe, Simpson,  Broome, 1998 Knight, Hiller, Broome,  Simpson, 2000 Longshore,  Teruya, 2006 Prendergast, Greenwell, Farabee,  Hser, 2009).

Findings from numerous studies indicate that highly motivated individuals are more likely than low motivated ones to be actively involved in treatment, to undergo the entire prescribed course of treatment, and to have better outcomes (De Leon  Jainchill, 1986 Prendergast et al., 2009).  Low motivated individuals were more likely to drop out of treatment early (De Leon  Jainchill, 1986).

Prendergast et al. (2009) cites the works of Simpson, Joe, and Rowan-Szal, who reported that among patients in community treatment programs, those with high motivation for change at the moment of treatment admission (measured as desire for help) were nearly twice as likely to have positive outcomes for substance use as those with low motivation.

Results from other study, which explored effectiveness of the Californias Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act (SACPA) program showed that motivation is related to severity of drug use, and was weak, but important predictor of program completion however motivation did not prove to be significant predictor of post-treatment relapse (Prendergast et al., 2009).

Purpose of the literature research is to review published clinical studies exploring the motivation as a construct and treatment readiness as a particular motivational dimension in  the treatment engagement in individuals with substance abuse potential predicting factors for treatment retention as well as interventions that can reinforce and enhance the motivation will be reviewed.

Literature review will serve as a theoretical framework for the study, which has to test the motivation in order to make a prediction of the therapeutic engagement in Drug Treatments Programs in Greece.
Readiness for treatment as a Predictor of Therapeutic Engagement in Drug Treatment

Literature Review
Motivation is seen by DiClemente et al. (1999) as a dynamic, changing and changeable process, as a state of readiness to change, and it is significant predictor of participation in the treatment.  More and more patients are identified through screening programs and directed for early interventions or court-ordered treatment interventions, and these individual are usually ambivalent and unmotivated, as DiClemente et al. state, the earlier the intervention occurs, the less is the motivation.  Authors emphasize that is not the same to be motivated for treatment and to be motivated for change, as it is important  to be motivated to change the behaviour and not only participate in treatment of one or another substance abuse.  Thus motivation is a part of the change process, through which individuals are moving either with treatment of through self-change.

Currently, identification and early intervention programs become more proactive and the attempts to interfere effectively with problems of substance abuse in primary care settings, court diversion programs, prison intervention programs, and more usual inpatient and outpatient treatment programs must focus and pay more attention to individuals motivation (Carroll et al., 2009 Conner, Longshore,  Anglin, 2009 DiClemente et al., 1999 Falck et al., 2007 Hiller et al., 2002 Williams et al., 2006).
Internal motivation for the drug treatment has three dimensions as identified by Simpson and Joe (cited in Conner et al., 2009).  They are recognition of drug problem, desire for help, and treatment readiness.  It is argued that internal motivation is usually influenced by other factors, such as social factors, pressure from family members, loved ones, and the criminal justice system that can guide someone to start drug treatment, thus results and outcomes should be seen as a complex interplay of all factors (Conner et al., 2009 Falck et al., 2007 Gyarmathy  Latkin, 2008 Ryan, Plant,  OMalley, 1995).

Motivation is considered to be part of the process of change, and it can be influenced but not totally coerced (DiClemente et al., 1999).

Perceived need for treatment as one of the motivation dimensions is basic in the explanation of treatment use, as it is believed that treatment success depends on the willingness of those  receiving help to desire that help (Conner et al., 2009 Edlund, Unutzer,  Curran, 2006 Falck et al., 2007).

According to survey results, only one third of people who need treatment are participating in treatment programs (Gyarmathy  Latkin, 2008), and only 37 of individuals with alcohol, drug and mental disorders perceive the need for treatment (Edlund et al., 2006).

Conceptually, perceived need for substance abuse treatment is a complex embracing drug problem recognition, the desire for professional help, and a belief in problem solution (Falck et al., 2007).  For adults with dependency and drug abuse disorders, seeing a need for treatment may well be the necessary first step in the help-seeking process (Falck et al., 2007 Kertesz et al., 2006).  Individuals perceiving a need for treatment are more likely to enter treatment than those who do not.  Some existing evidence also suggests that perceiving a need for treatment is a predictive factor of staying in treatment as well as achieving better outcomes (Falck et al., 2007 Kertesz et al., 2006).

Knowing which factors are associated with perceived need for treatment can provide more understanding on who seeks substance abuse treatment and why.

In the multi-site, cross-sectional study Falk et al. (2007) explored perceived treatment need among non-incarcerated, not-in-treatment drug users in rural settings as well as the influence of various socio-demographic characteristics, social and legal issues, self-reported state of health, and recent drug use practices on perceived treatment need.

Results showed that 26.5 of participants reported a need for drug abuse treatment. It was also found that previous substance abuse treatment experience was significantly associated with perceived need for treatment.  Results of this study also suggest that individuals, who have participated in treatment program were more likely to have found it enough helpful to see the need in trying it again, despite of their return to substance abuse.

Impaired family and social relationships as well as legal issues are recognized indicators of drug abuse, but on the other hand, research also suggests that problems in these areas are frequently predictive of treatment entry (Falck et al., 2007).  From the practical perspective, authors suggest that quick screening of health status could be helpful to identify people who already perceive treatment need and then guide them towards possible treatment.

Entry into program for the alcohol or other substance abuse treatment is believed to be related to personal factors, such as severity of alcohol abuse symptoms, family and friend influence, previous treatment experience, and negative social consequence caused by alcohol abuse (Davey-Rothwell et al., 2009).  Treatment-seeking and avoiding drug users, is also associated with entry into substance abuse treatment.

Readiness for treatment as a dimension of motivation has been confirmed to be an important factor in predicting treatment retention, participation, and engagement (Joe et al., 1998 Davey-Rothwell et al., 2009 Longshore  Terya, 2006 Knight et al., 2000).

Treatment readiness has had different definitions it has been defined as the degree of commitment to reduce consumption of alcohol or other substances through participation in treatment (Joe et al., 1998) and it has been defined by as individuals perception of treatment need in order to change the behavior (De Leon, Melnick,  Kressel, 1997).

Davey-Rothwell et al. (2009) suggest looking at readiness for treatment as at a multidimensional system, which can be assessed through behavioral actions.  One of such core behavioural factor is the strategies that individuals use to control their substance abuse practice.  Such strategies include choosing alternative activities to drug use, avoiding alcohol andor drugs, creating closer relationship with people who do not use alcohol or drugs.

Findings from longitudinal study where Davey-Rothwell et al. (2009) explored the relationship between behaviors done to control substance abuse and treatment entry supported that avoiding people and places for drug consumption and reducing frequency and amount of drug used may be a successful strategy for the treatment entry.  Researchers also found that each additional activity performed to control drug use increased the likelihood of entering into treatment program by 10, thus took a person closer to the readiness for treatment.

Findings from the third national drug abuse treatment outcome study (DATOS), proved that motivation in general and readiness for treatment in particular were the significant factors predicting treatment engagement and retention and they were more important than socio-demographic and drug usage factors (Jo et al., 1998).

Longshore and Teruya (2006) suggest that readiness for the treatment should be considered together with resistance (skepticism with regards to the benefits of treatment).  As show the research findings, readiness for treatment predicted treatment retention during the 6-month period and resistance predicted drug use, especially in the cases when the treatment referral was coercive.

Both the dimentions and extent of the individuals motivation for behavior change are significantly potential moderators of participation in the treatment and success in the recovery process (DiClemente et al., 1999).

Motivation, as a cor element in the treatment and recovery, influences individuals move and progression through the stages of change- from addmiting and thinking about change, to take the decision to change, to leading to the planned action into sustained recovery (DiClemente et al., 1999).  Dimensions of motivation, especially readiness for treatment can be explored and better understood using models of behavioral change.

