Psychology

Video games have increasingly become popular among students in the past few decades and have now become a cash cow with enormous financial success. Videogames have particularly impacted young people and students on the manner in which they spend their leisure time. The most important areas that have drawn the interest of most researchers is the negative consequences brought about by violent games among students, the application of video games on training and educational purposes and the general consequences of entertainment video games. Apart from the negative impacts of video games among the students, there are other potential applications of video games in leaning institutions, which make video games to be important and avoid being perceived with a negative judgment (Gentile, 2004).

There are a number of reasons why students choose to play video games. Some of these advantages are directly related to the merits of playing the video games. It has proved to be a fun moment playing video games. The highly advanced graphics and excellent computer-user interaction makes the video games to be highly sought for.  Video games break the boredom of the day and can turn a day filled with distress to great joy. Individuals burdened with tension can choose to play video games to enable them reduce the tension to some level (Gentile, 2004). Video games play a critical role among students who may wish to become games developers. The video games are the starting for mastering the art of game design. It follows that one has to   appreciate what is existing in order to create novel products after improving the already present state. These games therefore act as an introduction to students who wish to develop games for fun or for commercialization.

Negative Impacts of Video Games on Students
There are a number of compelling arguments that have been made against video games among students. The empirical studies on the effect of media has resulted to researchers getting more and more interested on the impact of video games on their users. Results have shown that video games have great impacts of the psychological and social standpoints, impacting the users explicitly and implicitly (Bushman  Anderson, 2001). Although, video games have become popular over the recent years, empirical research has shown that this popularity is not of the same magnitude as that of other forms of media.  Most of the negative effects of video games result due to too much violence that is incorporated in the video games (Bushman  Anderson, 2001). Impacts of human health have also been suggested to be among the leading problems of video games among students. The excessive spending of time and resources is also one of the ways students can negatively be impacted by computer and video games (Walsh, Liner, Lynch  Gentile, 2004).

Thorough investigation into the effect of violent video games began some three centuries ago and still gains more extensive research in the current world. Violent video games have been associated with more intense aggressive feelings than the non-violent ones (Bushman  Anderson, 2001). Majority of the negative influence of video games are associated with the cause of violence among their users. More aggressive thoughts, behaviors and feelings develop in students who frequently play video games than the one who dont play them. The students who constantly play video games present a decreased pro-social support according to researcher in the filed (Bushman  Anderson, 2001).

The violent nature of most of the video games make the students emulate and become violent as required in most of the games (Tamborine, Smith,  Lanchlan, 2005). In most violent video games, players are awarded for being violent the more violent the players are, the more the points one is awarded. The player is in full charge of the experiences and the violence acts such as stabbing, killing or kicking that is frequently required in most games in order to score higher (Tamborine, Smith,  Lanchlan, 2005). The repetitive kicking and stabbing act as important elements in learning behavior

Another impact of video games is the risk of developing repetitive motion injury which has been observed among the users of videogames as well as computers. Carpal tunnel syndrome is one of such disorders of repetitive motion injury. As individuals play highly interactive games that provide great graphic user interface (GUI), they end up developing problems with their musculature (Chan  Rabinowitz, 2006).

Researchers have linked video games to adverse conditions related to the autonomic nervous system (Tamborine, Smith,  Lanchlan, 2005). Video games evoke tension and cause fear among the students who play them. The fear and tension causes a long term effect to the autonomic nerves. Autonomic nerves are tightly connected to the internal organ processes which are coordinated involuntarily (Tamborine, Smith,  Lanchlan, 2005). Examples of such processes include heart rate and breathing. Electric signals originating from the emotional centers of the brain or sometimes from chemical signals such as norepinephrine and epinephrine have been suggested to alter the heart rate. Norepinephrine and epinephrine are hormones which act as chemical messengers and are released in times of dangers (Tamborine, Smith,  Lanchlan, 2005). These chemicals are produced when individuals play video games and can result to serious health complications such as alteration of blood pressure, heart rate and oxygen intake. The implication of the effect of video games on the heart rate clearly shows that the brain interprets events during playing video games as real danger.

The effect of video games to the brain has been established (Kardaras, 2008). Thanks to advanced technologies that scan the brain and brain activities. Students who play video games get so wrapped up to an extent of forgetting their surrounding and beginning to perceive events occurring in the video games as real. Apart from the video games causing heart rate and effects to the breathing system, they reduce the activity of the prefrontal lobe when individuals are playing the game (Kardaras, 2008). Perhaps this effect best explains why students who play video games become more and more emotional and aggressive. Supporters of video games have argued that not all type of video games because such problems with the brain function are only caused by violent video games (Kardaras, 2008). They suggest that there are other gentle videogames that are even friendly to children.  At the design level, game makers have even made efforts to include voices of females in games that are mostly played by children in the Pre School going level.

A possible exposure to electromagnetic radiations has been suggested among the students who frequently play video games (Kardaras, 2008). These radiations originate from computer monitors and can cause great dangers to the brain and other critical parts of the body such as the kidneys and the liver (Kardaras, 2008). The effect of electromagnetic radiations has been known in history and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration always makes efforts to set out guidelines which regulate the exposure of electromagnetic radiations (Kardaras, 2008). The risk of exposure however varies with the positioning of the monitor in relationship to the user.

Other claims have raised concern over the cause of obesity among students (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). It has been argued that too much video playing makes students not to take more physical exercise and instead sit the entire day playing the video games. The rate of metabolism is lowered with the fats accumulating in the adipose tissues when individuals dont take enough physical activities. The accumulated fats may cause other related problems such as heart attack, coronary thrombosis and diabetes (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). However, sedentary nature among students alone cannot be blamed of the incidence of abortion. It means therefore than other primary causes of obesity still exist and sedentary should not be blamed al times.

Positive Effects of Video Games
Video games have gained more entry and support in learning and research institutions. The modern computers can process millions of commands giving them the capacity to do numerous simulations within a nanosecond (Gentile, 2004). Modern computer processors are a million times faster than the Apollo spacecraft which landed on the surface of the moon. The recognition of computers and video games came to be viable in the last three decades when it became compulsory for all the classrooms to be equipped with computers (Gentile, 2004). Since 1980s, computers have been a great resource in teaching and learning. It has now jokingly been suggested that computers are soon replacing human teachers in the classrooms. Research in artificial intelligence and gaming is still underway to develop robots that are fully conscious. Some video games such as home console games have been shown to have potential benefits to students in the learning process (Gentile, 2009).

Video games are excellent teachers. Since students always find them very motivating by virtue of the interactive feature they present, because of their interactive nature. The games often provide a repetitive practice that will enable the students learn and understand concepts better (Gentile, 2004). Health skills and self care practices for individuals with diabetes and asthma can be gained from video games that are designed to offer the specialized functions. The video games have a positive impact in imparting skills, attitudes and behaviors to students who are the main target of the games.  The actual skills are improved when students play video games. In an observation that was made among the students studying surgery, the visual and spatial attention skills were highly developed which is important in medical students (Gentile, 2004).

In some states, computers are not common to everyone and the development of technology is still in its low tune (Oak, 2010). However, video games have been made available and can be played using some other electronic gadgets other than computers such as VCD players. This availability of gaming technology has introduced majority of students into the field of information technology. Students learn basic skills such as giving commands to the video game player by pressing buttons on their joysticks or other game controlling accessories (Oak, 2010). Although students might not be willing to learn more aspects of information technology, the availability of games on the internet has made them to master internet browsing skills which they could not gain were it not for the video games.

Most video provide significant practice on how to follow instructions (Gentile, 2004). The design of majority of video games allows stepwise following of instructions. Failure to learn the instructions means failing to score higher marks. Therefore, the player commits himself or herself reading through all the steps in a keen manner. As the players read through the instructions, they ensure that they have understood how the game is played (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). They can then play the game without the need to refer to the instructions. These forms of skills gained from video games can benefit students in terms of paying more attention to every single detail. In their future careers, the students become keen to details in their workplace, a character most envied by investors and managers.

Some games are very challenging. They often involve input of more logic thinking and tactics of problem solutions. As the students engage in these games, they find themselves being smart in the way they approach problems. Their ways of thinking changes as complex logic is heavily needed in paying the game just like the real-life situations. It may even be complex to solve problems playing video games than cracking problems in everyday life (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2009). Logical thinking is not only important for human survival but it is also important in the workplace where the students will in the future be required to practice managerial decision. Managerial decision making is critical in the growth of an organization. Apart from the students taking up managerial positions in their future career, video games can equip someone to play an active role as a team player who can be a good asset to organizations and companies.

Perhaps the most important aspect in a family is living together and having unity. Video games cut the disparity among family members bringing together parents close to their children (Gentile, 2004). Parents can play video games with their fathers and mothers hence enhancing good cohesiveness in the family. Communication among members of the family is enriched and issues are discussed together. The closeness of parents to their children make it possible for the children to be free with them and can make any requested they choose to (Gentile, 2004). Being free with their parents, the children can share more complex issues such as matters to do with their sex life which is important. Unlike the students who do not get close with their parents, the students who maintain closeness to their parents have lots of benefits while in campuses and colleges. They can freely request for financial support from the parents instead of living with the problem or handling the problem single-handedly (Gentile, 2004).

