Psychology

Certain feelings have been known to raise some uneasiness amongst caregivers when dealing with their clients. This is an area that has been overlooked by researchers and has therefore not been able to be addressed in graduate training programs in many parts of the world. This article explores to expose the existence of these feelings amongst therapists and what they say about them. The feelings that will be looked at include feelings of anger, hate, fear, and being sexually attracted to clients.

Summary of the Article
Winnicott has elaborated that therapists have always had some hatred anger feelings towards some patients. He says that denial that there exist no such feelings would only lead to therapy which will only serve the needs of the therapist as opposed to the needs of the patient. Subsequent works have shown that anger and hatred feelings have always emerged between therapists and clients especially those related to certain issues as child sexual abuse, HIV and AIDS, ethnicity, among other issues. The therapists in most instances may live in denial of existence of such feelings and this may result increased tensions and feelings of guilt. Some of these feelings can be understandable as some patients may even challenge the integrity of the most determined and responsible caregiver.

Therapists have always had their fears over patient attacks for many years. The vast of literature available has mainly focused on the fear of assault by the patients but little has been done to document the real incidences and prevalence of the attacks by the patients. A number of researches that have been done have recorded varying percentages of actual assaults as reported by therapist in their samples. The figures have varied from between 20 to around 40. Literature available has not only emphasized on attacks by the patients but has also included the malpractice suits related with reporting child abuse, dealing with older patients, and helping those suffering from HIVAIDS. It has also covered the fear of the patients reaction to difficult and painful situations (Pope  Tabachnick, 2010).

Until recently, there was no literature on the therapists sexual feelings towards their clients. However, some research done in recent times has revealed that there exist such feelings which leave many therapists feeling guilty, anxious, or confused. Searles gave his personal experiences where he had to confront his sexual, responses during a therapy session. He talks of his feelings of anxiety, guilty and embarrassment in reaction to sexual feelings towards his clients (Pope  Tabachnick, 2010).

The ideas that have been raised by the article as articulated by Pope and Tabachnick are of essence. Therapists are humans and therefore expected to experience feelings as elaborated by the two researchers. Their analysis of the article brings to the forefront the question of how best can we engage our programs in training the caregivers on how best they can deal with the feelings at the work place. Graduate training in feelings can be carried out in many different formats including class formalized lessons, seminars, conferences, field works, among other models. This article has actually given us food for thought as it has brought some insight to an area that has previously been neglected for long.

Conclusion
The article has raised issues that have been neglected and this should be verified by conducting further research into the areas of concern. Feelings of the therapists cannot be ignored considering that therapists are faced with the responsibility to take care of the patients and thus the issue of feelings should be comprehensively addressed. A study on the general feelings of the therapists and their consequences becomes important at this juncture to ensure proper service delivery to clients by the therapists.

Since few decades, there has been rapid advancement in the field of science and technology that enabled humans to identify and explain different processes of human intelligence, a major notion for experts globally. The selected article is an attempt of Emily Singer that has played a remarkable role in explaining the notion of intelligence while relating it with human brain. In the earlier section of the article, Emily discussed that since many years, there has been practice of understanding intelligence in the form of IQ however, majority of scientists have focused on explaining it in connection with human brains structure that has resulted in different controversies.

Moreover, Emily argued and subsequently, highlighted the importance of MRI that is now allowing scientists to concentrate on specific areas of brain that really play a considerable role in human intelligence rather than in all areas of human brain that somehow trapped the scientists until few years ago. Emily discussed that such new approach of scientists for understanding human intelligence will be very valuable in acquiring comprehensive understanding of different diseases that are more neurological in nature. In this regard, an important notion or argument of this article is the significance of connections rather than the number of neurons in the human brain. In other words, scientists are now putting efforts to understand connections in the human brain and their quality that are more important than the neurons.

Furthermore, Emily has discussed another technology namely diffusion tensor imaging that has surpassed results of MRI, and is enabling scientists to acquire finer results as compared to the results of MRI that do not illustrate signals, and specifically white matter of the human brain that is in closer connection with the human intelligence. Besides connections, scientists have identified an important function of the human brain that is frontal-lobe function, playing an important role in the IQ. This function is simply associated with the speed of brain activities, and different scientists and theorists are putting efforts to explain the role of speed of the brain functions that also play crucial role in discussing the efficiency of the brain.

Lastly, author argued that it is still ambiguous, and it will take time for scientists to explain the relation of human intelligence, cognitive activities, and brain connections in a comprehensive and accurate manner. Perhaps, humans can continue to put efforts and understand different functions of the human intelligence as they have continued to do so in the past. Conclusively, the paper has discussed some of the significant aspects of human intelligence. It is an expectation that the paper will be beneficial for students, teachers, and professionals in better understanding of the topic.

Timeline of significant events related to career guidance movement from 1900 to 2000

I. Beginnings of the concept of Career guidance (1900s)
The emergence of the Industrial Revolution and the industrialism
The 1910 National Conference on Vocational Guidance

II. Rise of the Thinkers for career guidance movement
Francis Galton and his student James Catell
John Stuart Mill
Alfred Binet
Theophile Simon
John Dewey

III. Era of Frank Parsons who is credited with spearheading the career guidance movement (Stead, Watson, 1999, p. 2).

IV. Career guidance movement impacted by WWI and WWII (Caiden, 1965, p. 264) during 1920s to 1940s
In between the two wars, several different legislations were put to action affecting career guidance movement
Impact of thinkers like EG Williamson and Carl Rogers in career guidance movement in the 1930s and 1940s
GI Bill for war veterans returning to school and pursuing new careers after school (Eliason, Patrick, 2008, p. 44).

V. Civil Rights Movements in the 1960s affecting American social landscape, including careers and career guidance movement
Social change

VI. Creation of the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee in 1976

VII. Career guidance movement in the 21st century
Exploration of areas that needs to be changed and improve
Career guidance movement reacting the changes in the technologically modern society
The changes in career guidance movement are important socially because of its effects and how social characteristics affect it in return. The chronology of the career-guidance movement reflects the continuous influence of social, political, economic, and other changes in our nation (Zunker, 1986, p. 14).The events that happened that influenced the career guidance movement are significant because of many different reasons. Primarily, it is because of the similar reason that each of these events had been an important factor in shaping the career guidance movement. Without these events happening as they did historically, the career guidance movement, as it is known today, would have been completely or totally different. Some of the important characteristics are lifted from these events. The people involved in these events and how the people and their actions in these historical events shaped and influenced the continued changing and shaping of the career guidance movement and the emphasis on social change as part of the process (Campbell, 1973, p. 2).

Some events that happened that shaped the career guidance movement were not directly a result of any effort to improve, change or affect career guidance movement. However, because of the conditions that it set and how it created a certain sense of consciousness among the individuals as well as the groups that will become, sooner or later, involved in career guidance movement is proof that they are significant in the history of career guidance movement. For example, the boom on career and professional endeavors as a result of the Industrial Revolution allowed the people not only to make the most out of the newfound offered opportunities but also examine better how to best train, equip and orient the individuals towards the jobs that are best suitable for them. If the Industrial Revolution did not happen, the level of consciousness that allowed for the re-examination of the process of career selection and career guidance would have not been affected as it did. Such career guidance development would have not been as how it is today in the present. Connected to the Industrial Revolution is the change in the different social landscape, features and characteristics, known as industrialism. The rural areas are becoming urbanized and the work that is being made available is becoming more diverse and complex. From purely agrarian jobs and other related work, the urbanization was bringing in jobs inside the office, like clerical jobs. The career guidance movement is changing alongside to accommodate the impact that this change brought to the career guidance movement. Many forces work for social reform, and the vocational guidance movement must cooperate with all of them (Brewer, 2008, p. 263). There were other events similar to the role, predicament and impact of the Industrial Revolution. These events include the two world wars.
There are also events that are significant because they are designed and meant to be significant, primarily because of the fact that there was effort undertaken. The event that was to happen would result in something concrete and definitive and constructive. The event can influence the career guidance movement at the time and long term, extending its influence in the future. In essence, Career guidance has been constantly attempting for improvement (Ginzberg, 1971, p. 92). This was the case in events like the National Conference on Vocational Guidance which happened in 1910. This event was attended by individuals and groups including professionals that will be significant in contributing ideas that would result to changes in the practice of career guidance and in the career guidance movement all in all.

An important event is the surfacing of important and noted individuals like Frank Parsons, Francis Galton and John Dewey, among others who rendered their ideas and works to improve the career guidance movement. Their coming out to the consciousness of the public and affecting the works of fellow professionals is an event that is very significant in the career guidance movement. Besides the leaders, there is also the significance of the actions of government leaders like specific legislations that helped improve and change the career guidance movement (Gibson, Mitchell, 2005, p. 5).