Multiple models of behavioural change were previously developed (Conner et al., 2009).  The Transtheoretical Model developed by Procaska and DiClemente (1983) is currently the most prominent and widely used model as it unifies many concepts of the previous models of behavioral change (Conner et al., 2009 Duvall et al., 2009 Prendergast et al., 2009 Williams et al., 2006 Withelaw, Baldwin, Bunton,  Flynn, 2000).

The Transtheoretical Model outlines behavior change through three core systems Stages, Levels, and Processes of Change (Conner et al., 2009 Prendergast et al., 2009 Withelaw et al., 2000).

The first major systems of the Transtheoretical Model, the Stages of Change represent transitory, motivational and developmental sides (features) of progressively greater commitment to change (motivation) (Conner et al., 2009 Prendergast et al., 2009 Prochaska, DiClemente,  Norcross, 1992).
As further described by Conner et al. (2009), there are five stages relevant to alcohol and drug abuse 1) pre-contemplation stage when the individual does not yet recognize problem arising from drug use and is not thinking about change 2) contemplation stage when the individual recognizes problems arising from drug use and is considering change but remains ambivalent  3) preparation stage when  the individual plans upcoming change of behaviour 4) action when the individual takes an action, thus change the behavior (e.g., stops using drugs or enters drug treatment) and 5) maintenance stage when the individual works on relapse prevention and  consolidation of the steps taken earlier.
The second major systems of the Transtheoretical Model, the Levels of Change, is a framework for identification of important problem areas that individuals are facing while attempting to start behaviour change (Conner et al., 2009 Prochaska et al., 1992).

Following are the levels of change that are believed to be involved in commencement and cessation of behavior change in alcohol use and substance abuse SymptomaticSituational, Maladaptive, Interpersonal Conflicts, Family Systems Conflicts, and Intrapersonal.

The levels help to identify the amount and gravity of problems. The problems can appear at any level or at several levels. The purpose of the levels with regards to the change process is to identify issues that may interfere with an individuals ability to move through the stages of change to the Maintenance Stage (Conner et al., 2009).

The third major system of the Transtheoretical Model, the Processes of Change helps moving and progressing through the stages of change (Conner et al., 2009).  There are defined four types of processes of change cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and environmental.

The two processes of change - Consciousness Raising (is a cognitive process of getting information regarding the problem) and Dramatic Relief (emotional response to problem recognition), are prominent when individual is moving from pre-contemplation to contemplation stages (Conner et al., 2009 Withelaw et al., 2000). Stages  preparation and action are considered function of behavioral and environmental processes of change.

Research in understanding what motivates individuals to seek treatment and to change the behavior more often explores internal factors however external reasons are interrelated with the internal reasons and both are important in seeking treatment, treatment readiness and success (Conner et al., 2009 Ryan et al., 1995).

Conner et al. (2009) explored the relationship between external pressure and internal motivation for change with regards to dramatic relief, which is the component of process of change.  Results from the study using structural equation modelling on data from 465 drug users who were entering the treatment showed that internal motivation together with external pressure positively and predicted dramatic relief, which further significantly predicted attitudes towards drug treatment dramatic relief is high when external pressure and internal motivation are high, and this interrelation results in positive attitude toward drug treatment.

The findings from this study signify that, along with internal motivation, external pressure can also be effective for motivating change, but this pressure must become internalized.  Dramatic relief is often experienced when those with drug dependence are seeking treatment and are recognizing the association between the drug use, the caused problems, and the concerns that people around them expressed.  It is thought necessary to identify and implement processes that support dramatic relief (Conner et al., 2009).

Dramatic relief is an emotional dimension of process of change, which urge individuals to admit their addictive behaviour and it impact on themselves and relatives and dramatic relieve is believed to be one of the processes that takes individuals with drug abuse and dependence disorders from the pre-contemplation stage to the contemplation stage (Conner et al., 2009).

Existing research evidence prove that motivational interviewing, grieving losses, psychodrama and role playing as well as facilitated group discussions among drug users are the intervention promoting Dramatic Relief (Conner et al., 2009 Prochaska et al., 1992).

Several other studies also explore treatment readiness from the perspective of the behavioural change of Transtheoretical Model (Duvall et al., 2009, Rapp et al., 2007 Williams et al., 2006).

Exploring the treatment readiness of pre-treatment population Rapp et al. (2007) found that both factors - desire for change and treatment reluctance - were important in the readiness process.  Further, Rapp et al. argue that  staff may assist individuals become ready to start treatment program by professional interacting with them during assessment period and  can facilitated the process not by directly promoting treatment- as desire for help, but by guiding person to identify personal reasons for change.

It is important to emphasize behavioural change rather than the need for help, at least for those individual who are low motivated (Rapp et al., 2007).  Friendly and supportive relationship may help individuals to overcome barriers interfering with treatment readiness.

Duval et al. (2009) studied the specificity of rural population of substance abuses with regards to readiness to change based on Transtheoretical Model.  Findings from the research suggest that increasing intentions to change were effective in reducing frequency of drug use and other drug abuse related behaviors for rural substance abusers.

The effect and focus of brief counseling in the primary care setting for patients, who were found positive after screening for alcohol misuse depend on patients receptivity and the presence of denial or readiness (Dijkstra, De Vries,  Roijackers, 1999 Williams et al., 2006).

In the study performed in the primary care setting with 6419 participants, readiness for change was measured using a brief questionnaire this questionnaire later was analysed based on the algorithm  and categorized patients who misuse alcohol into pre-contemplation, contemplation, or action groups according to the transtheoretical model.  Findings showed that 75 of the patients expressed some readiness to change and authors argue that such sample questionnaire can be used at the primary setting and may help better tailor brief counseling to patients stage of readiness (Williams et al., 2006).

The importance of motivation and readiness for treatment and readiness for change is leading research in finding out predictors of the motivation as well as possible ways to enhance and maintain individuals motivation and readiness.  Finding from several studies support effectiveness of brief motivational interventions, such as motivational interviewing (MI) in increasing participation in treatment programs in substance abusing population (Bertholet, Horton,  Saitz, 2009 Carroll et al., 2009 Stein et al., 2009 Winhusen et al., 2008).

In primary care brief intervention is recommended and clinicians are encouraged to assess motivation and readiness to change (Bertholet et al., 2009). Changes in readiness are presented as short term goals towards decreased consumption.  Bertholet et al. (2009) explored the change in readiness, importance and confidence with regards to changing drinking pattern after a single primary care physician visit and improvements in these dimensions and drinking pattern 6 months later. After the visit, significant increase in readiness, importance, and confidence was observed most patients with alcohol misuse improved 6 months after a brief intervention during primary care visit, expressed as a change of behavioral dimensions or drinking patterns (Bertholet et al., 2009).

The effect on motivation of brief motivational interviewing (BMI) and motivational interviewing were explored in clinical studies by Stein et al. (2009) and Carroll et al. (2009).

Results from earlier published studies evaluating MI impact on drug-using populations have shown that MI is more effective than no treatment however Caroll et al. (2009) argue that several well-structured and conducted studies evaluating MI with comparatively large samples of drug-using individuals have presented few significant differences between MI and standard care.

Results from randomised clinical trial by Caroll et al. evaluating MI effectiveness were similar 1) although overall treatment retention was comparatively high, participants from MI group were significantly more likely to still be enrolled in the program one month after randomization 2) regarding outcomes of substance use, overall significant decrease in frequency of substance use observed, but no significant differences by intervention condition. There were however some indications that it was most effective in enhancing retention for those, who stated that alcohol was their primary substance used.  Authors suggest that more future research is needed to determine the efficacy of MI in the patient groups with multiple substance use.

Among the predictors of pre-treatment readiness to change drinking pattern is a history of self-reported experience of negative consequences related to alcohol misuse this supports the thinking that there must be at least minimal  recognition of alcohol consequences present in order to achieve sustained effect after BMI (Stein et al., 2009).