Another area that is gaining more and more attention is the application of video games in alternative medicine. Several interventions have been made which helps patients recover from certain chronic illnesses without the use of orthodox medicine. The conventional medicines are suggested to have an array of side effects which range from damage to the liver and kidneys to several allergic reactions in the bodies of patients (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). Video games have been suggested to help reduce symptoms of depression which are common in most bipolar disorders and borderline personality disorders (BPD). There is an established connection between the influences of video games on the human brain function. Since video games involve some commitments of the brain in active process, they can greatly help individuals forget all the stress that afflict them (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). Stress is at the peak levels when someone is in total rest and the brain finds an opportunity to rummage over the past events.

Puzzle games such as the most popular Tetris have taken an emergent standpoint which makes video games not to have always an eye of blame by several activists. Tetris for instance, stimulates the mind through the challenges and puzzles that are channeled by the player instead of the enemies of the world. Students often play the video games in order to remain sober, active and alert (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2009). This ideology has been supported by a number of researchers who have associated video games with some healing powers. Video games are relaxing and very soothing. The video games can easily be altered in order to fit individuals. For instance, video games can be created to address problems faced by different types of people (Oak, 2010). Researchers have used video games in the management and therapeutic intervention although research progress in this area is all about mentally ill or with people with having problems with their brains has become an important aspect in human life today. As the economic downturn sweeps credit cards and people become increasingly worried of their dollars in the banks, video games have acted as the best entertainment among people of all ages. Importantly is the role of video games in entertainment. Students are constantly met with challenging situations in schools and campuses (Oak, 2010). For instance, financial, social and academic problems are common among campus students. Examination period can prove to be a very testing period and often associated with stress. Management of finances among most students is a difficult aspect especially the ones who use alcohol and other drugs. Video games have been the sole entertainment apart from music and movies (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). Unlike movies and music, video games involve the use of both mind and body. Individuals have to fully participate mentally and physically making video games to be exceptional entertainment mode for students.

The coordination between hands and eyes is heightened. Students who play video games at least need to have some skills as a prerequisite to playing and scoring handsome points (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). The player in the video games is supposed to put him or herself into task and do something more in order to score great marks. This means that players are supposed to do several tasks at the same time. In most video games, players are supposed to move while shooting and communicating to members of the combat group to be set ready for war. In this scenario, students get into the real game taking all the possible steps to ensure that all is done well in order to get good award of marks (Gentile, 2004). For effective playing of the video games, the players are supposed to have a good coordination of the eyes and the hands as well as the improvement of the visual-spatial ability. Researchers have shown evidence that suggest that there are solid relationships between paying video games and the improvement of the eyes and hands condition.

Students exploit the potential of video games in the simulation process. A simulation is the ability of an interactive multimedia element to mimic some events in the real life phenomena. In the industry, among the most known simulations occur in the aviatio006E industry where the reality of a flying plane is mimicked in a video game (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). All the airplane controls such as the wing angles, airspeed, and altimeter and so forth are simplified and can be accessed through the touch of a button. Students have found many gains from the simulations as they are able to relate normal life situations with what they see on the screen. The video games can therefore be said to be mind openers on various complex phenomena that are difficult for the students to decipher.

Although it has already been argued that most video games cause antisocial behaviors, the games have appositive impact towards the development of the social value in the family (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). Students who have mastered the games may spend time teaching their juniors, seniors or even their own parents. Thorough this, the parents can easily notice some of the special features that the children possess. They can therefore be able to identify where the children belong in terms of talents and in various skills. In addition, majority of video games are now being played by more than one person at the same time. Students share game playing with their sibling and friends thus improving their social relationships with diverse groups of people (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2009).

While proponents have argued that video games particularly the ones that contain violent scenes lead to the students developing aggressive and violent characters, video games have been shown to significantly reduce this very same aggression (Gentile, 2004). The student learns a lot from the game. They learn how to survive in difficult situations. It is obvious that no parent would love to see his or her child to shooting people on the streets or acting violently towards some light scenarios which should not cause any reaction. Instead, researchers have suggested that video games do the opposite of what they are expected of. The students no longer fight their siblings nor throw tantrums they often channel their anger in the most constructive manner. They can now act passively towards situations in the real world. Critics have even suggested that situations such as playing football can be most violent among students than playing video games on computers and VCD (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). In football for instance, players are advised to become violent in the field in case their team is on a losing end. This is a situation that creates a controversy that video games are not such violent as it may compare with other games such as football and netball.

Some of the recommendations should be adopted by parents in order to ensure that students always use the video games in an appropriate manner. All the violent video games not should be allowed in the house (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). They can however be encouraged to play challenging video games which do not need to have so violent characters or harsh voices which might make other stock. By looking at the front cover of the cover when purchasing video games, one should be keen not to choose those that have aspects of sex, nudity and violence (Gentile, 2004). When shopping for video games, one should ensure that he or she considers that games are played by multiple players. This encourages group play which brings being duty. It is also recommended that before purchasing any online video games, one to be keen on the description of the games before purchasing.

The choice one has to make on which video game to play does not start when one is in the university or college. This quality develops and becomes fully functional as one attains adult age. Individuals can choose to play any kind of video games that can be fine with them (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). Although the violent video games may also have significant effects to students in colleges or universities, there is little to be done in the limiting this group of population from engaging themselves in such games. Perhaps the government should increase the levy on all violent video games. Self discipline is important to ensure the student dont waste enormous resources and time playing games

Conclusion
It remains to be factual that majority of video games are full of fun and appropriate to be used by students in diverse applications. Although violent video games may be linked to an increased aggressive behavior, other non-violent video games are friendly to use even to the Pre School going children. It therefore means that the demonizing of all video games is not empirical and justice action and video games should be encouraged among the youth who are increasingly becoming more attracted to the technology (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2001). It is agreed that video games may cause some forms of addiction. Sitting on the front of the screen for a long time and playing the games each and every day causes one to develop addiction since the process is repeated over and over (Bushman,  Anderson, 2001). The cumulative effects of computers, video games and televisions have also come into great debate. It is healthy for the parents to keep monitoring their children over the use of video games and put some limits. The same way the television is highly monitored to avoid bad content the video games deserve to be watched closely.

Euthanasia or mercy killing as it is often called  is the act of deliberately killing a person for that his or her own benefit. It is carried out when a dying person requests for it, although in some instances it may be carried out on a dying person who cannot be able to make such a request. However, there some other cases where patients want to die, though they may not necessarily be having terminal illnesses (BBC, 2010). Euthanasia has been a topic of debate for many years, with no universally agreed compromise. Those against euthanasia have over the years taken firm stands and, in fact, it is those who argue in its favor who tend to shift ground and join the anti-euthanasia camp (Craine, 2009).  It is no surprise that euthanasia is illegal in most countries, considering the ethical and legal issues involved (Eads, 1997).  Euthanasia should never be an option for terminally ill patients as their lives are of great value despite the fact that they may be dying.

Euthanasia and Ethics
Euthanasia can be executed by doing or omitting something. For example, a doctor may give lethal injections to terminally ill patients, or disconnect the patients feeding tube. Physical conditions like incontinence, breathlessness, paralysis, nausea and vomiting can severely damage terminally ill peoples quality of life (BBC, 2010). Psychological factors like depression and fear of loss of a persons dignity may cause them to consider euthanasia. However, it is not euthanasia if a patient dies as a result of refusing extraordinary or burdensome medical treatment. Administering drugs to reduce pain even though the drugs leads to patients dying sooner is not considered to be euthanasia as the doctors intention is not to kill that patient but to relieve pain, an argument called the Doctrine of Double Effect (BBC, 2010).

Euthanasia elicits many agonizing ethical questions like whether it is right for another person to end a terminally ill persons life because that person is in severe pain under what circumstances will euthanasia be said to be right What moral different is there between letting the terminally ill person die and killing them Central to the arguments are the different peoples ideas to the human existences value and meaning, and whether any human being has the right to make decisions on life and death issues for themselves. Yet, regardless of whether euthanasia was morally right, some people believe it should never be permitted, as it would be abused and used to cover up for murder (Marker  Kathi, 2010).

People should consider relieving other peoples suffering whenever possible and help those suffering bear their pain when they cannot relieve it. Eliminating others should never be an option when dealing with suffering problems. Also, how would people define suffering Considering that what one person may consider as suffering may not be suffering to another, it is also impossible to usefully measure suffering and define circumstances under which suffering would be said to be unbearable because different people react differently to the same physical or mental conditions (BBC, 2010). That is why human beings life should be respected regardless of age, race, social status, sex, achievement potential, etc. Just the fact that one is human in itself has value. According to Emmanuel Kant, a persons inherent value does not depend on whether the person is having an enjoyably good life, or whether that person is making others lives better. Just by existing, that person has value. To end ones life merely because it looks like the most effective to end ones suffering is failing to respect ones inherent worth (Euthanasia, 2010).