Appendix A

Final Project Overview and Timeline

Final Project Overview
Your final project for GEN 105 is a Student Survival Guide. To complete your project, you will draw from skills and information you learned in the course. Your Student Survival Guide will be composed of personal action plans designed to achieve success in six primary areas Using Axias Educational Resources, Upholding Academic Honesty, Setting and Achieving Goals, Managing Time Wisely, Fostering Reading Comprehension and Retention, and Applying Personality and Learning Styles. Your Student Survival Guide should be a functional tool for you to use throughout your programinclude specific details to make your action plans as realistic as possible.

Topics
Using Axias Educational Resources
Downloading files for use on your machine or portable device
Navigating the University Library
Identifying key information within articles
Upholding Academic Honesty
Understanding Axias academic honesty policy
Understanding consequences of plagiarism
Avoiding plagiarism
Setting and Achieving Goals
Identifying long- and short-term educational and career goals
How to reach goals despite obstacles
How an Axia degree relates to goals
Managing Time Wisely
Balancing time between courses at Axia
Juggling school, work, and family responsibilities
Prioritizing and avoiding time-wasters
Fostering Reading Comprehension and Retention
Using reading comprehension techniques for successful reading
Using SQ3R and other study habits
Applying Personality and Learning Styles
Using your personality type for distance learning success
Developing your multiple intelligences
Relating to others who have different personality types and intelligences

Learning is a lifetime achievement, it doesnt stop the moment you get out of the classroom rather it continues all the way till the day you die. Adopting the proper mindset to learning is important to a persons career since they way you, think, act and apply what youve learned will result in where you will wind up. What is needed is a persistent will, a desire to learn and a passion for what you are learning. The most important learning experience is one wherein you are learning what you want to learn, find where your passions and accomplishing those goals. I am creating this study guide as means for myself to adapt to an academic environment and to focus my mind on what I must do in order to succeed on my academic goals .

I will start discussing my study plan off in the usage of Axias educational resources as a means of studying. First off before I start gathering any information I will make a list of everything that I need to study. After that I will arrange it with the most important subjects to be studied on top and the least important at the bottom. On each subject I will create another list with the parameters being online research, journal articles, books, magazines and newspaper articles. It will go something like this
AMERICAN HISTORY

Online research
Journal Articles
Books
Magazine
Newspaper Articles

By using this method I will be able to arrange my study materials in such a way that I can follow a step by step procedure when doing researching. Starting off with online research involving Axias resources which is more convenient, then using journal articles, followed by books which is more taxing to do studying on, then finally magazines and newspaper articles. The reason Im using online research first is due to the fact that when you start off studying it is easier to remember short snippets of information rather than large portions of text. By using online research first I will be able to easily get a general idea of what I am studying then will be able to supplement that with greater amounts of information from books, journals or magazine and newspaper articles. At least this way if I do forget the majority of what I have studied or am in a rush to study I will at least have a general idea of what I can put down on a test instead of trying to remember a large volume of text which I read yet barely understood.

Using this method I plan to use my laptop as a means of downloading information using Axias online resources then filing them under specific folders for each subject. For online articles I plan to use notepad since it is much faster and easier transferring text from and online resource to notepad than using MS Word due to the fact that if you did it through MS Word you would be copying the text format and that takes time as well. Not only that you can have several notepads open at the same time will be able to compare and contrast the information that I copy and pasted at a much easier rate than opening multiple MS Word files. Before I start the term I will look through my course list and go to the library and use the catalogue to search for books that I might need in my courses. I will list down their reference numbers and reserve or borrow if possible if not I will at least try to find out their general location within the library so that I will be able to easily locate them later.

In order to maintain academic honesty I will thoroughly peruse Axias honesty policy and make sure that my actions are in accordance with the policy in order for not be reprimanded or worse expelled for my actions. I believe that ignorance of the law doesnt exempt one from punishment due to violation of the law. I will attempt to go online and see that various ways in which plagiarism can occur. While it is true that when in an academic environment what you write, say and present is based on the works on another individual you still have to say them in your own words and to give credit where credit is due in order to avoid being called a plagiarist for citing another persons idea as your own.

Regarding setting and achieving my goals I believe that one should live in the short term yet plan in the long term. This means that I plan to focus on things that matter most and exercise ruthless prioritization in what I must do. Planning for a lesson that wont happen till next year is useless waste of time. Prioritizing lessons that are happening within the next few days, the next week or the upcoming month is what I must do in order to accomplish them while they are still fresh in my mind. If you dont learn to prioritize what you must do you might find yourself overwhelmed with so many things that you think are important but in the end didnt matter much at all. Even with obstacles in my path I plan to reach my goals by practicing tenacity, persistence and stick-to-it-ness. By practicing these habits I will be able to focus myself on my goals and not let my mind wander on what might happen if I fail, or if I will fail or what will I do if I fail rather my mind will be focused on continuing to strive to accomplish my goals even if the likelihood is hard, that I will keep on moving forward no matter what happens, and that it will be habit of mine to always stick to what Im doing like a madman until I finally accomplish it.
An Axia degree is the end goal, it will represent all that I have worked for, all the long nights of studying, avoiding social events and striving to succeed. It is the representation of my future success and will continue to represent my ability to put my mind to something and being able to accomplish that goal.

I plan to balance my time wisely by scheduling everything that I have to study in terms of priority. By prioritizing subjects that need to be studied immediately instead of studying the subjects that I am good at this will enable me to fully comprehend all the lessons that I need to learn in order for me to fully comprehend what I must do. I plan to make a list with the subjects needing the most priority at the time and those with the least priority at the bottom. I will study those subjects that have the most priority for two hours while those with the least priority for one. At least this way I will be able to fully comprehend the subjects that I need to have information on immediately while having a general idea of the subjects that I will have to study in the future.

I plan to prioritize school work over family however weekends will be sacred days for me because those will be the days wherein I will try to spend time with my family. School work is all fine and good and will help a person achieve their goals in life however if one forgets ones family then you will have lost one of the most important forms of support that you posses.

Regarding time management I plan to exercise ruthless prioritization on my academic tasks and relax and have fun on the weekends instead and will work hard during the weekdays at least this way I will be able to relax my mind. I believe that if a person doesnt prioritize time for relaxation they will burn themselves out easily and will live a very stressful and unfulfilling life. We study in order to improve ourselves not drive our bodies to an early grave.

In order for me to successfully memorize the text I need to learn I plan to break down what I have to read into small easily read text in order for my to memorize them easily, I also plan to write them down in my own words then read them again. This way if a test should come my mind will have remembered what I had done and I will be able to recall it with ease. When it comes to my study habits I plan to study for around 5 hours only a day with a half and hour break in between. This will enable me to properly rest my mind and burn it out so quickly.

Finally as for my personality type I happen to be an individual who is comfortable in learning alone or with other people, distance for me is perfectly fine since learning is still learning no matter how it is done. By studying a wide variety of topics besides those which I am currently taking up I will be able to have a plethora of information at my disposal should the time come for its use. I plan to on occasion read different kinds of journals available in the library with interesting topics to continuously expand what I know. Continuously improving ones self by studying different topics is always a good thing for with knowledge comes an understanding of the world around you.

Being able to accept people for the way they are, that each individual as their own unique way of thinking is an important factor when it comes to learning. In life you will encounter all sorts of people and it is important to realize that you cannot choose who you will interact with in your future job, rather while you are learning it is best to develop habits of tolerance and acceptance of people for who they are. I plan to develop a personal habit of trying to understand people before I judge them to enable me to get along with them and have a high likelihood of being thought of as a cooperative and friendly individual in the future.

In conclusion, though it may be a long road ahead, I am certain that if I follow this guide that I have created I will be able to successfully accomplish my degree and will be able to succeed in my chosen profession.

Jane was so much excited when she finally landed a job as a journalist. She had always dreamt of becoming a print journalist one day and when the Daily Mail gave her the job, she was very happy. Eleven months have now passed and she is not content with her job. What she lacks is job satisfaction. Jane is just an example of so many other people who are not satisfied with the jobs they are having. This essay is aimed at expounding the topic of job satisfaction and other topics that are associated with it.

Job satisfaction- definition
Job satisfaction is a term that is used to describe how a person is content with the job he or she is having. Though many people often use job satisfaction and motivation as synonyms, the words are different. People who are said to be having job satisfaction are those that are happy within their jobs. Many designs have been utilized to promote performance and job satisfaction. Such methods include job enlargement, job rotation as well as job enrichment. Some of the other methods that influence job satisfaction include management culture and style, employment empowerment, involvement and self-directed work groups (Brief  Weiss).