Stein et al. (2009) found interesting outcomes that BMI is helpful for those, who are already highly motivated and two sessions of BMI are effective and helps research sustainable motivation to change.
Additionally, Stein et al. concluded that  patients, who received MI were more likely to create a plan for change  for reducing negative consequences from alcohol misuse and those, who received two sessions of MI were more likely to complete a quality change plan than were those, who received only one MI session, and those with a quality change plan were more likely to remain highly motivated to reduce consequences of alcohol misuse through at least 3 months and 12 months following the intervention.

Wide range of existing empirically supported treatment interventions for individuals with substance abuse challenges health care providers as they need to select the best available technology  and they should be effective and innovative (Brown, 2000 Herbeck, Hser,  Teruya, 2008).   As Herbeck et al. (2008) argue, majority of innovative and evidence-based substance abuse interventions have been shown to be clinically effective, they are not always widely used. Health care providers are the main and critical partners in the diffusion of innovative practices, and they can influence the practice and delivered care (Sullivan et al., 2005).  Better understanding effectiveness and use of new intervention positively implicates the extent at which the intervention is used thus can contribute to better patient outcomes (Herbeck et al., 2008).

Study performed by Herbeck et al. (2008) examined health care provider attitudes towards the effectiveness of empirically supported and innovative treatment interventions, and the extent, at which these interventions were used in relation to training and information resources about the program.  Results showed that majority of respondents (5580) reported using such programs as Supportive Expressive Psychotherapy, Motivational Enhancement Therapy, and Community Reinforcement Approach.  However, about half of the health care providers were not aware of the effectiveness of several pharmacological substances used in the treatment programs.  Knowing the providers perspective and training resources are helpful in enhancement of empirically supported interventions (Herbeck et al. (2008).

Recent studies have also explored cognitive indicators of treatment engagement by focusing on the individuals expressions of their commitment to treatment and change and progress during the treatment period (Broome, Knight, Hiller,  Simpson, 1996).  Further, Hiler et al. (2002) cited the published works from the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Studies (DATOS) by Simpson and Curry (cited in Hiler et al., 2002) of the community substance abuse treatment, where findings suggested that treatment motivation is associated with psychological measures of engagement in the treatment and higher motivation was associated with improved perceptions of personal progress and with stronger intentions to continue the treatment.

Hiler et al. (2002) found similar outcomes in their study investigating motivation and engagement in treatment in a correction-based community.  Higher personal involvement in the treatment program resulted in stronger feeling of psychological safety participating in the program.

The teams of substance abuse treatment system devote considerable resources into assessing substance abusers and directing them towards treatment.  However, due to existing barriers the rates of treatment entry following assessment are found to be very low (Rapp et al., 2006).

Several studies evaluated barriers that individuals with substance abuse indicate as challenges for the treatment engagement (Rapp et al., 2006 Redko, Rapp,  Carlson, 2006).  The waiting period, including being on a waiting list that is generated by the treatment program is often recorded among the most usual barriers for individuals seeking treatment (Appel, Ellison, Jansky,  Oldak, 2004).  The longer substance users have to wait to be assigned to treatment, the more likely they will not be following through the treatment program (Hser, Maglione, Polinsky,  Anglin, 1998 Redko et al., 2006).  Results from the qualitative study showed that 53.8 of the participants stressed that waiting time was important barrier in the treatment engagement (Redko et al., 2006).

The barriers faced at the treatment entry are believed to be a part of the lifestyle of majority of substance abusers, as well as the system of substance abuse treatment (Rapp et al., 20006).

It is important to identify, assess and evaluate existing barriers in each particular case. Rapp et al. (2006) suggest to use BTI (Barriers to Treatment Inventory) instrument can be used by assessment staff and substance abusers and help to find out existing barriers at a treatment entry.  Instrument comprises seven BTI factors that represent the three areas of Andersens model of health care utilization 1) Absence of Problem (representing situational need) 2) Negative Social Support, Fear of Treatment, and Privacy Concerns (representing inhibiting) and 3) Time Conflict, Poor Treatment Availability, and Admission Difficulty (representing system).

The above findings regarding treatment engagement and the reported barriers for the treatment correlate with the results from the study exploring the early treatment exits.  In the study using mixed-method, Stevens, Radcliffe, Sanders, and Hunt (2008) examined phenomenon of early exit from drug treatment and aimed to estimate early exit rates, to identify those individuals who are most likely to exit early from the treatment program, to investigate the possible causes.

Study results showed that over two-thirds of the drop out is occurring between assessment and treatment entry (Stevens et al., 2008).  Number of drug users from the study themselves attributed their disengagement to their own lack of motivation.  Lack of motivation as a reason for drop-out was supported as some drug users involved in criminal justice may be being referred when they have showed no willingness and need to enter the treatment program and thus contributed to high drop-out rate just after assessment (Stevens et al., 2008).

Researchers also state that  motivation may be viewed as a mutual process or as a result of the interplay between the service and the person, thus such factors as waiting times, prolonged assessment process, and  cancelled appointments can negatively influence and decrease persons motivation (Stevens et al., 2008).  Attrition was observed at each stage of process in the service- between referral and assessment, assessment and treatment and within the first month of treatment.  Stevens et al. (2008) suggested that staff of the treatment services need to find ways to improve contact with the drug users and ensure that this contact last as long as possible in order to achieve better treatment outcomes.

Knight et al. (2000) argue that patients are less likely to early discontinue treatment in residential drug treatment programs when they are either internally motivated - have a high level of treatment readiness, or externally pressured by the legal system to enter, participate, and remain in treatment.  Research results showed that even relationship between treatment readiness and external pressure were not statistically significant, that patients possessing higher levels of treatment readiness at the entry stayed in treatment at least 90 days, regardless of legal pressure.  The patients under legal pressure remained in treatment longer, regardless of treatment readiness.  Knight et al. conclude that motivational readiness for treatment was associated with greatest improvements in retention compared to legal pressure, and as legal pressure, was related to indicators of treatment engagement.
Treatment completion and retention rate in 2005 was reported to be only 44 in public funded programs and 36 in outpatient settings (Laudet, Stanick,  Sands, 2009).

Several studies examined the potential strategies to improve retention in treatment program and improvement in health and psychosocial outcomes (Hellemann, Conner, Anglin,  Longshore, 2009).
Hawkins et al. (cited in Laudet et al., 2009) argue that growing base of empirical knowledge regarding treatment attrition showed small impact on retention in services for individuals with addiction.  Prediction of retention were explored focusing on patient characteristics, treatment processes, client-counsellor alliance, as well as clients rating of personal satisfaction with the received services (Joe, Broome, Rowan-Szal,  Simpson, 2002 Hellemann et al., 2009 Laudet et al., 2009).  However, retention is a complex process and there is no single factor that may alone be considered as predictor of treatment retention (Hellemann et al., 2009).

Laudet et al., 2009 explored the reasons, for which the patients from outpatient setting were leaving the treatment and what factors would have kept them engaged in the treatment program.  Reasons for treatment exit were patient-related and service-related dislike of the program, substance abuse during treatment, interference with other activities, practical considerations, having no desire for help, personal issues, finance resources and not seeing the services helpful. Among the 33 of individuals who left the treatment and who admitted that something could have been done differently to retain them in services, unmet needs in social services were mentioned most (54.2) followed by willingness to see more supportive staff and greater flexibility in activity schedule (Laudet et al., 2009).

Problem recognition and substance use are two main patient-related barriers to retention problem recognition is crucial to desire for help.  In this study, 12 of patients who left the treatment reported that they were not willing or needing help and two thirds of the drop-outs reported that nothing could have been done differently to retain them in services. Authors point out that even it was not precisely defined the extent at which patient had not recognized the need for help compared to other obstacles, but it is likely to be significant.
 
Other question is the understanding of recovery (Laudet, 2007 Laudet et al., 2009) abstinence should be seen as a recovery however it patients accept it as the last resort when they have tried other strategies.