Legal involuntary euthanasia may cause doctors to start killing people without their permission in order to save money or simply free up hospital beds. A good example is a terminally ill patient in a Holland clinic whose cancer had spread from her breast to her bones, lungs and liver. One of the doctors, having examined her, gave her pain-relieving medication (Eads, 1997). After about a day, she was pain-free and, although she was aware she did not have many days to live, she remained calm and able to see her husband and even her family. Later, the doctor received a call from a nurse informing him that after he had left, another doctor entered the woman patients ward, asking her husband who was accompanied by her sister to leave, ordered the patients morphine dose to be increased without a written confirmation. The patient died within a few minutes. When the doctor who had examined her demanded an explanation, his colleague replied that he needed the bed (Eads, 1997).

Allowing euthanasia is the same as saying that it is better to die than be disabled or sick that there some lives unworthy of living. This does not just put such people at risk, but also down-grades their value as living human beings. Able-bodied or healthy people take life with terminal illnesses and disabilities to be a disaster, with some societies regarding such terminally ill people as a burden or as inferior (BBC, 2010).  For example, an elderly person who cannot even understand a menu may be asked to sign to consent to have euthanasia carried out on him because some people see the person as a burden. This would be more like murder, because the person cannot be said to understand the issue in the first place (Euthanasia, 2010).

Conclusion
Even a former Dutch health minister who proposed the bill to legalize euthanasia in Holland admitted that they made a mistake by legalizing the practice (Craine, 2009). That is why palliative care is the better option despite some people advocating for euthanasias legalization, the evidence of abuse of the practice, that is even where allowed, is as overwhelming as much as it is shocking.

THE BOND is a classic work that covers a subject that has been examined many times over the past several decades. The subject of the book deals with issues related to absentee fathers in the African-American community. In particular, this work deals with the struggles and tribulations of three African-American men reflecting on how growing up in the inner city of Newark, NJ without a father in the home impacted their lives. What makes this work so outstanding is that in addition to the insight it provides, it also shows there is great hope that can be derived from overcoming the struggles and difficulties of such a childhood.

Far too often, issues surrounding the parent-child relationship are not examined from psychological perspectives. That is, the impact of such a home life on the psyche of the child is not effectively evaluated outside clinical texts. With THE BOND, we see a much more human face on the problem. This allows the reader to gain a better understanding of the how behavioral development occurs in such a home. This is not to say, however, that the end result will always be one that is negative. Rather, great hope can derive from the process.

Among the many positive themes put forth in the book is a clear evaluation of the development of self-confidence. It is true that growing up without a strong male figure in the home can undermine a young mans development. THE BOND does point out that many facets that are taken for granted in a father-son dynamic can play a vital role in a childs development. For example, having a father figure that teaches a son the ability to do something as seemingly minor as learning how to shave can have an impact on how the childs development is enhanced.

Partially, this is because when a child is not provided with the proper guidance of an older and more experienced adult figure, the child is left to figure things out on his own. This can prove problematic because the child lacks the world experience to make such decisions effectively. As such, the child will be prone to making scores of errors. This can lead to a number of problems with peers that undermines the childs ability to become self-confident.

There is a dark cloud that can hang over the head of a child when he is lacking self-confidence. He can end up being susceptible to peer pressure or may become a target of bullying. Neither of these aspects are good for the overall development of the child. That is why the negative impact of a lack of self-confidence should ever be overlooked.

Additionally, a lack of self-confidence can lead to a great deal of negative internal dialogue that lays the foundation for further personality disorder developments later in life. To say this can undermine the childs ability to be productive to himself, his family, and society in general would be an accurate assumption.

However, THE BOND does not present a bleak picture of hopelessness. In fact, with this particular work, it is the opposite that is true. This is a work that promotes notions of internal strength and fortitude. As a result, it twists a few of the common conventions of the relationships between a broken home and personality disorders on its proverbial head.

Far too often, psychological case studies of those that have grown up in single parent homes read like a potboiler crime novel. That is to say, the child ends up being sexually promiscuous, involved in a life of crime, or addicted to drugs. While such things do happen, there is also another side to the story. There are those  as evidenced by The Three Doctors  that use their difficult situations to rise above the problems they face and succeed in spite of such problems. Additionally, The Three Doctors succeeded to a far greater degree in life than others that had what is perceived to be a better home life and better financial stability. What The Three Doctors possessed that others did not was the drive, determination, and the will to succeed. Such are the character traits of strong, supremely confident individuals who are not suffering under the weight of personality disorders or other such psychic hindrances or obstacles.

It could be credibly stated that one of the main benefits of this book is that it exposes a number of myths surrounding stereotypes of inner city youths. Each and every day, members of the inner city grow into adulthood and become great successes. THE BOND is a clear illustration of this which is why it is such a seminal work. It does not wallow in the faulty logic far too many tales of inner city misery wallow in. No, this is a book of realistic inspiration and the triumph of the human spirit. That is why it remains such a valuable and vital work.

In terms of the mental health issues the men had to deal with, anger management would definitely be a major component. There is a great deal of anger and anguish one can feel when dealing with an absentee father. This anger can internalize into rage which could certainly prove to be a serious psychological problem.

Anxiety disorders can also develop in such a scenario. This could be considered a component connected to the aforementioned problem of anger management. It could also be a stand alone psychological disorder as well.

Depression certainly will rear its head and this is evidenced by a number of problems in which the men faced at varying points in their lives. Difficulties in life can be compounded by the feelings of despondency that are common when one feels alone or isolated. The lack of a father in the home would contribute to such feelings to a great degree.

While these problems do make their presence felt in the work, it is also important to point out that there are means in which one can effectively deal with such psychological problems. At the core of any psychological therapy would be to get to the root of the negative personality disorders the case subject may be facing. In many instances, it is a lack of awareness that not having a strong father figure in the home is the prime root of the problems. By making the subject understand such issues opens the door for properly and effectively dealing with the problem in necessary therapy sessions.

THE BOND remains one of the most helpful and inspirational books on the subject of dealing with life without a father in the home. While many texts on the subject are clinical in their approach, THE BOND brings three human faces to the subject and does so in a touching and brilliant manner. 

Dissociative Identity disorder is a complex disease and the people who are living with the patient or the persons involved in the medication and therapy of the patient have a complex task at hand.

Most common cause of dissociative identity disorder is a traumatic experience in the childhood which can be sexual abuse or other form of abuse of the child through a near relation.

A combination of therapy and medication is used to treat patient. The therapist and family that is providing care to the patient have to work together as a team. Gradually the patient is able to trust the therapist and his anger and hurt subside enough to let him rely on his therapist and family for comfort and understanding.

Thus dissociative identity disorder patient not only requires therapy and medication for his treatment but constant support from family members is also crucial for their recovery.

The topic of this research paper is to study the role and responsibilities of caregiver either professional or personal in the life id a person diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorder. Dissociative Identity disorder is a complex disease and the people who are living with the patient or the persons involved in the medication and therapy of the patient have a complex task at hand of looking after a person suffering from Dissociative personality disorder. What should be the behavior of these care providers and what techniques they should apply while handling a dissociative identity disorder patient These areas shall be explored in detail to provide guidance for immediate and extended family members to effectively look after a dissociative identity disorder patient.

Dissociative Identity Disorder
Overview

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) formerly termed as multiple personality disorder describes the condition of the patient where one or more personality routinely takes possession of the patients body besides his primary personality. Most of the time this personality switch is not known by the person himself and the patient when under the influence of another personality may exhibit behavior and conduct totally opposite to his actual personality. Some times these behavior may be violent even suicidal which is a cause for great concern when tending to such patients. In a person with dissociative identity disorder, personalities other than the host personality exist (Butcher, Mineka and Hooley, 2010)

Symptoms
A person having Dissociative identity disorder may exhibits symptoms from an early age. Therefore immediate family members like parents or siblings can identify the Dissociative identity disorder in a child and treatment can start to control the symptoms even at child level.
These are some common symptoms that are indicative of dissociative identity disorder disease in children

Severe headache and other kinds of pain.
Memory loss
Burst of anger
Mood swings
Anxiety and depression
Sleep disorders

Adults may have some more matured symptoms like

Amnesia  patient may forget major events or may not remember long periods of his life
Depersonalization  Patient may not be able to feel real and think of his life events as watching a movie. He has an out of body feeling.

Derealization- Patient may not perceive the outside world as real. He may perceive the external world as distorted and lacking stable existence (Butcher, Mineka and  Hooley, 2010)

Identity disturbance- Patient may not remember his own personality traits or have confusion about his own identity.

Nervousness or panic attacks leading to violence or suicidal instincts.

Causes
Most common cause of dissociative identity disorder is a traumatic experience in the childhood which can be sexual abuse or other form of abuse of the child through a near relation. Other causes include severe shock from an incident of death of a near relation or army dislocation etc. In all these cases the child experiences a continual shock and fear which is not handled by the child and he experiences a split in his personality to cope with the situation. Usually the helpless personality is the host and the helper personalities are alters that may be violent to vent out the anger inside the child which the helpless personality fails to do. When the child experiences any stressful condition later in his life, these alters come alive inside him and gain control, handling the situation for the helpless host.

Treatment
Many treatments are available for dissociative identity disorder patients and a combination of these therapies can help the individual to lead a better life.

Individual Psychotherapy Usually the therapy is targeted to the host personality and efforts are made to integrate the alters in the host personality so that all may become one. It is a time consuming procedure and different kind of therapies may be involved for over 5 to 7 years.