Why job satisfaction is important
Though researchers in this area have slightly different views on the relationship between job satisfaction and performance, it is evident that as a result of the research conducted there is significant link between job satisfaction and performance. In the meta-analyses that have been conducted in the past, researchers have stated that there is only a weak positive relation between performance and job satisfaction.  There is a more current meta-analysis however that has in fact shown that the positive connection between job satisfaction and performance is stronger than had earlier been accepted. A positive connection between job satisfaction and performance is a significant product in workplaces especially for workers who are non standard whose formal links to their workplaces (which may promote their performance) are few (Lolenz  Dickson, 2009). Many administrators have already realized that when the workforce is happier and healthier, it will become more productive. The management as well as their staff will both get benefits from all the practices that advance job satisfaction. It is however important for the administration to better understand the workplace attitudes of their current employees so that it can create and assess policies that will improve them. Those employees that are more satisfied will tend not to miss or quit work (Whiteacre, 2006).

Effects of job dissatisfaction
Job satisfaction is a contributing factor to how an individual performs his or her job.  Studies that have been conducted have shown that satisfaction at the work place will influence the physical and emotional wellbeing of a person. On the contrary, job dissatisfaction is linked to burnout and stress. When job satisfaction is on the decrease, damaging professional and personal symptoms will be experienced. Job satisfaction is very vital as it ensures high quality and continuous services to the clients and commitment to ones job (Demanto  Curcio 2004).

Research has indicated that stress and job dissatisfaction continue to remain significant factors to several workplace results such as absenteeism, turnover as well as dependability.  Studies have also shown that dissatisfied employees will not live longer, will be unhealthier, unhappier, less cooperative, less dependable, more critical, and will be more likely to resign their jobs. The findings also showed that unsatisfied workers are prone to diseases such as ulcers, high blood pressure, as well as heart attacks. They are also highly vulnerable to divorces, shorter live spans in addition to alcoholism and tobacco addiction (Whiteacre, 2006). Job satisfaction has been seen to relate positively with workers organizational commitment (self reported), intrinsic motivation, job involvement as well as general satisfaction about the operations of the organization, promotional opportunities and teamwork. Job satisfaction has been indicated to minimize turnover and absenteeism in addition to affecting citizenship behaviors like altruism, dependability, compliance, punctuality, waste, cooperation, complaints, criticism and unnecessary arguments (Whiteacre, 2006).

Increasing Job satisfaction
There are several factors that are utilized by the management to improve job satisfaction in their workers. Some of these factors may look so simple but they have a great effect on the employees. Just offering the workers a small thing that can make them smile while in the office may make them satisfied about their current position (USA Today, 2003).

One of these important factors is giving them increased control over their time. A study that was carried recently showed that many workers consider increased schedule flexibility a factor that would lead to an enhanced job satisfaction. The vice president of Office Team, Liz Hughes stated
Firms that have made staff reductions are relying heavily on remaining employees to assume expanded responsibilities. But more work often means longer hours, which can lead to burnout. A flexible schedule can alleviate some of the burden and allow for greater work-life balance for staff (USA Today, 2003).

Another important factor that increases job satisfaction of an employee is his or her relationship with his or her boss. A survey that was conducted by Accountemps showed that 43 of those executives interviewed stated that staff job satisfaction is in most cases impacted by how a person relates to his or her boss. The chairman of the staff service, who is also the Motivating Employees for Dummies author, made a statement that employees will become more productive when they are made to feel that any contributions they make to the company are always valued and that the feedbacks are welcomed by employer or the management. He added that The reverse is also true--an unsupportive atmosphere can lead to reduced performance levels and higher turnover for businesses (USA Today, 2006).

Some companies consider that if they offer more money to the employees, the latter would tend to be more satisfied in their current position. However, this is not the entire truth since higher salary alone cannot make the workers satisfied. However, such organizations should understand that professionals usually go to an organization that offers greater advancement and growth opportunities. Employees will stick to a company if they are shown that they are valued and not because their departure will leave the organization in trouble. People are also ready to move to companies that can promote them in due time or which can offer them new challenges which would assist them develop their careers (Gale 2006).

Some of the other reasons why an individual may lose job satisfaction may include arguments between the co-workers, low pay, less understanding supervisor, lack of resources or equipment for the job, lack of promotion opportunities, non-involvement in decision making, fear of being fired or demoted, being allocated tasks that are not related to ones skills, interests or education (Mayo Clinic 2009).
Other Topics Related to Job satisfaction

Employees Motivation
Many people often use the term job satisfaction and motivation synonymously. However, this is not so though motivation can lead to job satisfaction. According to the psychologists, motivation is whatever gives momentum to individuals behaviors by arousing, directing and sustaining it so as to attain goals. Individuals will initially be motivated by the needs of having first level needs such as shelter and food, then safety and security, then assimilation and finally level of self actualization. An employee whose motivational needs are met will have a positive feeling about his or her job and will experience greater motivation and sanctification. One of the ways of ensuring that a worker is motivated is by ensuring that she gets rewarded or recognized for the work that he or she is doing. This can be done by introducing a bonus system or salary increase. Even an extra dollar can make a difference. He or she can be given incentives such a trophy or a traveling ticket for good work done. When an employee is motivated, he or she will tend to improve their work towards attaining the organizational and personal goals (Creech, 2004).

Employees performance
Researches that have been done have shown that there is some connection between employees job satisfaction, motivation and performance. Despite the degree of link between job satisfactions, it has been evident that when the workers are satisfied with their current job, they will tend to devote all their energy to promote the goals of their organization. When a worker is satisfied, they will avoid some of the factors that derail their performance while at the workplace. They will not likely be absent from work and will rarely quarrel with his or her bosses and co workers. Less satisfied workers will often be stressed and have low work morale and this will hinder their performance. They will be longing for the day they will leave their current organization either for greener pastures or just to rest. Such feelings will lower the workers devotion to their job (Lolenz  Dickson 2009).

Conclusion
From the research, it is evident that job satisfaction is dependent on so many factors. In addition, job satisfaction affects the way employees perform their duties at their work places. When workers are satisfied, they tend to be more productive.

As a senior manager recruiting for your company, you might find yourself not agreeing with a fellow manager who is also in the recruiting team due to reasons that he does not give. Therefore, you must come up with the issues that he might be using as basic points that make him not want to recruit the prospective employee. A peek at a few factors that might make him reject the prospective employee are reasons like his general fear of the risk that the company is exposing its operations to another rival. He might be basing his reasons on the fact that the employee might be an avenue for the transfer of the companys secrets to success over the other market players. This, according to him, is a good way of fending away possible dangers to the companys secrets. His reasons are genuine and generally healthy for the company as the secrets are safer not revealed. The reason for this aspect of thinking might be backed by his former experience with other employees who were poached from competitors. The second reason he might be using to reject the prospective employee arises from the fact that he might be viewing her as a liability. She is to him a liability in the sense that maintaining her in the company might be quite expensive due to her wealth of experience that she is bringing with her to her new employer. He feels that if hired, she might move to another company that offers better remuneration any time that the chance arises or worse still, set up her own company that competes her employers. This would be a big blow to the company due to an unexpected high turnover. The cycle of recruiting a new marketing manager would present not only a new expense but also sudden leadership vacuum in her post offered by her. These conclusions seem to be the ones that might be bothering him about this particular employee. His rejection may be backed from years of experience that he has accrued over the years that would make him not want to expose the company to the uncertainty that recruiting her presents to the company. The company from which the employee is drawn might also sue the company due to practicing unethical and unfair business practices that have had negative effects on its profits. On another angle, his reason might be backed by his fear that her age might not do the image of the marketing section of the company some justice. This might be from the explanation that in marketing, the face of the marketing staff should always project a young energetic team that is driven by energy to achieve the companys marketing goals (Leonard, 2001).

The hiring of workers based on the managers opinion exposes the company to a few risk factors. The risk factors   are bound to have ethical and legal implications. In as much as company policy might have angles and perspectives that might make it look like the reasons or declining her employment were basically drawn from their backing, the final implication might have a damaging effect on the standing of the company in the community it draws its market from. One might argue that the reason stems from the fact that her origin is from the Hispanic community and as such his refusal to hire her was basically racially motivated. His reasons like the one on her giving out company secrets could be dangerous for the company. She might be bound by a nondisclosure agreement if he so wishes to do so. Most of these agreements are usually backed by the law and as such his using this reason can be enforced by the court of law so that she does not reveal the companys secrets for a period of two years after her leaving. Employees on the other hand have a right to seek employment anywhere they wish to in a set-up of a competitive market of jobs. This is also protected by the court of law and might expose the company to a lawsuit that is bound to change the public perception of the company - a big taint to its image. In-case the company from which she is drawn decides to go to court to fight out the issue, losses could arise. The argument here could be that his company might have used unfair business practice that would finally cripple them financially as it would mean she cancelled her contract that bound her to stay there for sometime (Leonard, 2001).