Findings show that motivation and especially treatment readiness dimension is important in retention. Laudet et al. (2009) argue that majority of patients know at the beginning if they are ready or not for the treatment, thus initial period of the program is very important to find out and assess the reasons for help seeking, experience with the treatment, and to overcome barriers to retention.  As it sis also suggested by Stein et al. (2009), it is necessary to assess patients motivation before entering the treatment.

There are several instruments for the assessment and evaluation of motivation by assessing stages of change (Prendergast et al., 2009).  These include the Recovery Attitude and Treatment Evaluator (RAATE), the Readiness to Change Questionnaire (RTCQ), the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment (URICA), the Texas Christian University motivation scales, and the Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES).

Texas Christian University motivation scales (TCU) will be used in the study.

Conclusions
In conclusion, findings from literature review support the importance of motivation and treatment readiness as motivational dimension for the treatment engagement and positive treatment outcomes in the individuals with substance abuse.

It is believed that motivation, as a cor element in the treatment and recovery, influences individuals move and progression through the stages of change- from thinking and admitting change, to taking the decision to change, leading to the planned action into sustained recovery (DiClemente et al., 1999).

The treatment readiness was reviewed from the perspective of behavioral change based on stages of change according to Trastheoretical Model.

Low individuals motivation is also one of barriers for treatment entry and retention.

Brief motivational interventions, such as motivational interviewing (MI) are effective in enhancement of motivation and increasing participation in treatment programs in substance abusing population.

The paper seeks to examine and discuss what has rapidly become the next media darling The Mozart Effect. The term paper will examine various theories, researches and ideas associated with the topic in the hope of digesting the nature of the Mozart effect. Though the effects of music on emotional arousal and to some degree memory are documented through recent researches, the idea that music directly increases intelligence is an interesting concept. If true, it would herald an entirely new chapter in academic research and curriculum setting. However, the term paper will examine both views of the argument for and against the reality of the Mozart effect. This is necessary to ensure that curriculums are not haphazardly made in light of the media attention the topic commands. The paper will outline the scientific research on the topic, discuss a notable author who specializes in this topic and then offer views against the topic. By the end of this term paper, we seek to provide a constructive conclusion to the study at hand.

Introduction
The last decade of the 21st century has often been heralded as the decade of the brain and rightly so. After years of research, scientists are now able to mark with pinpoint accuracy the areas of the brain which are exerted during learning exercises. Researchers and scientists can now deduce which aspects of social learning benefit intelligence and higher brain functions based on stimulation of various brain areas. Technological advancements such as the Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI) machines and other such advances have heralded a new age in which researchers are now studying the brain in amazing detail.

Bent on increasing intelligence capabilities and learning theories, scientists have now come upon a new development the Mozart Effect. Increasingly, more researchers are trying to determine whether music plays any role in the process of learning and development of the child till adulthood. The Mozart effect claims that listening to or learning to play music, especially that of Mozart, effects intelligence functions of the brain. Various researchers have come to the conclusion that music can actually provide a bridge between the two hemispheres of the brain resulting in higher learning capabilities.

For centuries, music has been under study by humans both in the form of pleasure speaking, and most recently, as documented research. The past has taught researchers that music and dance were the initial forms of communications for humans. This argument is further augmented by the fact that researchers have now found evidence that 23rd of the inner ears cilia resonate at frequencies that are commonly found within music (3,000-20,000Hz). Even ancient mathematicians such as Pythagoras felt that song, tone and numbers was what the universe was made of.  900 BC, it was David who played the harp cure Sauls derangement. Recent studies have even come upon the fact that Egyptian doctors would use chanting to heal the sick in ancient times.

Science and Mozart
Before underlying the Mozart effect in detail, the relation between science and music must be examined. Recent studies have concluded that music and biological science do have a strong correlation. The basic of the hypothesis is whether music affects intelligence or not.

Neurological effects
Recent studies have shown that listening to music directly affects the cortical firing patterns in the brain. Spatial intelligence is directly controlled through these firing patterns. An increase in spatial intelligence increases the general intelligence level of a child or adult. Thus, not only making them a smarter learner, but more analytical in nature.

Many researchers have build upon this theory. They have highlighted that any external influence or learning environment that requires processing in the mind either flows to the right or left hemispheres of the brain, depending on the nature of that information. Music is processed in the right hemisphere of the brain. As with earlier theories, this augmented the argument that music effected spatial intelligence since the right side of the brain deals with spatial cogitation. At the same time, the same hemisphere performs long term sequencing operations, both effecting spatial intelligence.

Further light was shed on the topic using the cycle of brain waves. Brain wave patterns and onset of sleep, both determined by the central nervous system occur in cycles of approximately 30 seconds. The link that John Hughes made was subjective but relevant none the less. According to him, music compositions that are made in cycles of 20-30 seconds can have an effect on cognitive abilities. Because of the link between the two patterns, brain activity can actually be stimulated through a resonance factor. This case is particularly true for Mozart, since all of his compositions follow the 20-30 cycles.  Hughes tested this theory on a series of epileptic patients who suffered from extreme seizures. The purpose of his study was to find whether brain functions that resulted in seizures could be effected through the use of music, particularly that of Mozart. Using 36 subjects, he found that 29 showed significant signs of improvement when listening to Mozart as compared to other musical compositions which did not follow the 20-30 cycles. The patients not only suffered from less seizures but the intensity of the seizures was also dramatically reduced.

When measuring spatial intelligence, an area directly affected by music, Julene Johnson from the University of Californias institute of Brain Aging and Dementia concluded that Mozart compositions actually helped Alzheimer patients score higher on Stanford-Binet Intelligence scales. The paper folding portion was highlighted as the main area of difference where the patients exhibited increased intelligence. Since this portion measures spatial intelligence and these patients score 3 to 4 points higher as compared to when they listened to other music or in silence, she concluded that Mozart compositions do have an effect on brain functions, especially those of spatial intelligence.

Other neurologists such as Gordon Shaw and Mark Bodner used MRI machines to trace images of the brain where functionality was significantly altered due to Mozart compositions. Their research showed that music, on the whole, has an effect on the brain. Without doubt, the basic listening processes the brain controls are activated when sound is heard. Namely - the auditory cortex. At the same time, music affected the emotional component of the brain which deals with the processing of emotions. However, one startling revelation that came out through this study was that of the results of Mozart compositions. Subjects showed a distinct alteration and activity in areas related to motor coordination, vision and higher thought processes. Since all these factors are linked with spatial intelligence, they concluded that Mozart compositions did affect spatial reasoning and intelligence.

However, some scientists belittle the theory claiming that it is more about emotional arousing and moods rather than neuroscience. According to Christopher Chabris, Mozart compositions excite our emotions and arouse the brain, but at no point does it create new neuron firing patterns or models of higher intelligence.

Psychological Links
Another domain which has realized some linkages between music and intelligence is that of psychological factors. Various theories have been formulated in respect to this domain to distinguish whether music has an effect on intelligence or not.

One of the most prominent theories was formulated by Nantais and Schellenber. They explained that the Mozart effect was in reality the same as the effects of priming. Priming is generally associated with implicit memory. Therefore, the effect of one stimulus is represented in the response to the next stimuli. Therefore, these researchers held that passive listening to Mozart can affect spatial intelligence. Though the theory is not well documented, based on modalities and previous research, this researcher claimed that the Mozart effect did actually exist.

Another researcher from the University of Fribourg (Switzerland), Maria Spychinger, augmented the theory through her work. Having worked on her theory, she claimed that children who were offered additional music courses and decreased language and math courses did better at reading and language retention. At the same time, they did equally good on math as did students who were not offered the extra music oriented courses.  She discussed a new domain in the music-learning theory in which she claimed that it is important to consider the similarities between music and learning itself to understand the transfer. For instance, when discussing the significance of music listening, research has shown that listening to music and carefully assessing the change in pitch and tone helps in developing the ability to pronounce words, especially new ones, in the English language.