Family Therapy It is very important to educate the family regarding the behavior of a dissociative identity disorder patient so that they may know what to expect.

Group Therapy A group therapy with many dissociative identity disorder patients is sometimes helpful in venting out the hate and anger from the patients as each of them belong to the same sphere. Group therapy may be useful, particularly if it is psycho-educational in orientation (Brand, 1998 Silberg et al., 1997). Promoting positive peer interactions may help build in long-term resiliency for patients.

Hypnosis Hypnosis may also be used along with therapy to relax the patient and get information about traumatic experiences in the past.

Medication Sleep medications may also be used to get desired results. It will help calm the patient and keep their emotional level down. Medications like anti-depressants or tranquilizers are a very common treatment method because the personalities may have anxiety or mood disorders and the medications may help control the mental health symptoms associated with the disorders.(Viarni,2010)

Role of therapist

The therapist plays a vital role in the betterment and recovery of dissociative identity disorder patients. Therapy is a slow and time consuming process and therapist have to move very cautiously when dealing with DID patients, as these patients have the tendency to get violent and fatal. Sometimes even the life of therapist may be in danger when dealing with a dissociative identity disorder patient. That is why Hypnosis and medications are used to relax the patient otherwise getting to terms with the painful experiences of the past may wake an angry alter in the patient and patient may display violent behavior towards the therapist. Gradually over a time period of years the patient is able to trust the therapist and his anger and hurt at the painful experiences subside enough to let him go the support of the alters and rely on his therapist and family for comfort and understanding. Then only can he begin to regain his normal life control his emotions and balance them. Therapists are advised to be
open-minded to a variety of approaches and take the best from each in dealing with the challenges of any individual child or adolescent (Silberg, 2003).

Role of immediate family

Living with a dissociative identity disorder patient is a difficult task. Taking care of such a person whose actions are completely unpredictable may pose great threat to the caregiver person or family members. In this case the primary caregivers must be thoroughly educated to the behavior of a dissociative identity disorder person (Waters, 1998) and they may be trained to respond accordingly to the patients mood swings especially when he is in an aggressive and violent mood. Family can set designated times to discuss unpleasant memories so that these do not interfere with daily functioning (waters, 1998). Effort should be made not to make the patient unhappy or stressed because this is the time when the alter personality comes to the aid of the host because the alter thinks that host is incapable of handling a stressful situation. The patient may change his personality from meek and helpless to violent and dangerous in the blink of an eye. These are the situations that must be avoided.

The patient should be kept happy and satisfied, if he feels down the family should assure him of their love and support so that he may not feel lonely and turn inside himself to seek aid, instead he may grasp the extended hands of the family member and feel loved. In this way, slowly the patient will learn to trust the family and rely on them for his needs (Waters, 1998). On the part of family members like parents and siblings lies a tough job of constantly bearing with the patients mood swings, his dependability and trying to keep him as comfortable and satisfied as possible so that he may not need to fall back on his alters at the time of distress. Parents have to help by engaging the patient in constructive activities speaking to the patient softly soothing his hurt and healing his wounded soul.

Even when an alter takes over the host parent should maintain eye contact with the patient and try to calm him down giving medication to relax and eventually sleep so that the anger does not build up inside the patient. Slowly he should be made to relate to the experience of the past, to talk them over with relation or therapist to let out the anger and hurt stored in him all these years. Once the patient comes to terms with the emotional imbalances then only can he start his journey to the road of recovery.

Role of extended family

The role of extended family like maternal or paternal relations or grand parents may also come in useful at this time lending a helping hand to the exhausted parents whenever possible. The idea is to make the patient feel loved and get him to trust his family again which was shattered in the past. Once the patient regains this trust his stress and loneliness would vanish and he would be in peace with himself and the rest of the world. His anger and frustrations would subside and he would be able to lead a better life than before. All this would happen gradually but in time and with constant effort on the part of therapist and family members, the dissociative identity disorder can come back to the semblance of normal life and can regain his normal self.

Conclusion

Thus dissociative identity disorder patient not only requires therapy and medication for his treatment but constant support from family members is also crucial for their recovery. The therapist and family work together as a unit to bring him back from the hole of depression and destruction that the patient has fallen into. The therapist, family near or far may work as a team to help the patient (Silberg, 2003)
For this, family members and care givers be it close family or distant relation all can help and extend support. More effort is required to educate individuals regarding this disease so that parents may identify the symptoms at an early age in children and help cure their children of this hazardous disorder.

Cognition comes from the Latin word cognescere which means to come to know (Merriam-Webster). Theories concerned with cognition focus on processes of thought and behavior resulting from the said processes. These processes deal with aptitude and capacity to learn, learning styles and is also the basis of the educational approach known as constructivism (Atherton, 2009). There are several theories on cognitivism but none have the capacity to fully explain the process of cognition. Two important theories that explain much of our approaches to learning and educating children are that of Piaget and the informational processing theory. These cognitive theories contribute much to our understanding of cognition and has had a great impact on learning and education.

Piaget  An Introduction to the Big Figure
When one would try to find any information on theories of cognition, more often that not, the first name that would turn up would be that of Jean Piaget. Jean Piaget was a Swiss theorist who has contributed much to our understanding of how children think or reason. Piaget opted to take the organismic view wherein the development of cognition was thought to be the result of a childs attempts to understand and perform action in his or her environment (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 35).

Piaget trained under the disciplines of biology and philosophy and was most concerned with the biological influences on how we come to know and believes that there is a line drawn that separates us from animals and it is the ability to perform abstract symbolic reasoning (Huitt  Hummel, 2003). Piagets interest in the way children think started during his employment at Alfred Binets IQ test lab in Paris. Piaget made use of a clinical method that combined observation and questions as well as follow-up questions to illustrate the thought processes of children. With his study, one of his significant observations was that of when he found that an average 4-year-old child would think that objects arranged in a line were greater in number than when objects were arranged in a pile. It is through such observations that Piaget built his theory on cognitive development (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 35).

Piagets Processes of Cognitive Development
Because of Piagets training in biology and his favor of the organismic view, he was fascinated with how one adapts to his or her surroundings. Piaget believes that the innate ability to adapt to the surroundings is where cognitive development begins. Piaget proposed that cognitive development happens through three interconnected processes, namely organization, adaptation and equilibration (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.36).

The first of the processes is organization  the inclination to incorporate knowledge into systems to form schemes (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.36). These schemes are set patterns of behavior one uses in a certain situation. As the said schemes increase in complexity, they would be termed as structures and as these structures increase in complexity, they would be structured in a hierarchical manner (Huitt  Hummel, 2003).

The second process mentioned is that of adaptation. Huitt  Hummel (2003) say that Piaget proposed two parts to the process of adaptation  assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is taking new information in and integrating it with existing cognitive structures. A popular example of assimilation would be the action of sucking for an infant. Accommodation on the other hand is altering the said cognitive structures to house new information. So, to apply accommodation to the previously mention example would be shifting from sucking on a nipple by the infant to something similar like a pacifier (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.36).

Branching from the process of assimilation and accommodation is that of equilibration. Papalia, Olds  Feldman (2004) say that equilibration takes from the word equilibrium it is an unwavering search for balance and marks the transition from assimilation to accommodation (p.36). It is when children cannot handle the said transition that they experience disequilibrium. To counteract disequilibrium, children find balance between what they know and what situations they experience by coming up with a new pattern of behavior in reaction to the situation so that they could handle it better (Psychology Campus). In this light, we find that assimilation and accommodation are essential for integration and cognitive development.

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
Through adaptation, cognitive development occurs which leads to Piagets stages of cognitive development, the first stage being the sensorimotor stage apparent from birth to about two years of age. At this stage, the child explores his or her surroundings through sensory and motor interaction (Funderstanding). Papalia, Olds  Feldman (2004) explain that Piagets sensorimotor stage is divided into six substages namely the use of reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary schemes, tertiary circular reactions and mental combinations (p.156). With the first five substages mentioned, babies learn to make use of Piagets processes  organization, adaptation and equilibration. At the sixth substage, they shift from learning through trial-and-error to that of using concepts and symbols to resolve simple problems.

Following the sensorimotor stage is that of preoperational thought which occurs from two to about seven years of age. The stage is called such because the child has yet to be able to perform operations that demand logical thinking (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.238).

During this stage, there are developments in the use of symbols, understanding identities, causality, classification and number while concepts such as empathy and theory of mind begin to develop. Limitations on the other hand are manifested through centration, irreversibility, focus on state rather than information, transductive reasoning, egocentrism, animism and inability to distinguish appearance from reality. All this could be summed up with the idea that a childs thinking is centered or focused on his or herself (Meyerhoff, 2006).

Following the stage of preoperational thought is that of concrete operational stage that is said to coincide with the period of when the child is of seven to eleven years of age. While logic was not apparent for preoperational thought, it is present during the concrete operational stage and is used as the child interacts with his environment (Meyerhoff, 2006). Logical thinking is demonstrated through the use of operations. They gain a knowledge in conservation in number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area and volume, and the apparent egocentrism declines (Huitt  Hummel, 2003). There are also advances in inductive and deductive reasoning (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 317)

At twelve years old and onwards, one falls under the formal operational stage. This is the stage when one learns abstract reasoning and how to make use of problem solving (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 402). Through this new ability, one is able to think and feel in a different way or see in other perspectives (Psychology Campus).