To avoid the implications that arise from his stand on the employment of this lady, I would need to look at ways to convince him to slacken a little to allow her to work for the company. Some of the explanations are drawn from looking at all the effects of his actions. This would mean taking an approach that would make him relax his stance. Firstly, if at all the reason for hiring is based on racial prejudices, then we will go over the possible racial-based long-term effects the action would have on the company. Apart from denting its image, it might expose the company to lawsuits that would lead to fines. These fines not only affect the profitability of the company but might also weigh heavily on the allowances given to its employees. Fines are known to leave companies running into losses making cut-downs on number of employees and employee remuneration packages imminent. This would mean his pay possibly being affected. On the case of not trusting her with the companys secrets, he should make her sign a nondisclosure agreement that would bind her to not revealing the companys secrets for two years after she leaves the company by will or on termination of her contract. The legal and ethical issues aside, the employee is right for the company as she is to be taken as an asset. She meets all the requirements that are vital for the company and has extra experience that spans over a relatively long time. Not only will she know the right marketing ploy to put to work but she will also know other ways that can be used to be effective competitor in the industry. This would arise from the fact that she knows from the experience in the other company and a comparison she is likely to draw from her employment at this company. This would give her an option of selecting the best method from what she gets on comparing the methods employed in marketing from both of the companies. Finally, he should get her to sign a non-compete agreement that would see her not set up a similar business with the one that the company is involved in. this is a solid move that would keep her concentrating on getting the companys goals achieved.

In conclusion, hiring her has more pros than cons. The cons are bound to have implications that any reasonable manger would want to avoid. Therefore, employing her would be a good thing for the company to do.

Decision making is defined as the result of cerebral and mental procedures, which directs the individual to select a particular course of action from several options available. The final choice is the outcome of each and every decision making.  Judgment is considered to be the assessment and evaluation of facts, information and data which leads to the formation of decision. In psychological terms, judgment is the cognitive and adjundicational quality of human being, which can influence their decision making (Tan  Lipe, 2007).  The case study presented in this paper will be discussed extensively to explain the psychology of judgment and decision making.

Scenario
In a recent meeting between the production manager, Ron and the salesperson from Big Machines Inc, it was observed that the representative was discussing the benefits of additional sales and services. Big Machines Inc is the main supplier of production equipment. After showing an impressive and thorough presentation, she effectively demonstrated the information related to the additional sales and services. According to research, a well presented presentation of facts and figures is most likely to influence the target audience. Similarly, the sale representative gave an effective presentation and presented the information related to additional options and services systematically. The power point presentation was used to catch Rons attention. Furthermore, the detailed video used impressed him. Literature suggests that well-defined and well-structured presentations can influence the decision making procedure of individuals. Consequently, Ron agreed to buy the additional options and services, thinking that it would increase the efficiency and would be cost effective. In short, Ron had developed a particular opinion about the additional options and services based on the presentation, which persuaded him to buy it.

Different Frame
Ron would have made a different decision if he had the ability to analyze and examine the information presented to him. At the same time, he should have the ability to construct a logical and rational base for the evidence provided to him. As mentioned earlier, judgment is the cognitive quality of human being to analyze and evaluate of evidence. It is also the ability to think logically and construct analysis based on the data and information presented. Rons decision would have been different if he would have analyzed the information intelligently. After that, he should have gathered the data or information available to him in order to seek for alternatives. Based on alternatives available, he should have analyzed the choices available to him. During this stage, it was important for him to consider decision outcomes. After a careful review of alternatives, he should have selected the best choice, which would prove beneficial for the organization.

Decision Making and Moral Implications
Decision making frames are considered to be outlooks or point of view, which are used when making a decision in order to guide the entire procedure (Tan  Lipe, 2007). The salesperson has influenced Rons decision frame very convincingly by providing detailed information on the additional options and services. She was aware that the presentation had caught Rons attention. In order to fully convince him, she made strong emphasis on effectiveness and reduction of costs. This demonstrates that Ron did not consider the outcome of his decision. According to researchers, effective decision makers reflect and consider the outcome of their decision for a long period of time. If a persons frame is easily influenced, moral implications are applicable.

Conclusion
This paper has discussed the psychology of decision making and judgment. From the information presented in this paper, it can be concluded that it is important to make effective decision making in order to make a sound judgment.

The  process by which memory is generated and retrieved consists primarily of three phases short-term, long-term and working memory. Each of these phases has unique functions that contribute to the formation and retrieval of memory.

Working memory draws information primarily from two sources. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)  These include sensory input (what is being currently perceived by the senses), and information from the long-term memory. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)This stage is where imagination, reasoning and the other processing of information occur. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003) Unless stored into long-term memory, these memories last only about thirty seconds. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)This is the phase of the memory process during which organization of sensory data occurs, and the resulting memories are either stored in long-term memory, short-term memory, or are discararded after a short period of time. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)

Short-term memory differs from working memory in that it is a passive storage phase, rather than one in which input is organized or categorized for storage. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003) The short-term memory is a location of memories that can last only a short period of time without the use of prolonging mechanisms, such as rehearsal. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003) These prolonging processes will either keep the memory in the short-term longer, or encode it into long-term memory. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)The capacity of short-term memory is variable. One theory suggests a seven-item limitation on such memories (with a variation of two in either direction). (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)While this theory is substantiated by studies among college students in memorizing digits, other studies produce no clear range of item numbers that constitute the capacity of short-term memory. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)

Long-term memory is the location of storage of memories that survive short term absorption through one of several methods. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003) One of the most common of those methods is rehearsal. Simply put, the repetition of information can lead to the eventual formation of longterm memories, whose duration can be anything from a few days to several years. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)Another method by which memories become long-term is by association with existing memories. This process, which takes place in working memory, involves the relation of the new data to that which already exists in long-term memory. (Radstone  Hodgekin, 2003)It involves chunking the new input with items retrieved from long-term memory stores.

Most memory tests target short-term memory. In one such test, offered online by Rutgers University, verbal memory is tested. (Memoryn.d.) The subject is given a list of forty words and asked to assign affective responses (very pleasant, somewhat pleasant, somewhat unpleasant, very unpleasant) to each word. (Memoryn.d.)  After the subjects complete the task, they are required to recall as many of the words as they can (both of these phases are untimed). (Memoryn.d.) When I took this test, I recalled eight of the forty words. According to the site, the average score on this portion is six, and an outstanding score would be ten. (Memoryn.d.)  In the second part of the recall test, subjects are asked to look at word pairs and identify which word was on the original list. I scored 39 out of 40. The average score for this portion of the test is 38. (Memoryn.d.)  The first part of the test was evaluating recall, and the second was evaluating recognition. It is an established fact that rate of recognition is far higher than that of recall. This test and my results bear out that observation.

The outcomes of tests such as these are determined by variables affecting the encoding of information into long-term memory. (Arnold, 1984)  Encoding is done on the basis of one or more of the following categories visual, acoustic, semantic and tactile. (Arnold, 1984)   In the particular test I took, semantic encoding is the method used to store the data. The circumstances of the test make the other methods unlikely to be effective. There is a complete absence of auditory or tactile stimulation in the input, and letters are too common as images to be useful tools for encoding. While it is possible that test words may be designed to provoke particular tactile or acoustic images, such was not the case in this test. Encoding can be an automatic or an effortful process. In this particular test, most of the encoding was automatic. (Arnold, 1984)   This was assured in the experimental design by the use of a distractor-task (evaluation of the words) in this test. Had the subjects been given a list of words to commit to memory, they may have effortfully employed a number of methods to encode the list. Such strategies include rehearsal (repetition of the words either verbally or mentally) the creation of mnemonics (jingles or associative phrases designed to stimulate recall). (Arnold, 1984)  In the case of my test, my own recall illustrated the use of organizational encoding done in an automatic manner. For example, I recalled one word being morning and was able to retrieve sunset as a categorically similar concept. Another such example in my test was recalling bloody after having generated dagger. These words were not paired in the initial list, but organized in my working memory for better recall.

Several variables effect encoding efforts. Foreknowledge of the task is a major variable. If a list is presented with the instruction to memorize it, a subject can employ methods that work best for them in the encoding process, rather than relying on the unconscious selections of the working memory. (Arnold, 1984)  A second variable illustrated in the test I took was the type of recall required. Blind recall of the words was much more difficult than recognizing the words in word-pairs. In the test I took, intermediate levels could have been tested by offering associated words, or word sets with three, instead of one distractor. Other variables include the number of targeted words. (Arnold, 1984)   Had the initial lit been shorter, the recall scores would represent a higher percentage of successful recall.

The memory process is an interesting field of study in that it offers suggestions for the improving of a normal subjects memory, and defines a process whose interruption by injury or disease may be more clearly understood. (Arnold, 1984)   Persons with memory deficiencies may be able to define such deficiencies in terms of whether they occur in short-term, long-term, or working memories. (Arnold, 1984)   As science discovers which physical portions of the brain are responsible for each of these functions, it becomes more likely that the locus of their origins might be discovered and both treatment and artificial stimulation of these areas might lead to the improvement of memory across the board for all people. (Arnold, 1984)

As much as we would wish that the bulk of the relationships people have were stable, the fact remains that a number of relationships devolve into the dysfunctional. As a result, the relationships become problematic and a source of extreme derision. There are many reasons why a relationship can become dysfunctional. The following are three of the most common

Loneliness While some may assume that loneliness would strengthen a relationship, it actually leads to a breakdown of the relationship. Those that have an outlook on life that is clouded by loneliness and depression, it becomes quite unhelpful to establishing strong relationships because it can be considered a weakness of the psyche.