Sensory stimulation
The theory or sensory stimulation has a role to play in the link between listening to music and increased intelligence. The basics of the theory underline that stimulation increases brain function in different arenas, thus the explanation of increased test scores after a session of listening to music.

The theory of sensory stimulation highlights that music increases the synapses present during brain cells. This helps increase the brain function by increasing the level of efficient conduits. However, for this theory to hold true it is important to consider which stage of human development this happens. According to research, the pathways made for efficient conduits of the synapses in the brain function happen at an early age of development, during childhood. Thus, the effects, if any, that are visible, are visible to those who have been listening to music since a very early age. However, increasingly new research is showing that the brain can actually create new pathways for neural transmission even after childhood, leaving a window open for more linkages to be developed between higher learning and music listening.

Other researchers such as Robert Dolman, who is also the founder of the National Academy for Child Development claimed that with time, if the brain is not stimulated through the 5 senses, there is a considerable drop in intelligence, IQ and memory. Even personality can become affected due to this deprivation.  Thus listening to music, a form of aural stimulation, particularly Mozart, can increase brain function and stimulation depending on the degree of the listening activity. Karen Allen, associate director of psychological research at the University of Buffalo came to a conclusion that many surgeons actually use music in the background to help them concentrate. Studies have shown that they work more effectively and efficiently when performing their task with music in the background.

Child development and Mozart
Campbell wrote a book relating to the subject matter at hand, discussing the various stages of child growth an infant goes through and how music can play a role in developing a young brain. In his book, The Mozart effect for Children, Campbell outlines how music can help awaken a childs inner creativity, intelligence and mind. The basic theme of the book, highly publicized by the media is based upon the communal and neurotic development of a child during his or her early years of development starting from the age of 2 till the age of 10.

Campbell has used a variety of sources to highlight his point. The press has paid due attention to this work of his, given his reputation as a strong musician and educator. According to him, it is not just Mozart who can influence intelligence in the development of a child. He refers to various other composers and music forms such as jazz and samba which can do just about the same. According to him, Mozarts La Bataille incites the imagination of the child in an early age, thus allowing him or her to develop stories. Similarly, German Dance 2 can help in developing physical movement.
Campbell highlights various stages of development in the formation of a well rounded adult. This starts from pre birth, and then varies in line according to the following ranges
Birth through 6 months
6-18 months
18 months to 3 years
3-4 years
4-6 years
6-8 years
8-10 years

The book highlights different techniques that can be used by parents and adults to groom their children into well rounded, intelligent adults. According to him, she follows the sensory school of thought and claims that during the early years of child development, sensory pathways are being formed in the brain. Stimulation of these neural pathways is very important and has a different effect depending on the stage the child is in.

Though Campbell highlights different methodologies during each stage, during the age of 3 to 4 years, he explains the important of the use of musical instruments in the development of children. According to him, children who are given lessons in musical training and instrument playing actually improve motor skills, eye hand coordination and language.  He claims that during this stage, children are perfecting these skills automatically. Music simply provides a platform through which these skills are learnt not only faster, but better. It also helps children to understand social settings better, grasp academic concepts far more quickly and thus be more effective and efficient learners. He then goes on to cite various researches that have proven that attention deficit hyperactivity disorders can be treated with the use of music.  

He uses social setting and social influence to highlight the effects of music on the whole family. Mentioning the role of parents in the development of their children, studies have shown that more family involvement in the development of a child help in developing a well rounded adult. Using this research, he offers perspectives on how music brings the whole family together.  The presence of an adult in the childhood shaping process can play a wonderful role in the holistic development of a child. Not only does it give a chance for parents to connect with their children, but gives the music lessons another meaning all together.

Finally, Campbell states that music is important to childhood development because of the underlying effects it has on the emotions, body and mind of the individual in question. The auditory development of the brain not only enables us to communicate better but helps in developing speech, movement and expression techniques. A healthy relaxed body and soul makes learning easier and thus intelligence directly increases. He cites examples of studies he conducted in the Guggenheim education project through which his team was able to improve spellings of young adults drastically through the use of music and movement.

The myth of Mozart
The basis of the Mozart effect taking place has often been placed on the theory by Irvin who concluded the undergraduate students improved all three areas of spatial intelligence after listening to Mozart. However, there are certain quarters in science that highly disapprove of those findings.
Shaw identified that the only increase in performance was that related to paper folding and cutting.  The study conducted through the Stanford-Binet test was only one third of a general I.Q test, which measures various factors and not just spatial reasoning. Therefore, one can conclude that the test results were exaggerated by a factor of three.

The methodology was also criticized as Campbell identified that the experiment was shattered with a lack of controls. According to him, the lack of indulgence in food intake, listening skills and time of day that modified their listening abilities was not kept into check by the study.

Other researchers claimed that there was no evidential proof claiming that it was Mozarts compositions that changed anything. For one, it could simple be a change in mood that reflected on their tests, and not necessarily a change in their intelligence.  They cite researchers made on one of Stephen Kings novels which had an effect on students spatial reasoning. However, this was only true for those who enjoyed Stephen King novels.

However, the most significant blow to the Irvine experiment has been its lack of validity. The experiment has not been reproduced by other researchers. This one blow has caused the most damage to the theory that Mozart has an effect on intelligence. The Appalachian State University carried out an experiment in response to the cited above experiment. Using a sample size of 125 people, they could not find any evidence that showed reliability in their experiment to that of the Irvin experiment. Kenneth Steele spearheaded the project and bought conclusive evidence dismissing the Mozart Effect. Therefore, because of this fundamental nature of validity, the research holds no key perspective in the field of music increasing intelligence capabilities. The German Research ministry categorically dismissed reports of music holding intellectual ability increasing properties by publishing a scientific literature on the issue. They categorically stated that though listening to Mozart might be emotionally stimulating and arousing, it does not in any way effect human intelligence.

Similarly, the media has often blown the issue out of proportion. Extreme attention to this topic has heralded interest and propaganda which has in like turned this into a sense of magic.

Other researchers point out that the Mozart effect cannot really improve spatial intelligence, especially without practice.  If anything, the Mozart effect provides brief emotional arousal which in turn helps improve spatial-temporal skills for a brief moment of time. if anything, Bridget and Cuevas (2000) concluded that students they had studied, after ten minutes of exposure to Mozart and Bach, as compared to in silent situations, there was no effect what so ever on mathematical problem solving abilities. Thus, based on their research, if there is a Mozart effect, it does not apply to all fields of academia.

Conclusion
Given the debate has aroused such media attention it is necessary to carefully assess the evidence at hand. Media attention has no doubt enhanced the acceptability of the Mozart effect with Governor Zell Miller of Georgia actually requesting 105,000 dollars so that resources relating to classical music could be provided to each of Georgias new born. Often, even Einstein is bought into the picture. According to sources, Einstein would often resort to Mozart when conflicted with an entangling problem. According to him, music and reasoning intellect were born of the same source.

Music has been used by some psychologists to assist autistic students and to try to bring them out from their isolation. Often many psychologists attempt to use music as a source of connection. The therapist uses the piano whereas the autistic child is given drums and both use non verbal communication to interact with each other. Some therapist have even concluded that music is so important in reaching out to those with language problems that the brain has been structured in such a way that its organic connections are symphonic in nature, rather than mechanistic as assumed by most.

However, research in other aspects of the field and by prominent scientists has different views. The conflicting studies have still left room for discussion on the topic. To conclude that the Mozart effect exists or does not exist is still too young a topic for ending research all too soon. Whether the Mozart effect directly influences intelligence is challengeable but there is no doubt that music especially that of Mozart helps in learning abilities. Even so, academia should not hold this as the final word of the study. More research should be conducted before inducting music curriculum in line with all academic subjects into childhood curriculums in schools and colleges.