Piagets Theory Evaluated
Thought Piaget may be the biggest figure for cognitivism and there were little challenges to his theory, Lourenco  Machado were part of the small population who questioned Piagets theory (as cited in Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 404). Many of Piagets writings document examples of children displaying some behavior expected for the next stage, specifically that of scientific thinking apparent well before adolescence. Flavell et al. also claimed that other times, Piaget would overestimate older childrens capabilities making him fail to fully consider gradual buildup of knowledge and proficiency in specific areas, and the role of metacognition (as cite in Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 404). In later years, Brown, Metz  Campione (as cited in Papalia, Olds  Feldman) noted that Piaget himself saw a flaw in his theory as it was unable to capture the essential role of the situation in influencing and constraining childrens thinking (p. 405). Also, Piagets theory may not give much importance to mature intelligence that plays as experience, intuition and wisdom to cope.

However, because Piagets theory covers a persons formative years extensively, it has its great and valid contributions to learning and education. Because of his theory, parents as well as educators would know what to expect of children of different ages, thus having a guide to generate age and skill-appropriate curricula (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 403). Also, in terms of instruction, school teachers must understand the role interaction has in student learning (Funderstanding). Piagets theory has taught instructors to make use of discovery learning as well as the approach of supporting the developing interests of a child, as two main instructional techniques (Huitt  Hummel, 2003). Piaget proposed that educators as well as parents present challenges to a childs ability but not to a point where it would be too much for the childs level. The used of a variety of concrete experiences were also recommended to help children learn.

Another Side  The Information Processing Approach
After Piagets significant contributions to cognitivism, other theories sought to explain other aspects of cognitive development or points thought to be lacking in Piagets work, another popular theory in particular is that of the information processing theory. Papalia, Olds  Feldman (2004) say that the information processing theory in reality is not one single theory at all, but rather a set of assumptions following extensive research (p.37). The information-processing approach focuses on understanding how information is processed differently by children of different ages and has a big role in looking at memory. Such information considered are those of perception, learning and memory, language skills and problem solving (Psychology Campus). Some of the many concepts belonging to this theory are concerned with habituation, early perceptual and processing abilities, information processing as a predictor of intelligence and violation of expectations.

The first concept is that of habituation which taps most from the perception part of the information processing theory. It is a kind of learning where increased exposure to a certain stimulus reduces attention to it or causes a decline in interest. Rheingold explains that as infants are continuously exposed to stimuli, or in other words, when they habituate, the novel becomes familiar and the unknown transform into the known (as cited in Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.165). It is when an infant has an increased response to a new stimulus that he or she experiences dishabituation.

The second concept, which is related to perception just like habituation and is also concerned with memory, is the concept of early perceptual and processing abilities. It talks of visual preference. Studies by Fantz and his colleagues show that babies less than 2 days in age prefer certain shapes to others (as cited in Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p. 166). It is with visual preference that we see evidence in habituation and when an infant prefers novel stimuli, we see the event of novel preference. Because there is apparent novel preference, the infant must be able to remember the old stimuli, hence the presence of memory and learning.

The next concept is that of information processing as a predictor of intelligence. Kopp  McCall have found that originally, because there was a weak link between infants scores on developmental and IQ tests, many, Piaget included, would think that cognitive function in infants had little relation to that of older children and adults. However, McCall  Carriger noted that when researchers studied cognitive processing by infants and toddlers, it was apparent that certain aspects of mental development seem to continue since birth (as cited in Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.166-167). Children who show proficiency in perception perform well on intelligence tests.

Finally, there is the concept of information processing as a predictor of intelligence is that of the violation of expectations. Research shows that infants begin to think and reason much earlier than Piaget has proposed. During the violation of expectation phenomenon an infants dishabituation tendency shows that the infant is able to comprehend surprises. Researchers under this concept argue that while Piaget believes that object permanence, number and causality develop towards the end of the sensorimotor stage, they actually occur much earlier. Baillargeon says there are claims that infants are born with innate learning mechanisms that help them acquire abilities early on (as cited in Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.167).

Information Processing Theory Evaluation
Like Piagets theory, the information processing theory also has its implications on learning and education. Since the information processing theory is largely concerned with memory, it is connected to types of knowledge or forms of memory. There is declarative memory, facts we know in general. It is divided into two  semantic memory which are much like common knowledge, and episodic memory, which consists of personal experiences. Last, there is procedural memory or our knowledge on how to perform tasks (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.171)

Application of the information processing theorys findings can be done through nine classroom principles. One approach is to catch the students interest and an example would be to use cues to signal the beginning of class or the use of different tones of voice to call attention. Another is the recall of important details prior to learning that takes form in class review or discussion of previously learned topics. Pointing out important information is another important principle and it is what gave birth to providing handouts to students or writing down important points on the chalkboard. Presenting information in an organized manner also hails from this theory and would account for when instructors would show a logical string of concepts or a flow of discussion from simple to complex instead of teaching topics at random. Connected to the previously mentioned principle is that of chunking information for better retention through classifying categories or making use of inductive reasoning for better retention. Letting students learn on their own is also included as they are made to expound on their own by comparing and contrasting novel and existing information.  There is also the use of pneumonics as well as repetition for easy memorization.  Finally, providing chances to practice skills enhances them, thus giving us the simple principle of practice makes perfect that we can see through drills or games (Huitt, 2003).

Cognition  A Synthesis
Like all theories, the cognitive perspective has its flaws as well. Behaviorists would call its arguments as weak because of its abstract nature and difficulty to define. Also, there are no set parameters for the theory and it has little implication on personality because it is fairly new even though it has had a great deal of research devoted to it. Though the cognitive approach is definitely effective, there is no solid understanding of the development apparent.

Despite its apparent flaws, there undoubtedly has been extensive research to support the points of the cognitive theory. Also, because of all the positive findings, the cognitive approach has gained much popularity both in the professional field and in pop psychology (AllPsych, 2004).

There are several theories on cognitivism but none have the capacity to fully explain the process of cognition. However, it is undeniable that its teachings are apparent though its goes unnoticed to many individuals. Piagets work and the informational theory have given much to our techniques for learning today. The cognitive approach impacts education in such a way that it continuously seeks improvement in the teaching and learning process. All the strategies we do today to learn, be it from kindgarten, preschool or even college branch from findings from concepts belonging to the cognitive theory.

The stages of development have very distinctive characteristics that interest any academia. However, adolescents were the particular interest to Erickson. There are immense changes that the adolescent will undergo. In understanding the inherent and distinctive changes during adolescence, I did have one on one interview with Fortune, a 15 years old adolescent. The interview revealed a myriad of challenges, confusion and utter self insecurity within the inner self of Fortune. The interview offered a worthwhile discourse discussed hereunder.
The adolescent happened to be a son of my former teacher at junior school. He had a lot of interest in me and was particularly interested in the way the father had handled me as his student. Although I remained true to my relationship with the father, it was evident on his face that it did not appear satisfactory to him.

Fortune felt the father was autocratic and was never willing to listen to anything that he said. This showed a lot of resentment within Fortune. He felt the father was iron handed and never sought the opinion of anybody except give orders. Ideally, Fortune was struggling with securing of his identity (Palombo J, Bendicsen B H, Koch B J., 2009 p 112). Besides, he seemed confused over his role not only in the family but also in his own life.

Interview with an Adolescent
I sought a calm place for my interview to avoid any disruption. During the interview it emerged that almost all the adolescents had same characteristic as stated in Ericksons development stages.
 When I inquired about his perception about himself, Fortune confidently asserted that he was very responsible most of the time. He argued that he was the only one who was undertaking the family chores, yet the father never appreciated him. Subsequently, Fortune showed a high inclination towards the mother than the father. On seeking the reason for why he liked the mother more than the father, Fortune simply said, mom is caring. Indeed this could not amuse me as ideally fortune was exhibiting Oedipus complex (Rubin R., 1999 p 29). Fortune further added that his father only liked Jacqueline, who was his sister. Subsequently, I could not lay blame wholesale on Fortune, this was bound to psychologically happen. This was ideally an exhibition of phallic complex which I could not ascertain fast hand.

In showing how infuriated he was with the father, when I asked him about his perception about the way society treated the youth, particularly adolescents, he argued that society had no respect for the youth. It was evident at this point that the identity crisis inherent in adolescent was eating him up. Within this context I feel Ericksons (Palombo J, Bendicsen B H, Koch B J., 2009 p 102) assertion that during adolescence there is total role confusion.

Fortune had strong conviction that the old people were having ideas which appeared displaced. He believed that most of the ideas the old people were harboring were quite outdated yet they were not willing to be advised. He cited an example of the father insisting on listening to very old soul music. My dad wants me to listen to very outdated music but I cannot listen to anything like that, except once or twice, to Jacqueline. Fortune appeared determined to front for his ideals without bothering about the rights of others.