Anger Management Issues It is fundamentally impossible for a relationship to develop strongly when there are severe problems with maintaining a calm frame of mind. Violent, angry outbursts based on anger and stress will severely undermine the ability to maintain positive relationships more than anything else.

Dependence and Co-Dependence Relationships based on the need for the other member or both members of the relationship to act as a crutch to one another for self-esteem purposes. Really, this will not build self-esteem as much as drag down the members of the relationship into collective dysfunction.

While there are certainly other components that can lead to a dysfunctional relationship, the three listed herein are among the most common.

Introduction (This will discuss what a medical record is, what is the purpose of medical record Various purposes will be discussed. The necessity of a record will also be discussed, it will also give a brief over view of the contents of medical record i.e. what constitutes a medical record)

Creating and maintaining records
Basics of record keeping (SOAP stands for Subjective, Objective, Assessment, Plan.. It is a useful way of record keeping, therefore the paper will discuss how to keep record in an accurate and consistent manner. However these are just the basics)

Computerized records

Record retention

Confidentiality of medical records

Access to the medical records

General principles of writing a record (This section will discuss what to avoid when writing a record, such as it should be written clearly and should be legible. Moreover, a few pitfalls which might make a record invalid are also discussed in this section)

Conclusion (this section concludes the entire paper giving a brief summary of the above)

Adolescence is the period in between the beginning of puberty and the capability to take responsibilities of the adult life. Puberty commences with the appearing of secondary sexual characteristics and terminates with the growth of the long bones, where there is no more growth in height (Beckert, 2007).

Menstrual cycle begins at puberty in girls. The development of the uterus and the thickening of the virginal walls are promoted by estrogen. There is growth of supporting tissues in the buttocks and hips. The growth in the tissues and the widening of the pelvis enable childbearing. There is development of breasts. There is also growth of pubic and underarm hair, stimulated by androgen and estrogen (Rathus, Nevid and Rathus, 2007).

For boys at puberty, the hydrothermus sends a signal to the pituitary to rise the generation of FSH and LH. There is growth in the organs that produces semen. This is the time when the boys experience their initial ejaculation, often through masturbation. At this time, boys may start experiencing wet dreams (Rathus, Nevid and Rathus, 2007). They develop pubic, underarm and facial hair. Some boys develop hair on the chest, but this might even happen after the age of twenty. There is growth of the voice box and the lengthening of the vocal cords. This causes their voices to become deep. Individual growths however differ with some boys growing faster than girls. There is increase in muscle mass that increases the body weight. Shoulders broaden and the chest widens (Beckert, 2007).

Both boys and girls grow very fast during the puberty stage, but girls usually grow faster than boys. The sex hormones flow though the bloodstream in large amounts creates a relatively strong sex drive. This is why many of them seek sexual outlets like masturbation (Rathus, Nevid and Rathus, 2007).

Conclusion
There are issues that are experienced by both girls and boys during adolescence. They include negative body image, shame and embarrassment, and wrong messages about sexuality. Fortunately I did not experience any of these issues during my adolescence and I am positive about my body and sexuality.

Teenage pregnancy is a concern of the society because of the increasing number of teenage mothers and the impact it has on the society. According to Rathus, Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus ( ), the statistics from www.guttmacher.org demonstrates an estimated birth of half a million from teenage mothers alone per year. In addition to this,  of a million, or roughly 250,000 pregnancies, lead to abortions (Rathus, Nevid,  Fichner-Rathus, ). Among the interventions proposed include artificial and natural methods of contraception. Prevention through sexuality programs for teens is also included in the list but has deserved critics because of questions related to its effectiveness. It is seen that it is not as effective as the other methods because of its loopholes and failures.

The function of sexuality-related programs, especially those implemented in schools, can be anywhere in between the range of encouragement and information dissemination (Rathus, Nevid,  Fichner-Rathus, ). By encouragement, the programs are able to pressure and influence the teenagers to abstain from having sex or say not to it. On the other hand, it can also be as shallow as providing information regarding the available methods of contraception. In a research paper done by Card (1999), it is argued that sexuality programs, with the aim of preventing unwanted pregnancy and STI among teens, do not occupy the entire seat for successful prevention but forms only a part of the multiple approaches that can be used for addressing the problem. Moreover, the problem, as Card (1999) argues, can only be seen through the eyes of the teenagers themselves and that they form a part of the programs solution. The study of Kirby, Short, Collins, Rugg, Kolbe, Howard, Miller, Sonenstein, and Zabin (1994) supports the idea that there are only specific programs that prove to be successful in delaying the engagement of adolescents in sexual intercourse, decrease the frequency and number of sexual partners, or increase the use of contraceptives among the adolescents.

What factors may explain the changes in Eva and Victors sexual needs and responses
Some of the factors which explain the changes in Eva and Victors sexual needs and responses are as follows 1) changes in foreplay, 2) changes in frequency of marital coitus, and changes in coitus. As the person ages, the length in which heshe engages in foreplay increases significantly. However, at age 50, the length in which the individual (which varies from individual to individual  from male to female) engages in such activity decreases considerably. This resembles the bell curve  young adults engage in brief foreplays, adults in long foreplays, and the aged in very short foreplay (Rathus et al, 2005).

The frequency of coitus is inversely related to age. Older couples engage in coitus less frequently than recently married couples. According to some study, married couples (in their 30s and 40s) engage in coitus 2 or 3 times a week. At the age of 50 to 59, individuals reported an average 4 or 5 times a month (Rathus et al, 2005). Now, in general, changes in coitus can be deemed as the result of exhaustive extension of marital roles. That is, individuals aged 50 to 59 have less roles to perform in the bed, as that would have been contained in the peak years of marriage. This situation though varies from culture to culture and from individuals to individuals.

According to Akinwale (2007), sexual needs and responses are determined by plotting sexual references over time in a modified Cartesian scale. Researchers can then determine which sexual need or response is stable over time. Counseling is necessary to avert unnecessary sexual appetites when partners are not incline to undergo certain type of sexual interaction.

2.) Describe how you would proceed.
In general perhaps, age and marital satisfaction are the determinant of sexual needs and responses. Aging diminishes individual capacity to substantiate sexual demands (Akinwale, 2007). Low marital satisfaction ignites unmerited sexual demand from the individual to hisher partner. Indeed, married couples who have low marital satisfaction tend to view sex as a form of relaxation  an escape from the difficulties of married life.

Perhaps, however, there are a variety of factors which determine sexual demands. Here are some of the subjective factors 1) sexual preference of the partners, 2) conduciveness of the environment, and 3) religion. It is best to assume that future studies on this subject matter use variables with wide ranging applicability.

Topic THE Unconscious mind
The Unconscious Mind was originally a Freudian notion in which he explained the unconscious to be suppressed memory

For decades, all human processes were thought to be of conscious nature only recently have scientists begun to understand the unconscious mind. Over the decades, the term unconscious has been defined as unintentional thoughtsactions. The things we do consciously are influenced by the unconscious mind - our actions are the effects of stimuli which we are unaware of. There have been various interpretations in this regard. According to cognitive psychology, unconscious information processing likened to subliminal message processing (idea opposed by authors because they thought the definition was unnatural and restrictive). (09No)
Basically research proves the unconscious mind through2 experiments
Person performs an action they did not intend to perform, and is unaware of doing it
Person consciously chooses to perform an action, which, once started, is then performed without the person consciously thinking about it. For instance when one is driving a car, he or she is performing the action without really thinking or focusing too much about it.
Unconscious processes evolved to deal with naturally occurring stimuli - i.e. Stimuli that we repeatedly encounter - because of this, many people think the unconscious is a response to routine stimuli - and therefore, the notion of the unconscious mind is said to be rather dumb (Note that while the unconscious may be dumb in regard to subliminal stimuli, its still smarter than consciousness, which cant even tell that such stimuli have been presented)

Many times people sense things without seeing them or remembering that they sensed it (a lack of memory of sensing something is caused by inattentiveness - but that doesnt mean youre not perceiving it) - for instance, when you find yourself singing along to a song, but you dont know how you know the song - you heard it somewhere, and consciously perceived it without knowing that you were unconsciously hearing it. This is yet another instance which substantiates how the unconscious makes itself felt. We dont know the song, but we recognize the lyrics from somewhere in the back of her head and follow the suit.