The definition of the Social Learning Theory is that people learn by observation of others. This means that when you watch someone you are learning their mannerisms and movements. We also see this when we observe animals such as primates, they often copy what they see humans doing.

There have been many experiments to observe learning. One of these experiments was Banduras Bobo doll experiment. They took children and placed them into two different groups. Group A watched a video of adults beating the Bobo doll with a mallet, whereas Group B watched the adults being nice to the Bobo doll. When the put the children in the room with the doll the children from Group A beat the doll just as the adults had, but the children from Group B played nicely with it. This helped Bandura with his thoughts that Behavior Theories were too simple. He believed that a persons behavior and environment determine each other.

Many people believed that you just learned an action by observing it and that it was Monkey see, Monkey do. This was not the case, around 1990 some researchers found from implanting electrodes in a monkeys brain. When the monkey observed the scientist grasping objects or even drinking the brain waves lit up in the same area that activated when the monkey performed the action, they decided it was the cause of mirror neurons.

Mirror neurons are what cause a person to react when they see someone else react, such as when a person is injured having pain in the same area, or becoming nauseous when you see someone get sick. Scientists are also looking into mirror neurons to see if they can find out more about empathy, autism, schizophrenia, language development, and to help stroke victims relearn certain things. Research shows also that mirror neurons help us decode body language and facial expressions.

Classical conditioning is best known because of Ivan Pavlov and his experiments with dogs. It is learning a behavior through the process of association between an environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimuli. An example would be if you are taking a shower and you hear a specific noise then immediately the water gets cold, the next time you hear the noise you will react thinking the water will go cold again. Operant Conditioning is a learned behavior caused positive or negative reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement is usually a reward of some kind and negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant object or situation, both of which cause the behavior to increase. Punishment is the presentation of something unpleasant or the removal of something pleasant in order to decrease a certain behavior.

Both types of conditioning are part of the behaviorism movement whereas social learning theory is part of the cognitive movement they are almost the exact opposite in beliefs. Behaviorists believe that your environment determines your behavior, but in cognitive psychology they believe that both the environment and the behavior determine each other.

We can also look to the brain to find out what is going on during learning, by using implants on monkeys they discovered mirror neurons, with EEGs we can see brain waves during different actions and using an MRI we can see thought processes. Scientists have also discovered that neurotransmitters play a part in learning as well, the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine he been linked to learning and memory. They have also discovered that a problem with Acetylcholine function is possibly linked to Alzheimers.

One essential aspect that shapes the capacity of practitioners to actively fulfill their roles and functions revolve around their ability to utilize available information and apply it in their corresponding practice. The essential element in supplementing this objective corresponds into continuous learning and research. Seeing this, the practice of both the scholar-practitioner model and the practitioner-scholar model coincides with such objective. Though these two ideas may diverge in their application and meaning, it provides the stimulus in recognizing the value of integrating new perspectives within the discipline and promotes growth within the specific profession.

In addressing this issue accordingly, it is crucial to highlight their relevance and meaning and how it corresponds to my profession accordingly. It can be seen that a scholar reflects the drive towards achieving inquiry. Knowledge acquisition and development are the key areas it tries to pursue to meet the demands of the workplace or any given responsibility (UFS, 2003). On the other hand, a practitioner is someone who carries out specific tasks and goals according to the mandated responsibilities associated with the profession. Here, the main component shaping individuals is their expertise in relating their knowledge and skills to the given position that they are practicing.

Relating these ideas with the concept of a scholar-practitioner, it can be argued that the term defines an individual who strives for knowledge acquisition and implements these within hisher area of expertise. This then becomes the essential aspect of practice as the person bridges the theoretical principles and relates it with a corresponding responsibility (Holloway, 1994). This then becomes significant in portraying competency and adaptability with the changes happening in the work environment and become keen in investigating patterns that influence these trends, behaviors, and connections altogether.

On the other hand a practitioner-scholar is different from a scholar-practitioner in the way it tries to base its drive towards knowledge acquisition. Here, these two paths diverge since a practitioner scholar considers the role of hisher particular responsibility as gauge on what types of output are necessary to be applied. This then illustrates establishing the common observable patterns within the current environment and tries to associate these with new and current literature (Mitchell and Greenwood, 2003). Such capacity then becomes valuable as change becomes manifested with the adjustments made by the practitioner in order to supplement avenues for change. Thus, a practitioner-scholar is more focused on life-long learning and culmination of personal capacity and identity.

Applying the principle of a practitioner-scholar with my current abilities as a professional, I deem that its practice remains essential in recognizing greater opportunities on my part in the future. Allowing new inputs to be introduced that is related with my profession can induce not only adaptability of the changing trends in the workforce but also nurture the motivation in sustaining continued involvement. Likewise, I see this model as a supplementary component that induces greater appreciation and learning of what I currently have. By incorporating the experiences and ideas acquired, I can fully utilize and maximize my profession and transcend towards others in a different manner.

Seeing this, I do believe that having a mindset of a practitioner-model hones my identity and provides expansion of current abilities. Here, I am not just stuck with what I currently know, but rather become open to new dynamics and challenges that can equally cultivate my purpose in life and how I react to my peers and corresponding responsibilities. In the end, the practitioner-model can create and induce favorable opportunities towards my growth and continued development.

The Torn and Restored Card Trick is a perennially popular trick because it is appears more akin to real magic as opposed to a slight of hand. Of course, it is achieved through a slight of hand and learning how to perform this legendary trick brings forth a sense of wonderment in those that perform it, watch it, and learn it. However, this is a card trick that can be difficult to master. As such, it becomes a delicate trick to teach when you are working with someone that might become frustrated easily.

For my teaching experience, I decided to work with my long time friend John. John is definitely a good hearted person and willing to give anything a try. However, he can also seek to one up others if he feels his self-esteem is threatened. More often than not, his occasional mild outbursts at slights are based more on perception than reality. So, I needed to be delicate with such a personality type hoping to make John feel he is doing things properly even though his skill development may take time. In other words, I stressed to John that it would be unlikely to learn the trick in one session and consistent practice would be necessary. This made the session a great deal easier since it psychologically defused any potential problems with egoism if John felt threatened he could not do something I could not do. No, this is not to say John is an outright histrionic or narcissistic personality. However, he does seem to have certain issues with authority figures at times and realizing this must be weighed into teaching him something.

The way I prepared the lesson plan was reviewing the steps and repeatedly practicing the card trick over and over until I felt comfortable with it. I did not script any dialogue for the lesson plan because from my own experience, instructors who are scripted appear insincere. This often leads to a negative response in an audience that may resent being taught at as opposed to being taught. Additionally, since this was a one-on-one lesson with someone I knew, I felt that the best attitude to take was one that was stayed mostly informal and did not deviate from how we would react in our everyday experiences.

An instructor needs to be adept at a card trick when trying to teach it. The reason is that if you do not perform the card trick effectively yourself, you undermine the other persons confidence in you. It would be a normal human response to feel agitated towards an instructor lacks the ability to effectively perform the task. Subconsciously, many people will think their time is being wasted and that can snowball into indifference towards the person that is teaching the material. If the instructor continues to make mistakes, the attitude on the part of the other person can become resentful.
To a certain degree, there are those that display negative and antagonistic sentiments towards a faulty instructor because they feel let down by a person in a leadership position. All people have expectations of those in authority figure positions. Of course, everyone at some point in their life will be disappointed by an authority figure that does not deliver on expectations. As such, when you falter in your authority position, misplaced anger may be directed at you. This was something I was quite concerned with. This is why I took the most basic steps I could to prevent such a scenario from occurring.

Namely, I picked a very simple magic trick. The easier the trick, the easier it is to learn and teach. I did not want to fall into the trap of trying to use the teaching position as a way of impressing others. This would be a proverbial fools errand because most people will not be impressed by those clearly trying to hard to overly impress others. Such a ploy does not work and it would be an aberration of the teaching process.