Presumably, Fortune appears to disclaim his existence in society. Within Ericksons conceptual framework he calls this repudiation (Erickson stages of development). Fortune had a number of friends who had very similar traits as I realized. Apparently, he was strictly looking for friend who had similar religious cults and those that appeared to be deviant in society. Initially, I felt taken aback when Fortune told me that drunken people tend to be even more reasonable that people who claim spirituality. I did notice that the difference between Fortune and his father was on the company of Fortune. Besides, it occurred to me that the two could not just fuse. While the father wanted Fortune to fuse with people who were Christian and God fearing, Fortune was with individuals who were alcoholics and drug addicts. These divergent likes and dislikes of the further enlarged the drift between the two.

I had interest in the sociability of Fortune and to introduce the topic I asked, who is your closest friend. To this Fortune answered in a more perplexed manner, Judy. But then added immediately, I hope you wont tell Dad, he may send me out of the house. On inquiring further about the relationship, it did emerge strongly that the relation was developing into an intimate one. Consciously however, he did not want the father to know. Fortune felt the father wanted him to remain isolated from the friends of the opposite sex.

Fortune argued that he also wanted to be loved and to express his feeling to some one. Apparently, given that he had a clear sense of who he was, he felt he needed to intimately associate with the members of the opposite sex (Erickson stages of development). However, as much as he wanted to associate with the opposite sex he appeared so conscious about making any commitments to the friends. Ideally as Erickson asserts, the relationship was merely meant to establish a couple hood. The ego is so inherent at this stage that the bonding of the two becomes nearly impossible. Fortune argued that Judy only offered him company when he needed a member of the opposite sex. However, the discussion revealed that despite avoiding responsibility they had some tinge of intimacy in the relationship. Besides, because he feels getting too committed to Judy, that denies him the right to engage with other friends. Erickson termed such interaction as promiscuity.

Fortune was yearning to be a pilot. He wanted to have a family of two a daughter and a son. When I inquired about the efforts he was making about the aspiration, he shifted blame to the father arguing that the father never provided for him sufficient materials for study. Vividly, Fortune is deeply immersed in his own dreams and tended to build much fantasies (Boeree C. G). Ironically, while he has a lot of quest for becoming a pilot there was no sufficient proof for self effort, rather he projected most of his likely shortfalls.

Conversely, Fortune was very critical of the society and its inconsistencies. He felt the society was quite imperfect. He appeared determined against what the society demanded from him as a youth, terming the society as incomplete.  However this infidelity, according to Erickson, puts the adolescent in a fix. These results in resentment make the adolescent feel insecure and sidelined. Similarly, Fortune was feeling quite insecure not only with his father but also the entire society.

Fortune was deeply concerned about his appearance. When I wanted to know about his best fashion, Fortune started by blaming his father for not allowing him to choose on the fashion he wanted. He said the father always bought him clothes as if he was still too young to make any choices. In particular, he liked Lucky Dubes fashions. Apparently, the superego (Rubin R., 1999 p 21) had taken toll of him and the appearance to other people was most important. Fortune asserted that his colleagues always laughed at him whenever he puts on the clothes that were bought by his father.

Fortune is entangled in a sort of moratorium. While he wants so much for his future, he is doing very little to achieve it. He looks at the world as potentially hostile and offering the least. He not only appears reluctant to commit himself to anybody but also does not want to get committed to anything. Yet in utter contradiction his projections appeared so high that commitment to course was inevitable (Erickson stages of development). Fortune wants to explore and experiment with anything with a strong believe that this could assist him understand himself better.

Presumably, bio-psych-social forces are inherently at play. At this stage the upbringing of an individual counts less. The individual wants to have their ideologies take preeminence regardless of what the others think about the ideologies. In most cases, like Fortunes difference with the religious leaders and the father over their political and religious adults over their orientations, this leads to conflicts.

I also sought to know what his parents thought about his impending career choice of becoming a pilot. To this he said the father and the mother were utterly opposed. He said the parents wanted to have a way in the decision of career choice. Apparently, this precipitated the strained relationship between Fortune and the father. This insistence by the parents led to acquiesce by Fortune though belatedly. It is for this reason that while the parent is fully aware that Fortune is destined to be a doctor, he is geared towards becoming a pilot.

From the interview it is evident that Fortune is at an Identity Crisis stage (Boeree C. G). While he wants to be a pilot he has actually done the least to achieve this end. It is for this reason that Fortune is incessantly differing with the father. He is also exhibiting the least sense of fidelity to the large society. He does not want to adapt to the set societal stands but rather wants to be seen by his colleagues as superior and at his best.

Conclusions
It is evident from the interview with Fortune that during adolescence the individuals tend to seek protracted attention. This attention is normally prompted by the ego. Further, it is notable that during this stage, individuals will always feel they have a right to make their own independent decisions which should not be interfered with. The interference in these decisions tends to cause some confusion.
 
It is further deduced that the stage witnesses a lot of development of relationship that lack commitment. This lack of commitment tend to be prompted by the fact that most of the adolescents want to enjoy a little of promiscuity. Within this stage, as it emerged from the interview with Fortune, the individuals tend to be more concerned with their superego than real themselves. Subsequently, this leads to the adolescents seeking more that they are capable of accessing in terms of clothing and other material resources.

Summarily, this presents a very fragile stage and parents need to treat their adolescent sons and daughters with utmost care. If the adolescents are not well guided then it can largely impact on their future. The impact may be along social and career prospects. Ultimately, the way the adolescents are handled determines their subsequent developmental stages.

Drug addiction is considered to be that state of mind in which there is a contact between the human being and the drug. During this interaction, the human mind experiences loss of senses and feelings of intoxication (Hamilton, Kings  Ritter, Alison, 2003) On constant and recurring usage, the addicts may undergo supernatural or intoxicating effects. This paper seeks to analyze and evaluate the psychology of drug addictions in the lights of broad and diverse academic resources. At the same time, it will concentrate on discussing why some people still refuse to take drugs.

Why People Take Illicit Drugs
Recreational Purpose
Some individuals resort to drugs for recreational purpose. The general psychology of such individuals is that they just want to experience the effects of drugs on them. However, it should be noted that different individuals show different reactions and each drug has its own effects. Illegal drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, etc are harmful for human beings and they may be lethal in one use (Hamilton, Kings  Ritter, Alison, 2003). Using such illegal drugs may lead to health consequences such as suffocation, death, heart attacks. Using marijuana can impair the functioning of brain as well as it may impair judgment skills. A research conducted in Australia in the year 2007 demonstrated that one in tenth individual resort to drugs in order to experience its effects on them (Family Drug Support, 2007).

Another research conducted in the year 2007, demonstrated that more than sixty percent of the teenagers resort to drugs for recreational purposes (Standing Committee on Family and Human Services, 2007). In another study, conducted in 2007, it was demonstrated that about forty percent of the drug addicts used drugs for recreational purpose. Their intention was to experience the feelings of intoxication and euphoria.

To Cure Psychological Ailments
Research suggests that some individuals resort to drugs in order to feel good about them. Such individuals have low self-esteem, self-worth and confidence and mostly become victims of depression, anger, angst, aggression, anxiety, etc. Research also suggests that these individuals believe that if they would take drugs, their depression would go away. At the same time, research   conducted by also suggests that these individuals also take drugs in order to relief their stress. From the another research, it was concluded that more than seventy percent of the individuals became drug addicts because they were suffering from psychological disorders (Hamilton, Kings  Ritter, Alison, 2003).  In another research, it was found out that by taking high amounts of drugs, their brain chemistry changed completely. It was found out that mental illnesses prolonged and increased with the constant usage of drugs. From the study, it was concluded that such patients, who were, already suffering from depression, suffered from chemical imbalances in their brains and taking drugs made things worse (Murray, 2007).

Why some People dont Use Drugs
Coping Stress and Mental Illnesses through Alternatives
Although several people resort to drugs, some individuals prefer to beat stress and mental illnesses through alternative treatments. Research suggests that majority of individuals, who dont used drugs, are involved in activities such as arts, meditation, exercise, etc in order to deal with stress (Stronach, 2007). Research also suggests that such activities assist in the management of stress and anxiety. Counseling is another method, which people adopt in order to deal with depression and other mental disorders. Some patients undergo psychotherapy in order to ensure that their mental illness is treated by a proficient and qualified psychotherapist (Gerber  Jensen, 2008).

Strong Self-image and Self Concept
In a research conducted in 2008, it was found out that majority of the tenth graders refused to consume marijuana (Gerber  Jensen, 2008). In the same research, it was found out that fifty percent of seniors had never used drugs. From the research, it was concluded that these individuals refused to take or consume drugs because they had a strong self image and self-concept about themselves (Hamilton, 2001).

Analysis
After a brief overview, some people resort to drugs in order to experience their effect on them. They have experience supernatural or intoxicating feelings, which take them to the state of bliss. At the same time, people are most likely to use drugs in order to cure their mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, stress, etc.  Research suggests that several drug addicts are victim of low self-esteem and have poor self-image. In order to gain confidence, they resort to drugs in order to make their lives better. Some individuals avoid drugs because they are aware of its detrimental effects. These individuals tackle pressure and stress by using alternative treatments. They resort to professional help because they have awareness in them. They are aware of the fact that drugs are harmful and detrimental for their health. Individuals having strong self concept and self image also do not take drugs.