In Evolution evolutionary changes occurred as a result of unconscious processes - there was no conscious thought that went into evolution and adaptation For example, things like culture and early learning - we dont think about our culture - we are surrounded by it from an early age and information gets stored in our unconscious mind without our being aware of it - it is inherent.  Same with Early Learning - we learn lots of things at a very young age, which are inherent traits of human kind, which we again, dont consciously think about (for instance, kids, especially infants, learn behavior by passive imitation of parents or friends as infants we unconsciously learn by experience - as we grow up, those learned behaviorsactionsvalues stay with us, and are stored in the unconscious mind - later in life, we dont consciously think about these things - we just know them to be true)

Idea of unconscious goal pursuit  Our unconscious goals will drive conscious actions - for instance, a person with a lot of upcoming deadlines might unconsciously set goals as to when to finish particular tasks in order to stay on trackthis unconscious goal then drives the conscious actions of doing work. In some cases participants are more than willing to continue and accomplish the underlying process no matter what the consequences. They dont care even if it be boring or tiring or if they have more attractive learning alternatives. Their primary aim is to finish the task in hand and to reach that predetermined goal which they set for themselves. In the words of Bergh Moreover, the qualities of the underlying process appear to be   the same, as participants with interrupted unconscious goals
Tend to want to resume and complete a boring task even when they have more attractive alternatives and will show more persistence on a task in the face of obstacles than do participants in control conditions.

All these characteristics have been oft associated with conscious goal pursuits for quite some time (Smith, 2007). There is a distinct line between conscious and unconscious goal pursuit. Keeping in perspective the recent evolutionary arrival of modes of though and behavior, it is probably that the conscious goal is directly or indirectly related to unconscious motivational structures.

We are predisposed, conditioned (genetically predisposed - this is an effect of evolution) as a human race to prefer certain aspects of our environment over others -these are perhaps linked to the behaviors we learn as infants.  For instance in various Muslim families, it has been inculcated in the minds of their females that physical intimacy with men is a no and nor are revealing clothes allowed. They are asked to adapt and mould themselves in this peculiar lifestyle where they shun themselves from the society in general and set their goal in such a way where nurturing their kids and serving their husbands in future becomes central to their survival. This is result of environmental and social pressure most of which becomes innate in the female inhabitant in such families. (Iceberg Metaphor and Unconscious Mind)

Another theory suggests that impulse to act upon a stimuli is an unconscious behavior - the impulse is produced unconsciously, and then the conscious mind takes over plethora of impulses that are driven by behavioral and cultural norms and or our valuestraditions. Some people react at the sight of lizards or their mention without even without seeing the poor animal. This is because a certain kind of unconscious fear exists in the back of their mind about it. Their reaction for the same is involuntary. It rests at the back of their mind subconsciously which tends to act as prime motivator for the same. We are unconsciously inclined towards certain things over others (certain behaviors) even if those behaviors are not consciously carried out.

The unconscious can guide future outcomes example from the text  if a ruler doesnt know what the outcome of war is supposed to be, then there would be no reason for him to go and wage waronly when you know what the outcome is supposed to be can you consciously work toward that outcome.

The unconscious mind encompasses everything that we are not currently aware of - ideas, skills, knowledge that we are not presently using. The conscious mind is continuously supported by the information stored in the unconscious mind.  The conscious mind derives considerable help from the unconscious mind to follow its pursuit. Most of the information is stored in the back of our mind which hits the conscious mind at various points as and when it deems it fit. The unconscious mind is the master of all. It embodies what we dont know and seeks to overpower the conscious mind in a way in its own right. Example we use a plethora of skills when driving without even realizing it - this information is known as learned resources. The information is derived from the unconscious mind which stores it and directs it to the conscious mind as we tend to drive. Another example in this regard is keyboard typing which today for many has come to a point where they type without even looking at the keyboard.  Where, what and how the keys are positioned and how should the fingers be directed are a result of some major information processing of the unconscious mind to the conscious mind.

The unconscious mind is said to control the autonomic nervous system - things like Heart Rate, Breathing, etc. things we do without being consciously aware of it. We exercise no control on our heart beat, and heart rate.  It is an involuntary exercise within the body yet we know it is there.  We have no hold over it. It is the unconscious mind that takes charge of it and makes it felt. The way cardiac muscles flex and act while we are in motion without us having to do anything about it.

Imagination is the two-way street between consciousness and unconsciousness - it allows the two to communicate. Imagination functions as the membrane through which material and processes happening in the unconscious mind come into conscious awareness.

Unconscious mind converses with the conscious much more than the conscious converses with the unconscious New ideas, intuitions, daydreams are all materialized in consciousness via imagination from all the information stored in the unconscious mind.

Dreams are another example of unconscious communicating with consciousness. Many times, our dreams, if and when remembered, give us ideas and insight into real-world, conscious eventsexperiences. When things we do or say sound goodright but feel wrong, this feeling of wrong-doing comes from the unconscious mind. A whole lot of this has to do for instance with our behavior and interpersonal communication associated with them. Interpersonal communication is governed by four basic principles. First, this form of communication is inescapable. It is impossible not to communicate. Even the attempt to not communicate is indicative of communication itself. But this type of communication takes form of gesture, postures, facial expressions etc. one can constantly receive information from others .Even when one sleeps, one communicates. Ergo, it goes that the world does not comprise of mind readers and humans are mostly judged by the way they behave.  Second, interpersonal communication cannot be reversible. What has been said cannot be taken back. The effect will never cease to exist. Third interpersonal communication is a complex form of communication. It is not simple and owing to the number of variables involved, even the simplest of requests tend to appear as extremely complex. According to various theorists, whenever one communicates, the minimum number of people involved in the process is 6(Kradin, 2007). These include what one thinks who one is, what one thinks who the other person, who the other person thinks she is, who the other person thinks of one and who the other person thinks one thinks. All this begins resting in the back of our mind at a point and becomes embedded in its subconscious state.
Ideas cannot be swapped but symbols are swapped. Symbols themselves stand for ideas which further make communication complicated. Words do not follow any innate meaning. We mould them and use them in our own way and it goes unsaid that no two people would use the same word which go and rest somewhere in the back of our mind. As per Oslo Wino, certain communication maxims resembling Murphys Law include

If communication can fail, it will.
If a message can be understood in different ways, it will be understood in just that way which does the most harm.
There is always somebody who knows better than you what you meant by your message.
The more communication there is, the more difficult it is for communication to succeed.
These are modes which become more or less relatable to our mind and hence it inevitably begins reacting in a particular way in different situations. Four, interpersonal communication is extremely contextual. It cannot occur in isolated locales. There are innumerable contexts in which interpersonal communication take place. These include the psychological context, the relational context, the situational context, the environmental context and the cultural context.

Psychological context stems from what one is, and what brings one to the point of interaction. Their needs, desires, ethics, characteristics and conjure up to form the psychological context. And this holds true for both the sender and the receiver involved in the interaction. Relational context is all about the kind of relationship the sender and the receiver have with each other. In other words the mix. Psycho-social aspects of communication are referred to as the situational context. It is all about where one is communicating. Its obvious that a communication that takes place in a bar will be very different from what takes place in a class. Environmental context is all about the surroundings in which one is communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day etc are all instances of environmental context. Cultural context involves all forms of behavior which directly affect interaction. For instance if one belongs to a culture foreign or domestic, where long, direct eye contacts is considered rude, one will out of sheer politeness avoid eye contacts. Thus, this is the direct result of sub conscious behavior when one automatically begins avoiding eye contacts in such areas.

Conclusion
During the course of history the concepts of thought and intentional behavior have held sway over most other concepts. It was only after the 1800s that different developments started taking place. Two important discoveries in this regard the hypnotism and the evolutionary theory are quiet commendable.  They both pointed to the concept of unconscious, unintended clauses of human behavior and attitude. Almost two centuries later, contemporary psychological science remains glued to a conscious central model of the higher mental processes. Psychologists have found it difficult to accept that the unconscious mind may have powers of its own and most of the theories are a result of research into subliminal information processing. (Beargh)

In the words of Locke and Latham ., with its operational definition of the unconscious
As a system that handles subliminal-strength stimulation from the environment, has helped to perpetuate the notion that conscious processes are primary and that they are the causal force
Behind most, if not all, human judgment and behavior.

What I propose is a different perspective which states that most unconscious processes are characterized by their unintentional nature.  The lack of awareness is primarily due the impact of triggering stimuli and not of the triggered stimuli. Through this original and ancient definition of the unconscious, contemporary social cognition research on priming and automaticity effects shows that substantiate the presence of adaptive conscious behavior guidance systems.