There were not all that many structural problems in terms of being able to present the trick. Rather than having to take the difficult steps of resolving a problem, it was better to simply state from the outset I am new to this myself so please forgive me if I make a mistake. Johns response to me was Dont worry about it. This defused a lot of problems from the outset in case any problems occurred. It also establishes an equal parity among the two of us which would (hopefully) eliminate any potential tension if the lesson turned sour in any manner.

The criterion applied to the lesson plan was that success would be achieved if John could remember all the steps of the trick and perform the trick successfully at least once in our session. He did not have to be smooth with his performance. This would violate the prime tenant of the lesson which was to learn the basics of the trick and then perfect it with the right effort. Being too demanding of Johns performance and expecting him to get it right in one session simply would not be a realistic goal. John also has a tendency to be short tempered when frustrated (This ties into potential feeling so low self-esteem that might exist under the surface) so I did not want the lesson plan to frustrate him any more than what would be considered normal in teaching such skills.

One of the things I did not take into consideration when selecting this trick is that precision and attention to detail is of paramount importance. Considering Johns personality type can be delicate since he becomes agitated easily when corrected makes this trick a delicate one to present. Again, the way to circumvent this is to promote the notion that no one gets this trick right off the bat. Its takes practice so he should not be concerned with any initial difficulties.

The errors John made centered on lack of attention and perception of detail. This is not really to be unexpected because there are a number of steps to this particular trick that require proper precision. So, when he would forget steps, I would mention the steps he missed. At first, he was fine with this. At the third point, his responses become somewhat snarky. Again, ego issues weigh their head so I simply accepted the response with the hopes that he would not become frustrated with his performance. When students are overly sensitive to criticism, the instructor needs to realize that there may be underlying issues contributing to such a response. Rather than agitate them it is best to take a more calming and passive attitude while also remaining assertive.

After performing the tricks several times during the session (roughly a half hour), John clearly remembered all the steps. It would seem that by not bruising his ego with excessive criticism, it become much easier to get him to enjoy learning the card trick. He seemed to wish to prove he could do it to which allowed him to play to his own ego. Again, there is a slight narcissism and histrionic personality issue under the surface here. His ability to prove himself seemed self-satisfying to him. Dealing with such individuals requires a non-patriarchal approach or else the lesson will devolve into something less than positive. That would clearly undermine the entire purpose of the lesson. As such, it is critical to employ the most effective approach possible to effectively instruct the subject.

In terms of Johns increase in performance skill after one week had passed, I called him and asked him how he was doing with the trick. The answer I received was somewhat flippant and led me to believe he had lost interest. Perhaps card tricks are not all that appealing to him. Regardless, the process was a fun learning experience and provided an excellent laboratory for experiential learning and dealing with those that may be a little egocentric and defensive in their learning phases.

Overall, I found the entire process to be quite enjoyable and provided an excellent amount of experiential learning. Rather than remaining focused on teaching the various steps of the task at hand, the process centered instead on reading and gauging my friends reactions. This allowed me to learn how to pay attention to the nuances of human behavior so as how to effectively instruct someone that might not necessarily be the most willing or enthused student. As a result, I have developed a greater insight into the psychological components of education and dealing the somewhat self-centered student.

People differ from animals when it comes to their relationship with food. Both need food for survival. Animals, depending on their size, can consume more than or less than a persons consumption. Animals also differ in their manner of devouring food. But more important for this paper is their difference in their outlook on food. Both people and animals have a concept of what their food really is. Food to animals is just a necessity of life they eat to gain energy so they may be able to power other instinctive behaviour such as defending themselves from other animals, or caring for their offspring. Unlike animals, people have more reasons why they see food as a necessity other than to gain energy to power their other behaviours. For people, the fulfilment of food satisfies one need so they may work on a need that is beyond their need for survival.

There are several theories on why man behaves the way he does. Psychology being a broad science in itself studies why and how he behaves. Where some, if not most all, would find their answers in past experiences, the theory of Maslow is not like any of them. Maslows theory of Hierarchy of Needs is more humanistic than behavioural or cognitive in its aspect. His theory covered one aspect of psychology wherein he focused on the question of WHY but, his answers were not based on experiences but more on the concept of a NEED. To Maslow, most behaviours were based on aggregation of needs and urges. This could spark a lot of criticism since the mind and how it works can be caused by many factors. However, it was Maslow who viewed human behaviour in a positive way. His theory portrays human beings holistically with numerous opportunities for growth. He believed that there were abundant ways to grow in this world unlike that of animals who have only one goal to survive.

For people, there are different aspects of growth. Maslow was able to describe most of them in his theory of needs. Other than survival, people need social, emotional and actualization growth. They feel the need to feel fulfilled more than satisfying their physiological needs.

Before going any further, the concept of need should be defined to set an operational definition of the term. Need in a general view is a necessity that arises from a certain situation or experience. It can vary from each situation which results to a whole range of definition for Need it could be psychological or physiological among any others. For Maslow, a need comes in a hierarchical pattern. People have needs that are often unsatisfied which are needed to satisfy other needs. His theory consequently studied the motivational factor in the fulfilment of other needs. The term hierarchical in his theory is important as it explains the need for other needs to be fulfilled before others can be satisfied (Maslow, 1954).

From his book Theory of Human Motivation (Maslow, 1954), Maslows theory presents itself in a diagram of a pyramid. Each need is arranged according to pre-potency. The manifestation of one need presents itself more pre-potent than the other (Maslow, 1943). The first presents the lowest or the most basic necessity which is the survival needs and was referred to by Maslow as physiological needs. Upon fulfilment of need, a person is capable of fulfilling his needs to feel secured. This need allows him to feel protected from threats and physical harm. Other than the need for sustenance, one wants to feel free from threat to be able to focus on other needs. Satisfaction of safety needs include the necessity to live in a secure area, to have medical assurance of living a healthy life and also the need to be financially stable and which consequently leads to the need for job security. The need for love and belongingness follows after as people are social beings by nature. It is from mans social needs that he can satisfy his need for esteem, knowledge and aesthetics. Before eventually satisfying the need of self-actualization, man should be able to have fulfilled his need for recognition and self-respect among many others. Otherwise, he will feel tension and uneasiness which will blind him from focusing on other needs. Needless to say, one drive cannot be isolated from the other. The dissatisfaction of need leads to the dissatisfaction of the other needs as a result.

Motivation, a concept that Maslow has developed in this theory, is the driving force of any human behaviour (Maslow, 1954). A mans need to satisfy a need one after the other is a motivational factor alone. Yet, this only explains one aspect of behaviour. Why is it that even when man has satisfied one need there is a need to fulfil another How is growth needs different from deficiency needs First and foremost, both are driven by motivation. While the motivation stops when the deficiency need has been satisfied, motivation for growth will not. Going back to what was earlier said man has numerous opportunities for growth. After satisfying the most basic need, man can go on to satisfy his need for others. He is presented with numerous needs to satisfy security from being anxious. Furthermore, because man is a wanting animal growth can be considered as a need. The last step in the hierarchy of needs is the self-actualization and its attainment looks harder than it sounds. Most people live their life in attaining this need and only a few are said to have attained this and mostly these are the renowned figures of the world such as Albert Einstein. This is why people are constantly struggling for growth. We need growth. The term growth can be seen as the journey towards the fulfilment of each need which likewise, due to the complexity of self-actualization, is a life-long one.

The problem that usually arises when in mans struggle to satisfy ones need is that since all needs are interconnected with one another, most often than not, when one need is felt as unfulfilled, the others but not all are dissatisfied as well.

For example, a man who has a high paying job and has become, eventually, financially stable will spend more time in fulfilling his other needs such as love for others or his self-esteem. If in any case, unfortunately, that he loses his job, his need for financially stability will become unsatisfied once more and his motivation will be redirected to satisfying that need other than his need for esteem.