Conclusion
Drug addiction is considered to be a serious problem, which is prevalent throughout the world. The overall goal of the paper was to analyze the psychology of drugs. This paper had concentrated on analyzing the psychological reasons, which compels people to resort to drugs. At the same time, it evaluated the reasons why people do not take drugs.

Overview of the session
It is always good to test the waters before taking the full dive and the counseling experience I held with my client helped me attest to this. This counseling session not only gave me an insight to issues that I will have to deal with in my professional career but also opened my eyes to some of the shortcomings that I will have to work on to ensure that in future I get to be an effective professional counselor. The session ran for almost twenty minutes and by the end I guess the client must have felt that it was a success as I did. Basically my role entailed active listening as the client talked about his issues and I tried to put in some of my thoughts as we went on with the session. All the same I believe I did my level best and that the session was a success.

Legal and ethical issues
This session was conducted on a male client who raised social, legal and ethical issues which he felt needed to be addressed. The client is in charge of a community youth group camp that caters for youth between twelve to eighteen years. During the session I got to learn that the client was facing problems with the some of his committee members and in particular his secretary. I guess it is this advantage that the secretary seems to have over her boss that makes her take matters into her own hands. The client feels that his secretary does not involve the elders and the senior members of the committee because she feels that she has a better relationship with the children as opposed to the elders and seniors. She also uses her age to justify why she feels this is so basing it on the fact that she is younger compared to the rest of the committee members therefore children will associate best with her as opposed to the elders.

The client and his committee are tasked with looking after the youth and if at all there are misunderstandings within him and his secretary, the interests of the children should be put first. There are risks involved when dealing with children and this becomes a social issue if at all the secretarys behavior puts the children at risk.

The client is helpless because his secretary who is twenty one is regarded as an adult in legal terms. Legally the secretary can make her own decisions without the consent of any one and those decisions should be regarded as sound because she is after all an adult. The client however feels that in as much as his secretary is considered an adult, her actions are wanting. For instance he feels that in as much as his secretary feels that she can handle the children all by herself, this is not so and that she should involve the elders and seniors who are more adult than her as per the clients view.

From the information given to me by the client I feel that his secretary does not have good work ethics. The client portrayed her as someone aggressive and forceful who likes getting her way with the elders as well as the children too. She does not involve the elders or the seniors in the looking after the children and this displays some form of unprofessional behavior. She also appears not to respect the elders, a behavior which the client finds not morally upright. Professional and personal response

In regard to the issues raised by the client, my professional response was to try and find out if at all he had any suggestions that he thought would help in resolving the issues with his secretary.
Possibly I would try to talk about it with them and tell them how I feel about their behavior. Using this personal approach I inquired if he had ever tried speaking to her a step that I think should be the first option considered if people want to resolve any issues (Bond, 2010). I also offered my professional help if he ever needed it but only after he had tried his preferred option and it didnt work out or he required additional help.

Counseling skills applied
During the counseling session I made sure to apply some of the counseling skills I possess. I listened actively, paid attention throughout the session, I made sure not to be judgmental, I asked questions when necessary and in a manner that did not imply prying and made summaries of the session as we progressed (Brems, 2001). I also made sure not to give advice where it was not needed. Paraphrasing is another counseling skill that I applied and this entails restating what my client told me in order to clarify if I was getting exactly what he meant (Dryden, 2006).

Evaluation of the skills applied
I believe the skills I applied throughout this session were very effective. Active listening helped the client to develop his thinking. It also helped him feel free to disclose his issues and in turn this enabled me to get to know him better. To prove I paid attention and listened attentively I made use of active listening skills which include the use of encouraging words such as mmm, hmm to let him know that I was listening and that he should continue talking. Paying attention as well as listening actively assures the client that you care about what they have to say (Conte, 2009).

I also asked the client some questions and made summaries as we went on with the session. For instance I asked the client why he felt that his secretary was not capable of taking care of the children even though he implied that he approved of her qualifications. This enabled me to get more information on why the client felt this. After the client talked of his secretarys aggressive nature I asked him to elaborate whether his secretary was only aggressive to the elders only or if the children also got to experience her aggressive attitude.

Summaries were made as we progressed to enable the client to hear his thoughts and know that he was understood (Ivey et al., 2009). In making the summaries I made sure to ask the client to confirm whether what I was summarizing is what he meant. An example of this is when I told him What I am hearing is, correct me if I am wrong, that it is a communication issue, problem or something like that That it is not wise communicating with her the way it has to be done or something like that Is that the issue or problem when he implied that the problem could be as a result of communication problems between them. I went on further to ask him if he had tried talking to her at all.

I also encouraged the client when he said that he needed a professional approach in dealing with his secretary by saying words such as I think that that is a good idea and I went on to tell him that if he required more help he could always ask.

I tried not to give advice to the client before finding out what he thought of the situation he presented. For instance I made sure to ask him what he wanted done about the situation rather than making suggestions. Giving advice during counseling sessions is one thing counselors should avoid to prevent the client from being dependent or hostile (Nelson-Jones, 2005). Advice should be given after the client has suggested what he feels should be done.

An instance where I applied paraphrasing was when I said What I am hearing you say is that you want someone to communicate with her in a professional manner

Suggestions for improvement in application skills
I believe there are things that I should have done differently to improve my application skills and I trace this back to the beginning of the session. Immediately after the introduction where I laid down the ground rules, I should have started the information gathering stage by asking the client an open ended question. This should have come after making sure that my body language was open and that my tone was friendly (Carey, 2008). The open ended question would have been put this way, So what brings you here today instead of how I put it during the session by just saying So and leaving it hanging. The way I put it left the client not sure whether to begin talking or not.

Another mistake that I made almost four minutes into the session was paraphrase too soon even though it appeared the client had more to say. I remember starting to paraphrase what he had said so far till I realized he intended to continue talking. I apologized for cutting him off but now I realize I should have made a mental note or simply noted it down to paraphrase later after he was done talking (Fall et al., 2004).

Reflection of overall effectiveness
As a counselor I believe I was effective during the session I carried out with my client. To begin with I made a point of laying down the ground rules to ensure that the session would prove to be productive (Alexandria, 2005). I started my introducing myself to the client asked how he was doing. The next step was to tell him that I was there to listen to what he had to say and assured him of the confidential nature of the session. In addition to this I explained the circumstances that would breach that confidentiality. Informed consent enabled him to have the freedom to choose whether he wanted to continue with the session and remain in the counseling relationship (ibid, 2005).

To gain more information from the client I made sure to ask and probe for answers so that he could elaborate more on the points (Palmer  McMahon, 2003). At one point the client talked of his secretary being aggressive and I asked him to elaborate on who her aggressive nature was directed to. After the client talked of the issues he was having with his secretary I inquired from him if there was anything he wanted done. I wanted to find out if he had thought of possible ways to solve the dilemma he was having before I suggested any of my thoughts. The client had an idea on how to deal with the problem and after listening to his suggestion felt it was good and I encouraged him by telling him that it was a good idea. I also offered to help if he required more help. At the end of the session I thanked the client and proposed a subsequent session if he ever felt that he needed it. This was to assure him that I would always be there to listen and I think it is a good implication on my future profession as it will instill confidence in my clients to know that I would always be there (Crawford et al., 2001).

There are some things that I realized I did wrong that may have prevented me from being completely effective as a counselor. To begin with I did not inform the client that I would be taping the session (Bond, 2010). I should have at least told him about taping the session as I laid down the ground rules and let him decide if he would be okay with it. I realize that I displayed unprofessional behavior and that this could have implications on my future if at all I will not remember to seek the clients consent prior to recording any sessions.

Conclusion
I believe the session was an overall success and an eye opener for what to expect in future. As a potential counselor I believe I carried out my work in a diligent and professional manner and utilized my counseling skills to my level best. Despite making a few mistakes here and there I believe that with time I will correct them provided I keep them in mind and work on them often to ensure that they are a part of me. I believe this session helped me learn that I can be efficient in my professional career but at the same time not paying attention to the important details such as ensuring my client is provided with all the required information for example notifying them prior to taping any sessions, would cost me that professionalism (Weiler, 2008).

Literature review Adams Story
The article Parenting and Schooling a Learning-Disabled Son talks about a boy who has learning difficulties and his parents struggles to help him in overcoming the difficulties. The writer focuses on the challenges that face the disabled boy and his parents hence exposing the theme of the article. The theme sheds light on what the story is about, whom the story is featuring, the storys settings and timelines as well as the happenings of the story. The theme has captured these aspects well, hence creating a theme- based story.

The title of the book is relatively short and catchy and at the same time relevant to the story. The title is important since it helps to prepare the readers on what to expect from the writer. The title is appropriate and it fits the story. The ideas expressed in the story give a summary of the ideas that have been expressed in the story. The story focuses on issues that face the disabled boy and his parents. The storyline is well constructed so that all the events covered in the story are related to the title of the story in one way or another. The author has organized all his ideas in a way that ensures that he does not go out of content in the process of delivering them to the reader.
 