As elaborated earlier on evolutionary changes occurred as a result of unconscious processes - there was no conscious thought that went into evolution and adaptation For example, things like culture and early learning - we dont think about our culture - we are surrounded by it from an early age and information gets stored in our unconscious mind without our being aware of it - it is inherent.  Same with Early Learning - we learn lots of things at a very young age, which are inherent traits of human kind, which we again, dont consciously think about (for instance, kids, especially infants, learn behavior by passive imitation of parents or friends as infants we unconsciously learn by experience - as we grow up, those learned behaviorsactionsvalues stay with us, and are stored in the unconscious mind - later in life, we dont consciously think about these things - we just know them to be true)

My department puts a very high premium on securing, maintaining and developing the talent and skills necessary for its success. The employee selection process is competent and only lets in the candidates who are most qualified for the particular job. The performance appraisal process, during which employees achievements are assessed against their individual goals and the department goals, is equally thorough and rigorous.

Employee selection
Employee selection at the department is a thorough process which entails individual and group interviews and challenges which the candidates are expected to solve either individually or in groups. While the human resource department, which is in charge of the selection of employees, makes attempts at making the interview process less scaring to help the candidates think, talk and act naturally, the vigour of the process remains evident throughout the process.

The selection process used in the department is borrowed from the TriMetrix System which assesses candidates for their talents which make them particularly suited for the job.  In assessing the talents one has and how applicable they are to the desired job, the system relies heavily on the individuals behaviours, value, and attributes (Enlightened Leadership Solutions, n.d).

Although my department uses the face-to-face interview to assess a candidates values, I must observe that the interview process is a poor and ineffective method of assessing an individuals values. Values entail the internal factors or beliefs which motivate a candidate to do what heshe does, and which would be applicable for the job. Given that there is no sure-fire way of ensuring that what the candidates say during the interview is one hundred percent true, it becomes possible for candidates to associate themselves with some of the best values when they face the interviewing panel only for the team leaders the candidates possess anything but the values they cited during the interview (Woodridge HRM Articles, n.d).

The selection process is also meant to bring out the candidates behaviour which serves as an indicator of how the candidates can be expected to do their work. Candidates whose behaviour falls short of the company standards during the selection process rarely get the job, as it is assumed that the low behaviour standards will persist even after they get the job.  My department involves a lot of interaction between the members of staff and customers. Some of the customers come with foul moods and oftentimes use equally unrefined language yet the staff members are expected to deal maturely with such people, and if possible, lift their moods.

Thirdly, the TriMetrix Talent Report is intended to provide an indication of the candidates attributes. These are used to gauge what benefits a candidate is expected to bring to the department, and to the larger company. To assess the candidates attributes and behaviour, the department prefers real challenges to interviews. Candidates, individually or in groups, are exposed to a normal work-place challenge which they are expected to solve in the manner they think best and within a specified time limit. This method is more effective as through such challenges, the recruiters are able to pick out the candidates whose talents and skills match the job best. Tough but real life challenges bring out the candidates strengths and weaknesses, making it difficult for candidates to fake their strengths and skills. Lazy, hostile and short-tempered candidates rarely go past this stage as how each individual acts in a group is of much interest to the assessors.

The beginning of the year is an interesting time in my department not just because it marks the start of another year but because it is also the time for performance evaluation and goalsetting for all emoployees. The Encyclopedia of Business (n.d) defines performance as the process by which organizations evaluate employee performance based on preset standards. According to the company leadership, performance appraisal helps the management to utilize their human resources effectively, and ultimately, to improve productivity. Performance evaluation at the department is not pegged solely on the department leaderships evaluation. It also takes into consideration customer feedback and work-mates evaluation. An employee is thus evaluated by the management, workmates, and customers in a process which ensures that personality problems or biases have little effect on the annual evaluation report (Encyclopedia of Business, n.d).

Unlike performance appraisals done in agencies I have worked with previously, the present company is open on the appraisals and the employees have access to their evaluation reports. In fact, employees are allowed, and encouraged, to challenge the appraisal team should they feel that it has been unfair in evaluating their performance.

During the performance appraisal, each employees performance is evaluated (by a well-trained appraisal team) to determine whether each has achieved hisher individual goals, and the companys goals for the past year (Baskin, 2002).While the company assures every employee that the performance appraisal is not meant to be a scaring session in which the management dwells on the employees shortcomings and intentionally overlooks their successes, I have observed that most employees are not enthusiastic about performance. Fear for performance appraisals is notably greatest among who have problems with the supervisors during the year over poor time management records, misbehaving during company events and other minor mishappenings which earn one a summon to the department head.

At the end of the performance appraisal exercise, employees who have proved effective and hard-working are promoted or recommended for salary or allowance increases (Peter, 1992). Some are sent for company-financed trainings and are promoted on completion of the training. Some are promoted and retained in the same department while others are promoted and posted to other departments. This group includes employees whose performance has been judged as satisfying to the management, and who have shown significant and consistent improvements over the past year. The top two employees in the department win a two-week-long holiday fully financed by the company.
Employees who accomplish their goals but whose performance is deemed to not have improved significantly or consistently to deserve a promotion or a pay raise are sent for workshops. The reasoning behind this is that such employees are not lazy or incompetent and can therefore improve their performance if motivated and shown how. The only group which loses after a performance appraisal exercise comprises employees whose performance is found wanting. Members of this group are expected to account for their poor performance, and explain to the company leadership why the company should retain them. The luckiest of these are sent for training the cost of which is deducted from their salaries. After the training, they go back to their former positions, or are demoted, with letters warning them to either improve their performance or risk firing. They also have to commit, in writing, to take necessary steps to improve their performance. Those who are considered irredeemable and whose performance has remained poor for the second year running have their contracts terminated.

Measures of central tendency are a group of descriptive statistics that measures the central values of a certain variable distribution. Measures of central tendency include three measures which are the mean, median and the mode. On the other hand, measures of variability are measures that determine the spread of a certain variable distribution. The most common measures of variability are variance and standard deviation. Both measures of central tendency and variability are used to describe the distribution of a certain variable numerically (Howell, 2008).

Other than central tendency and variability, skewness and kurtosis are measures also used to describe the distribution of data variable. Skewness measures the symmetry of a distribution. More precisely, skewness measures the lack of symmetry of a distribution. On the other hand, kurtosis is a measure that determines whether the distribution is flat or peaked (Howell, 2008).

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive StatisticsNRangeMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationSkewnessKurtosisStatisticStatisticStatisticStatisticStatisticStatisticStatisticStd. ErrorStatisticStd. ErrorGPA in 9th Grade2163.75.254.002.4386.84507-.267.166-.572.3309th Grade English Grade2164.00.004.002.4954.90988-.211.166-.287.330IQ Score21682.0055.00137.00102.354212.55762-.114.166.333.330Gender2161.001.002.001.4630.49978.150.166-1.996.330Valid N (listwise)216 Table 1 shows some measures of central tendency, variability, skewness and kurtosis of GPA, IQ score, and Gender. From the table, one can see that the mean GPA is equal to 2.4386. This means that the average GPA for 9th grade is equal to 2.4386. On the other hand, the mean English grade is equal to 2.4954. The value of the mean suggests that the average English grade for 9th grade students is 2.4954. The mean IQ from the table was measured at 102.3542. The value means that the average IQ score of 9th grade students is equal to 102.3542. The mean for the gender value does not mean anything as gender is a nominal variable.

The standard deviation for the GPA is equal to 0.84507. The value means that GPA of 9th grade students spreads in an average of 0.84507 from the mean. The standard deviation for the English grade is equal to 0.90988. The value means that English grade of 9th grade students spreads in an average of 0.90988 from the mean. The standard deviation for the IQ score is equal to 12.5576. The value means that IQ score of 9th grade students spreads in an average of 12.5576 from the mean. The standard deviation for the gender variable is means nothing since the variable is a nominal variable.

The skewness and kurtosis for GPA are -0.267 and -0.572. The value means that the distribution of 9th grade GPA is slightly left tailed and is peaked. The skewness and kurtosis for English grade are -0.211 and -0.287. The value means that the distribution of 9th grade English grades is slightly left tailed and is peaked. The skewness and kurtosis for IQ score are -0.114 and 0.333. The value means that the distribution of 9th grade IQ scores is slightly left tailed and is peaked. The skewness and kurtosis for gender means nothing as gender is a nominal variable.

Table 2
Gender Comparison of IQ score
ReportIQ ScoreGenderMeanNStd. DeviationRangeKurtosisSkewnessMale99.439711612.7257382.00.914.001Female105.735010011.5260955.00-.348-.133Total102.354221612.5576282.00.333-.114 From the table 2, one can see that the mean IQ score of males is 99.4397. This means that the average IQ score of male 9th grade students is equal to 99.4397. The male IQ scores spread around the mean at an average of 12.72573. On the other hand, the mean IQ score of females is equal to 105.735. The value means that the average IQ score of female 9th grade students is equal to 105.735. The IQ scores of 9th grade female students are spread around the mean at an average of 11.52609. From the obtained means for male and female 9th grade students, it seems that females have greater IQ scores than male 9th grade students.