The need for something is really a need. It has been highly acceptable and still being used by people across the world in explaining an aspect of human behaviour. There have been no refutations on the concept of need since it is very apparent in everyones daily lives. It can explain how each human being have the same set of goals but differ in their manner of attaining them. Likewise, it explains why a mere sensation of hunger motivates us to satisfy our need for food. It is normally easy to know what a need is simply because it is normally felt on a daily basis but it is hard to explain since it shows a very broad definition.

We need need as if we were programmed that way. All living things, be it a plant or an animal have needs to survive. However, for people, other needs can be classified on top of the basic necessities. We feel the need to grow because we are indulged with the capacity to think. Any action of man is supported by the motivation to satisfy one or more needs although, motivation does not necessarily cover all aspects of a human behaviour. For example, there could be several reasons why a prisoner might have a killed another man. It could have been because of self- defense which in this case satisfy the need to be secured from threats. It also could have been his need for love. His mindset could have been killing someone else so that the attention of the person he loves would be reverted back to him. This satisfies the need for belongingness. There is always a need that motivates every action. If there is no need for need then what can motivate someone to behave or act on anything If there had not been any need for the man to protect himself or to feel loved, what could be the reason behind his action

Similarly, if every action has a need as its motivational framework, there was a reason to go the university. There could be several reasons but is supported by a different need as well. My reasons for coming to the university are on the basis of growth. I have come to know that having an education, which a university can provide me, is a need to eventually satisfy my need for job security. With a good education, it will increase my chances of landing on a good paying job and if Im lucky, I would get one that would satisfy my esteem needs as well.

My coming to study at a university after high school was motivated by a growth need which is a step closer to self actualization, but is supported by many deficiency needs as well. It is has been proven that I can satisfy my need for a secured job even when I do not go into college. However, my motivation to increase my chances for growth and to be recognized with respect is the driving force for entering a university. Beyond that, my motivation to learn and to satisfy other needs is also an aspect to be considered why my action could be considered a growth need. I entered a university to learn with unwavering motivation.

For others, entering a university could only be a deficiency need. It could be for the reason of fulfilling the need to satisfy to recognize the wishes of their parents. In this case, it can be considered as a deficiency need for esteem. After this fulfilment of need by entering college, he continues to satisfy his other needs such as finding belongingness in others.

Every action is supported by a fulfilment of a need. Every need is driven by motivation. Furthermore, all human beings are driven to grow towards their conception of self-actualization which as a result is growth.

Recall of Previously Unrecallable Information following a Shift in Perspective by Richard C. Anderson and James W. Pichert

Summary of the Study
At the turn of the century, it has been realized that important elements of information are more likely to be learned and remembered than the unimportant elements. In recent studies, it has been seen that there is an increase in precise formulations on the importance of notion in terms of schemata, propositional analysis schemes, and text grammars. These systems produce descriptions of the structure of the content of a text, but do not identify the important effects of the mechanisms.

In the two experiments that were conducted, the variables to be investigated were elements of recall (how information is retained in memory and were measured) by education major students in Experiment I and in Experiment II, sixteen undergraduates enrolled in an educational psychology class who participated to meet a course requirement. The variables were manipulated in such a way that in Experiment II, the students were assigned rolesperspectives of a burglar or a homebuyer and roles were also interchanged.

It was found out that there is hierarchy in the subschemata of text and that the significant text elements are the ones that are instantly in its higher order. So in this order, Schema theory is saying that the primacy is glossed immediately in the recall of relevant information. Attention-directing hypothesis identifies relevant elements. Attention is directed to these elements even more than to the less important when this happens, they are the ones more likely to be absorbed or learned. Another possibility on the encoding side is called, ideational scaffolding hypothesis, which explains that the information is stored because there is a space for it or can be referred to as niche. Depending on the readers motivation, there may be choice slots for unimportant elements. We therefore, turn to the possibility that says schemata leads to retrieval of information instead of, information storage. There are speculations by investigators that a schema could be providing a retrieval plan. Information that are not connected to the schema can not be accessed. So that the categories of information stored at the latter will not be taken out. The memory searches from the general knowledge that is attached in the schema to a specific information kept when the text was read. Another possibility is output editing, which would require the person to terminate searching from his memory when a certain criterion is met. And finally, the inferential reconstruction which supposes that the learner was attempting to recall a story and trying to reconstruct through important elements. An example stated was a story in the restaurant, trying to recall the beverage that went with the entre.

Implications
It must be recognized that schemata plays an important role in encoding elements. It must also be noted that importations show inferences created when a line was read. After discriminating texts and elaborations, he will be repressing the latter. The discrimination becomes difficult as time passes, which results to more importations. After a retention interval, the appearance of unimportant elements drops dramatically.

This study of memory is intricately connected not only with the processes of perception themselves but the categories and schema that are already existing in the minds of the people. Thus it can be said that our assessment of reality as retrieved from our perceptions and our memories cannot be separated from our interpretations of reality. Memory is actually subject to the inner landscape of our minds which actually determine what is important and what is not in our interpretations of reality.

Another important implication is that this proves that all kinds of perception are actually selective perception depending on what the schemas inside our heads deem as important elements that must be retained.

Thus if we were to change our mindsets, then our whole memory of an event would have to reorder and probably emphasize those elements that were previously deemed as unimportant. This capacity also implies that our memory can actually retain much of the whole reality but only choose to retrieve those that are important in a persons subjectivity and modes of interpretation.

Assessment
My assessment of this study is that our encounter with reality is only as good in as far as our interpretations of reality can take us. Our perceptions of reality depends on our mindsets. Our memory of reality also depends on our interpretations of reality. In short, the interconnections of perception, memory, and psychological interpretations create reality for ourselves. No matter how we try to understand reality, reality is still always larger than our interpretations of reality. Reality is always larger than life itself.

Another area that I would like to raise is that following a shift in perspective, the other seemingly irretrievable elements of reality that came from our memory, will now become available for us. This raises the question, is our memory able to retain things even if at the moment we do not choose to retain them in our selective perception

The aim of this paper is to post a reply on the two paragraphs that were written by another person whose identity is not known to the writer. The two paragraphs of concern in this paper are both untitled but are connected by the idea of expressing criticisms on the manner by which scientists arrive at their conclusions with the assumption that these conclusions are made not solely in accordance to empirical research but also in the cultural influences and personal motives of the scientists. The first paragraph is hinged on the notion that despite the scientific nature of research investigation, scientists are still human beings who are capable, and are allowed by their humane limitations, to change their beliefs regarding scientific theories whenever certain portions of his or her supported theory are questioned by other scientists. The second paragraph, on the other hand, talked about the idea that scientists tend to disprove existing theories because they are driven by their desire to compete for the recognition of being the first one to discover specific findings. Upon reading these concepts, I had the perception that the writer of these paragraphs is a pessimistic, traditional, very judgmental, and very skeptical kind of person. This is because of the fact that this person was able to give negative remarks about the manner by which scientists are able to formulate theories and laws without considering the numerous contributions that these people has given our modern world today. The writer of the two paragraphs appears to be a person who gives overstretched analysis of the unconfirmed negative nature of a situation but has failed to recognize the positive side of the issue.

Although it is true that scientists, despite their great knowledge and academic achievements, are still restrained by their human limitations, it is not proper to say that they are the kind of people who will insist to acknowledge a false claim just because they are the author of the said false idea. In line with the statement of Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, when he said that the importance of the scientists in the development of Britains economy, healthcare, industry and overall progress of the nation should never be undermined for they are the substrate that will dictate the future status of their country in the years to come (Webb, 2006), we too should also learn to value and recognize the importance of our scientists. Hence, I completely disagree with the concepts laid in the two paragraphs because I believe that scientists are able to come out with their theories after the completion of critically and empirically executed scientific experiments and other investigations, findings which are designed to benefit the humankind provided that man will not abuse the usage of these discoveries.