The readers imagination is prompted since the writer presents the boys case in a manner that leaves room for creation of mental images. The writer presents the reader with mental pictures of some scenes by giving specific details of the happenings an example of such a case is when Adams mother makes visits to Adams class and in the special education class, the boy had been grouped to the lowest reading group and he happened to be alone in that group. The reader is put in a good position to visualize the situations that are under discussion. This encourages the reader to take part in analyzing the situation that the boy in the story is in. These images are important since they help the reader to acquire the necessary skills of visualization, which results into better understanding of the content.
 
The narrative is presented in a chronological manner since the authors ability to link the events is recommendable the author has for instance demonstrated the boys progress from the time he was admitted in his first school to the time he is transferred to different schools. This order shows the writers ability to combine the events that took place in order of their happening. The happenings that took place from the time the boy was born are well brought out in the story.

The writer does not incorporate any emotions in his work, regardless of the fact that the story is sad the writer does not expose his stand on the issue. The message is delivered the same as any other story could have been delivered. The writer does not take sides on the issue concerning the isolation of the disabled boy in the lowest ability group, the writer chooses to remain neutral rather than present his point of view on this issue. The readers are left to evaluate the issue on their own since the writer does not make point trying to argue in order to convince the reader to see hisher point of view.

The ideas presented in the story are fiction free since they present rational events that are everyday experiences to parents with disabled children just like Adam. These ideas are rational and they are unquestionable especially to a reader who has had close contact with such a child. The boys failure to improve on his reading skills despite the efforts made both by his parents and his teachers can be taken to be a good representation of children in any given society who undergo same challenges. The reader will there need no to be convinced on any issue that is highlighted in the story.

The story has been summarized well to deliver the most important details and those that are relevant, for example, the writer does not dwell much on the brother of the disabled boy except in cases where an issue related to the boys problem emerges between them. The summary is comprehensive and well structured for nay reader. The story gives the reader some clues on how to handle children with reading difficulties. The story also gives the results of putting too much pressure on such children.

Literature review Adams Environmental and intra-psychic factors
The wrier looks at both environmental and intra-psychic factors that Adam had. Apparently, these factors are considered both negative and positive, these factors are said to have had direct impact on the boys performance. This is in an attempt to convince the readers that the two factors mentioned had a role to play either in making the Adams reading easier or creating more barriers for him. The writer is explains vividly on what such factors had on the boy in as far as his reading skills are concerned. The writer presents the reader with a self-explanatory summary of articles that are based on research that relate to Adams case.

The writer denotes that that letter and sound learning of children with dyslexia can be improved on if the right measures are put in place. The writer supports this point by noting that Adams performance improved after he was transferred to another school. The writers point of view is justified since it is evident that the improvement in performance changed for the better after the transfer. The new school provided better teaching services to children with special cases like Adams.

The writer suggests that the learning environment can have a direct effect on the performance of a child. Adam is said to have improved on his reading skills after he was transferred from the first school during his third grade. Emphasis has been laid on the importance of patience when dealing with children who have special needs like Adam. The writer provided recommendations that could be used to improve the reading skills of such children (Squires, 2006). The writer recommends that the teacher should read aloud to allow students like Adam to hear individual sounds in words. These recommendations have been derived from a study that was conducted on students with difficulties in reading.

Adams slow rate of reading came about because of his learning difficulties. The writer suggests that other factors that could have led to the worsening of the situation was the fact that the boy was isolated during class and the fact that he did not have friends in school.

Adams change of attitude towards school has been attributed to the constant labeling he was receiving. The writer argues that this labeling had negative impact in his performance. The teachers regard him as the dumbest child in class hence grouping him into the low ability group the principle also expresses his doubt on weather the boy would make it to college. The reader can agree with the writer that these are setbacks that contributed to boys change of attitude and behavior towards learning. The fact that the teacher already formed lows academic expectations could also be a contributing factor to the negative attitude.

The negative learning environment could have further affected the boys emotions the writer states that Adam developed a lack of self worth. The writer notes that despite the fact that the glasses that Adam was given were helpful he did not feel motivated. The withdrawal of the criticism is said to have brought about positive change in his reading capability. The writer proves that Adams rate of academic interaction increased soon after those who used to criticize him were out of the picture. The parents reported positive results in his progress. Criticism that Adam was exposed to was evidently a contributing factor to his loss of interest in academic work.

Adams visual problem was compromising his performance at school. The teachers complains on his ability learning was undermining his morale. This problem affected him since the teacher was making his already low self-esteem to worsen. The writer states this factor affected the boys motivation and engagement in school, his motivation is alleged to have been manifested by the fact that he was refusing to go to school coupled by his anger after school. The writers point of view is justifiable since the tabled facts are closely related to the problem at hand.

Adams parents provided support for their son through their continued efforts, he was able to enjoy his life at school. The writer attributes this factor as a positive initiative that could have contributed to his improvements though minimal. The writer points out that these parents took him to a nice private school that had a good educational setting. The writer is positive that with the support from the teacher the boys ability improved significantly.

Environmental Factors versus Developmental Trajectory
The writer looks into possible environmental factors that contributed to Adams improvement in learning or his regression in academic matters. External factors had a big role to play in affecting his performance either positively or negatively. The school environment, teachers, fellow students, his parents, and the school administration were the external factors that affected Adams progress. Some of the key players brought about positive change while some brought about negative change in his progress.

The school environment of Adams first school was a hindrance for his progress because it had a poor educational setting. The method in which he was handled was unfriendly and this affected his progress significantly. He did not have friends he could talk to since he was isolated due to his condition. The teaching methods applied were not up to standard hence Adam ended up miserable since he was not understanding what was taught, these methods were mostly for the bright students hence it was hard for him to keep up with their pace (Stipeck, 2002).

The teacher provided an environment that was not conducive for Adam. The teacher isolated him during class hence making him to feel left out. The teacher was also constantly complaining about his poor performance barely two months after he joined school. The teacher had publicly admitted that he had low expectations on the boys performance. This affected the boys hope of ever performing well and he lost his interest in school. The fact that the teacher expresses negative expectation after they interact with the boy is an enough reason to make the boy to lose hope.

The head teacher expressed criticism on the boys performance and this could have been a main contributing factor to the low self-esteem. The headmaster expresses doubt on weather Adam could make it to college he kills the boys hope of joining a higher institution of learning in future. The negative comments produced by the headmaster were uncalled for since he should have encouraged the boy despite the fact that he could not see the boy going far.

The boys parents provided a good environment that led to positive improvement in the boys performance. By taking him to a good school, the parents proved that they still held on to the hope that their son would improve significantly. The parents also encouraged their son to continue practicing. The parents were ready to do what they can for their son, this was an important factor since it made the young boy to feel wanted and appreciated. The parents motivated their son and so he put more effort into the practice.

Recommendations
Joint efforts among teachers, parents, and the psychological professional can bring about positive results into Adams case. The psychologist should advise the parents on how they can handle their son. Parents on the other hand would be expected to help their children with schoolwork at home. The parents will be expected to set some time for the boy, they should have time to listen to their children read, as well provide reading aid to their children (Squires et al, 2006).

After school special clubs and activities would be good for Adam, these clubs permits the students to exercise and develop their talents. This is a good initiative since it will enable Adam to discover other activities that he can do well apart from reading. This will also give the boy a chance to interact with other children with similar talents. The boy will feel appreciated due to this move since it may be a chance to develop on an activity that the boy can be proud of. This idea can also provide a chance for him to meet other students who have the same problem, this will make him feel appreciated and give him a sense of belonging.

Professional counselors should be regarded as an important element in the school. In case it is in the parents power to hire a personal counselor, it would be a good idea since heshe will divert all the attention to Adam. The counselor should help Adam to adapt to his learning environment with a show of high expectations. They will be in charge of organizing the students schedule in the school since they can understand the psychology of the students better.

Adam should be given a chance to have a sense of relatedness, this sense will be vital to his academic motivation. This will bring about positive changes in classroom engagement. The relatedness should be to parents, teachers, and peers each of these individuals brings about differing levels of emotional engagement to the student. The teacher should relate well with the student since teachers are seen to be more outstanding predictor to boys engagement. The boys motivation and performance will largely rely on the effort that the key players will put in order to help him (Wentzel, 1998).

It is important for Adam to learn to develop a sense of self worth. The teacher can make this happen if heshe stops comparing him with other students the issue of grouping the students should be abolished since this has a negative social impact on social comparisons on the developing self-perception. The elimination of the act will make Adam to develop a feeling of self worth and this will enhance his interaction with other students. The best way to enhance positive development in this case is to enroll the boy in a school that trains children with similar disabilities as his, this will give him a feeling of belonging and he will definitely maintain high perceptions on his academic performance after comparing his performance with that of the other children.

The teacher to handle Adam should come up with better methods of teaching. The methods should be directed towards making an improvement to. The teacher should be specially trained so that he can handle the boy and other who have the same problem professionally. The teacher should be patient with the students by giving them time to grasp and at the same time teach at a slower pace.

Conclusion
Adams story shows the difficulties that dyslexic children undergo in school. These children are in most cases discriminated against due to their poor performance in school. Emphasis has been put on how the key players can help such children improve on their performances. Adam has special needs hence he should be handled in a delicate way because he can easily undergo emotional turmoil if not handled well