The skewness and kurtosis of male IQ score are equal to 0.914 and 0.001 respectively. This means that the distribution of male IQ scores is approximately symmetrical at the mean. While, the shape of the distribution is peaked. On the other hand, the skewness and kurtosis of female IQ score are equal to -0.348 and -0.133 respectively. The values mean that the distribution of female IQ scores is slightly left tailed and is peaked. The interpretation of skewness and kurtosis of male and female IQ scores reinforced the interpretation given based from the histograms of IQ scores separated based on gender.

The used of descriptive statistics has its strengths. The strengths of the used of descriptive statistics is that it helps in summarizing data for further analysis. In addition, descriptive statistics can be used to visually inspect normality of distributions. However, there are also limitations with the use descriptive statistics. From the name itself, descriptive statistics are only used to describe the distribution of a certain data. Descriptive statistics cannot be used to make inferences regarding the data itself. For example, the average mean IQ score of female 9th grade students is greater than male students. However, one cannot infer that the IQ scores of female 9th grade students are indeed higher than male students based on the descriptive statistics alone.

Behaviorism is a theory which is sometimes called Learning Perspective, and it focuses on the objectively observable behaviors of both animals and human beings. The theory overlooks mental activities. According to behaviorists, learning is just but a process of acquiring new behavior. According to this philosophy of psychology, everything done, either by acting, thinking or feeling should be counted as behavior.  They point out that, both observable and non-observable processes (mental) should be scientifically explained though without any internal hypothesis. Various behaviorists have different approaches to behavior still. For instance, Skinners approach is molecular which is controversial to Tolmans Molar approach. This article focuses on Edward Chace Tolmans theory of behaviorism and his contribution as well as what influenced him to come up with the theory.

Life and Inspiration
Edward Tolman is an American cognitive behaviorism theorist. He is remembered for having greatly contributed to the field of psychology especially in the sector of motivation and learning. Born in Newton in 1886, he grew up and schooled there. His father a business man expected him and his elder brother to join him in business once they were out of school but Tolman decided to pursue his career contrary to their fathers wish. He pursued philosophy and psychology through the inspiration of William James writings. In the process of learning, he discovered that his interest was more rooted in psychology than philosophy and so he made up his mind to go for it. After building up his career there is much contribution that is recorded about him in the field of psychology.  While in school at Harvard, he studied ethics as one of his subjects and the subject of motivation was an inspiration to him. After his studies in Harvard, he went ahead for his Ph. D in German and it is here that he got introduced to Gestalt psychology as he was taught and also through readings of Koffka. After the summer season, he went back to Harvard where he studied in the laboratory under Hugo Munsterberg who was also an inspiration to him. He later on went back to study Gestalt psychology which formed the basis of his theory (Hergenhan. 2005, p. 457). This approach opposed the molecular approach to behavior and accepted Molar approach which he argued would give an individual a chance to study phenomenological experience. This refers to studying the physical to explain the invisible. According to this approach it was argued that it would be very important to concentrate on the whole than to study parts as opposed to those who were suggesting molecular approach (Hergenhan. 2005, p. 457). Tolman could not understand how psychology could be defined as the examination and analysis of the conscious and incommunicable elements and this prompted him to come up with his own theory (Hergenman. 2005, p. 427).
                                       
His Theory
Edward came up with a theory which was molar and was in opposition to molecular approach to the study of behavior. He defined it as a way of giving proper definition to behavior in psychology. He did not regard the neural and muscular elements as necessary in his study. In his opinion the molar part of humanity has more influence than the molecular in the establishment of human behavior. According to him, molecular basis of behavior was inadequate and reductionism resulted in the loss of psychological level. He is remembered to be the founder of Cognitive Behavior. Edward was not radical in his behaviorist theory as was with B.F. Skinner. His work later on influenced Watsons work and he also used Gestalt psychology when describing nature of holistic as well as insightful learning. The approach consisted of studying human behavior so as to establish what goes on or mental processes in both men and animals. His theory of behavior was greatly influenced by his school, Gestalt psychology where he borrows the pattern idea. These patterns refer to motivation perception and cognition which are regarded to be processes involving identification and interpretation of patterns of stimulation (Hergenman. 2005, p. 428) In addition to identification and interpretation, reactions are also planned and finally executed.  In his concept of behaviorism, he explained that mental processes are defined objectively. He viewed it as necessary for both animals like rats, monkeys as well as human beings. In this, anything that is private to an individual cannot be scrutinized scientifically.

Contributions to psychology
Edwardss contributions to psychology are many. Out of the many, he has some outstanding ones. To begin with are his showing maps in rats. Using examples of rats, he portrayed that they did not only ran from left to right or anyhow but that they used cognitive maps. To prove this argument, he used a maze and always had a habit of running them through it. In his experiment the starting point was A, and he would run the rats to B. The experiment involved directing the rats to get food at B and so they learnt to turn in order to arrive at B. After having learnt the route he used a different direction, C and out of it he still discovered that the rats were using the cognitive map since they did not turn to D.  He illustrated this in his book, the Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. It is through this experiment that he purposed to explain that animals as well as human beings learn facts in their surrounding that could be used in a flexible manner than just learning automatic responses triggered by the world around them. The Cognitive Map is illustrated here below (A2zpsychology.com, 2010).

The concept of cognitive map has been widely applied in the 21st century among scientists who might be ignorant that its purpose was initially to explain the behavior of rats in a maze. His main purpose was to establish a way in which psychology could be used to solve human conflicts thus he wrote a book entitled Drives toward War. He is also remembered as one of the professors in the University of California who refused to sign a loyalty oath which according to him was meant to infringe academic freedom, he is still remembered for this legacy and a n Education and Psychology faculty building was named Tolman Hall in commemoration of his good work. By borrowing his ideas Daniel Kahneman won a Nobel Prize in 2002.

Latent learning is his second contribution which he built from the first one. The first one  showed that rats would be motivated in their movements basing on the rewards they got but still in this second experiment he discovered that even without rewards the rats would still maintain their movements latent learning theory. He used three groups of rats in which one was one that got food immediately, another after three days and the last one after, seven days.  Once the reward was introduced it was evident that the rats increased their pace of movement though despite the absence of rewards they still followed their cognitive maps. Through this experiment, he also related to human beings that many at times they also use latent learning. This was taken up by another theorist called Clark L. Hull who came after him and built on it (A2zpsychology.com, 2010).
   
His third contribution was also founded from the second experiment. He came up with intervening variables. He said that these were determinants of behaviors although they could not be seen. An example is hunger which influences ones behavior once the individual is hungry although no one can touch it nor see it, it is only felt. Behaviorists were then forced to change their model from S-R (Stimulus-Response) to S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response). He finally has also contributed to the use of white rats which is still in use in experiments today. In his experiments he preferred using rats since he viewed humanity as quite unreliable and found the opposite in rats (A2zpsychology.com, 2010).
   
Edward Tolman is still considered as the pioneer of Cognitive psychology. He was a very kind, honest and flexible individual that could accept change and correction. He listened to peoples views and adapted or changed where necessary (Hergenman. 2005, p. 428). His work is still helpful to individuals in psychology. For instance his work of rats in a maze was well explored by Hull. Skinners paper of Are theories of learning necessary made many animal psychologists to focus on the behavior rather than on the internal processes thus majority focused on Tolmans theory. Tolmans ideas began declining in the late 1950s and early 1960s although his achievements were much. Tolmans work paved way for the study of decision theory especially through borrowing ideas of cognitive psychology (A2zpsychology.com, 2010). Every contribution was equally important but more specifically the intervening variables which led to more studies on the measurement of the unseen behaviors has had more influence.
             
He is not only well known for his studies of rats using a maze  but also in  his publication of articles especially like one that he published with Ritchie and Kalish in 1946. Others involve his book, Purpose of Behavior in Animals and Men. Most of these books are being referred by present psychologists in attempt to solve current psychological problems.
         
Unlike the former theorists like structuralism, Talmon focuses on the outside and does not put much consideration on the mental processes. Structuralism being the first school of psychology was focusing on the breakdown of mental processes to more basic elements. The study of such components was being approached by the process of introspection. The similarity that exists between it and behaviorism is that both attempt to explain the process that individuals undergo when they are learning. Functionalism on the other hand also tried to build up in structuralism especially by trying to explain mental processes in a more elaborate manner. The theory focused on the purpose of consciousness as well as behavior. Just like behaviorism, the theory tries to explain why people behave the way they do. Functionalism is recorded to have influenced behaviorism theory. Following his former theorists of behaviorism, Tolman differed with the well known theorist of behaviorism, Watson. He believed that the kind of behavior that Watson was focusing on was the wrong one. He could not understand how he could use the term purpose yet still remain to be a behaviorist.

Conclusion
Psychology generally attempts to explain the behavior of man as well as animals. Tolman through his experiments stood his ground that one could not study behavior by focusing the unseen elements instead he approached from the outside, Molar approach. Former psychologists were an inspiration to him as well as his studies and lectures. The relevance of his work is still important to scientists in this twenty first century who are trying to get solutions to problems.